1. Hawaiian and English translations found in N. Emerson, Unwritten Literature of Hawaii, 80–81.
2. On the early history of the ABCFM in the Hawaiian Islands, see R. Anderson, Sandwich Islands Mission.
3. Dwight Baldwin, correspondence, October 15, 1847, Hawaiian Islands Mission, 1824–1909 (ABC 19.1), American Board of Commissioners for Foreign Missions Archives, Houghton Library, Harvard University (hereafter cited as ABCFMA). Regarding the use of nineteenth-century American missionary and missionary children’s manuscripts, I have corrected minor spelling and punctuation discrepancies to conform to modern usage and to make the children and their parents’ writings more accessible to a contemporary audience. I have also included biographical dates after the names of all missionary children to differentiate them from other persons mentioned in the text.
4. On missionary family demographics in the Hawaiian Islands, see Missionary Album.
5. Whitney, Hawaiian Guide Book, 14.
6. Conroy-Krutz, Christian Imperialism, 8.
7. Domestic missionary practice in Hawai‘i is depicted by Grimshaw, Paths of Duty. Kashay introduces the Hawaiian mission children in “Problems in Paradise,