Notes

  1. Steven M. Gillon, Pearl Harbor: FDR Leads the Nation into War (New York: Basic Books, 2011), 13.

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  2. Lyn Crost, Honor by Fire: Japanese Americans at War in Europe and the Pacific (Novato, CA: Presidio Press, 1994), 9; Ted Tsukiyama, panelist, 70th anniversary Pearl Harbor symposium, broadcast on American History TV, C-SPAN, December 5, 2011.

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  3. Daniel Inouye, interview by Christine Sato, August 14, 2000, Go for Broke National Education Center Oral History Project, transcript, Japanese American Military History Collective, https://ndajams.omeka.net/items/show/1053156.

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  4. Katsugo Miho, interview by Michi Kodama-Nishimoto and Warren Nishimoto, November 16, 1989, and Kats Miho’s compiled narrative on the Hawaiʻi Nisei Story website.

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  5. Katsugo Miho, 1989 interview by the Nishimotos.

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  6. Thelma Chang, “I Can Never Forget”: Men of the 100th/442nd (Honolulu: Sigi Productions, 1991), 84.

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  7. John C. Hughes, “Fred Shiosaki: The Rescue of the Lost Battalion” (Olympia: Legacy Washington, Office of Secretary of State, 2015), 1.

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  8. Time–Life–Fortune News Bureau, War Comes to the U.S.—Dec. 7, 1941: The First 30 Hours as Reported from the U.S. and Abroad (Norwalk, CT: Easton Press, 2014), 333.

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  9. Time–Life–Fortune News Bureau, War, 441.

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  10. Fred Shiosaki, interview by Tom Ikeda, April 26 and 27, 2006, Denshō Digital Repository.

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  11. Fumiye Miho, unpublished, untitled memoir.

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  12. Richard Reeves, Infamy: The Shocking Story of the Japanese-American Internment in World War II (New York: Henry Holt, 2015), 34.

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  13. Reeves, Infamy, 19.

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  14. Katsugo Mijo, interview by Michi Kodama-Nishimoto and Warren Nishimoto, February 16, 2006, Denshō Digital Repository.

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  15. Rudy Tokiwa, interview by Tom Ikeda and Judy Niizawa, Americans of Japanese Ancestry Veterans National Convention, Honolulu, July 2 and 3, 1998, Denshō Digital Repository; and interview by Ian Kawata, June 3, 2001, Go for Broke National Education Center Oral History Project, Japanese American Military History Collective.

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  16. Rudy Tokiwa, 1998 Denshō interview by Tom Ikeda and 2001 Go for Broke National Education Center interview by Ian Kawata. Many other details come from Daniel J. Brown’s interview with Rudy’s partner, Judy Niizawa, on March 17, 2017.

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  17. Congressional Record (December 15, 1941).

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  18. Reeves, Infamy, 7.

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  19. Rudy Tokiwa, 1998 Denshō interview by Tom Ikeda; Fumi Tokiwa Futamase, interview by Judy Niizawa, 1995; Judy Niizawa, interview by Daniel J. Brown, March 17, 2017.

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  20. “California U’s Best Student is in Jap Camp.” Seattle Times, May 13, 1942, A1.

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  21. My portrait of Gordon is drawn from three principal sources: a series of interviews with Denshō between April 1999 and May 2000, a 1990 interview by Lois Horn, and his own account in Gordon K. Hirabayashi, A Principled Stand: The Story of Hirabayashi v. United States (Seattle: University of Washington Press, 2013), 127.

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  22. Hirabayashi, A Principled Stand, 61–62.

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  23. Rudy Tokiwa, 2001 Go for Broke National Education Center interview by Ian Kawata.

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  24. Hirabayashi, A Principled Stand, 120–26.

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  25. Fred Shiosaki, 2006 Denshō interview by Tom Ikeda.

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  26. Roosevelt’s memo to Secretary Stimson, February 1, 1943, a copy of which can also be found in the Tsukiyama Papers, University of Hawaiʻi Special Collections, Hamilton Library. Although often attributed to FDR himself, the memo was authored by Elmer Davis, who ran the Office of War Information.

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  27. Fred Shiosaki, 2006 Denshō interview by Tom Ikeda.

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  28. Katsugo Miho, interview by Warren Nishimoto, n.d.

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  29. “2600 New U.S. Soldiers Get Public Aloha,” Honolulu Star-Bulletin, March 29, 1943.

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  30. Daniel Inouye, interview by Tom Ikeda and Beverly Kashino, Americans of Japanese Ancestry Veterans National Convention, Honolulu, June 30, 1998, Denshō Digital Repository.

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  31. Rudy Tokiwa, 2011 Go for Broke National Education Center Interview by Ian Kawata

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  32. Hirabayashi, A Principled Stand, 139.

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  33. Gordon Hirabayashi, interview by Tom Ikeda and Alice Ito, May 4, 2000, Denshō Digital Repository.

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  34. Hirabayashi, A Principled Stand, 134.

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  35. Hirabayashi, A Principled Stand, 145

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  36. Hirabayashi, A Principled Stand,148–149

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  37. “442nd’s First C.O.” Newspaper clipping from an unknown publication.

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  38. John Terry, With Hawaii’s AJA Boys at Camp Shelby, Mississippi (Honolulu: Honolulu Star-Bulletin, Ltd., 1943), 25.

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  39. Rudy Tokiwa, 1998 Denshō interview by Tom Ikeda and Judy Niizawa.

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  40. James M. McCaffrey, Going for Broke: Japanese American Soldiers in the War against Nazi Germany (Norman: University of Oklahoma Press, 2013), 177.

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  41. “Nisei Rejects Draft Board’s Questionnaire,” The Seattle Times, February 15, 1944.

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  42. “ ‘I Love Him,’ Says Bride of Japanese-American.” Undated newspaper clipping.

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  43. “White Girl Weds Japanese Youth,” Reno Gazette News, August 2, 1944.

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  44. Gordon Hirabayashi, interview by Tom Ikeda, February 12, 2000, Denshō Digital Repository

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  45. Gordon talks about the anonymous hate mail and the fifty-dollar gift in his 2000 Denshō interview.

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  46. Eric L. Muller, Free to Die for Their Country: The Story of the Japanese American Draft Resisters in World War II (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 2001), 104.

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  47. Muller, Free to Die for Their Country, 143.

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  48. Rudy Tokiwa, 1998 Denshō interview by Tom Ikeda and Judy Niizawa.

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  49. Hiro Higuchi to his wife, July 8, 1944. The letters were donated to the University of Hawaiʻi by their daughter Jane and are archived in the Special Collections at the Hamilton Library.

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  50. Rudy Tokiwa mentions the villagers thinking the Nisei must be Chinese in his 1998 Denshō interview and talks about them greeting the Nisei soldiers with kisses in his 2001 Go for Broke National Education Center interview.

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  51. The incidents surrounding the awakening of first the Second Battalion and then the Third are related in Orville C. Shirey, Americans: The Story of the 442nd Combat Team (Washington, DC: Washington Infantry Journal Press, 1946), 58–63.

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  52. The conversation involving Rudy, Pursall, and Dahlquist is drawn from Rudy’s accounts given in his 1998 Denshō interview and his Go for Broke Education Center interview on March 24, 2002.

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  53. This exchange is drawn from Rudy Tokiwa’s 1998 Denshō interview.

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  54. McCaffrey, Going for Broke, 266.

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  55. Scott McGaugh, Honor Before Glory: The Epic World War II Story of the Japanese American GIs Who Rescued the Lost Battalion (Boston: Da Capo Press, 2016), 158.

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  56. Fred Shiosaki, 2006 Denshō interview by Tom Ikeda.

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  57. Fred’s account is largely drawn from my interviews with him on April 10 and July 2, 2016, as well as his 2006 Denshō interview with Tom Ikeda.

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  58. Pierre Moulin, U.S. Samuraïs in Bruyères: People of France and Japanese Americans: Incredible Story (France: Peace & Freedom Trail, 1993), 108. Translated from the original French edition, U.S. samuraïs en Lorraine (Vagney, France: Gérard Louis, 1988).

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  59. “Wounded Nisei Reported Shoved Out of Shop,” Los Angeles Times, November 11, 1944; “Wounded Nisei War Veteran Ejected from Barber Shop,” Pacific Citizen, November 18, 1944.

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  60. Rudy Tokiwa, 1998 Denshō interview.

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  61. Daniel Inouye, 1998 Denshō interview.

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  62. General Mark Clark to Colonel Charles Wilbur Pence on September 7, 1944. A copy of this letter can be found on the Denshō website at https://ddr.densho.org/media/ddr-csujad-1/ddr-csujad-1-200-mezzanine-d2081380e8.pdf.

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  63. Solly Ganor, Light One Candle (New York: Kodansha International, 1995), 346–347.

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  64. Solly Ganor, interview with the United States Holocaust Memorial Museum, April 27, 1993.

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  65. Tampa Times, May 7, 1945.

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  66. Recounted in a letter from Hiro Higuchi to his wife on May 8, 1945, and in Loni Ding’s film Nisei Soldier: Standard Bearer for an Exiled People, Center for Asian American Media, 1984.

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  67. Fred described his reaction to the end of the war both in my interview with him on April 10, 2016, as well as his 2006 Denshō interview.

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  68. Fred Shiosaki, 2006 Denshō interview by Tom Ikeda.

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  69. Rudy Tokiwa, 1998 Denshō interview with Tom Ikeda and Judy Niizawa.

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  70. Rudy Tokiwa, 2002 Go for Broke National Education Center interview.

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  71. Hughes, “Fred Shiosaki: The Rescue of the Lost Battalion.”

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  72. The language is from the act itself, as quoted in Sharon Yamato, “Civil Liberties Act of 1988,” Densho Encyclopedia, updated August 24, 2020, https://encyclopedia.densho.org/Civil_Liberties_Act_of_1988.

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  73. Medal of Freedom Ceremony, May 29, 2012, transcript, C-SPAN, https://www.c-span.org/video/cc/?progid=278268.

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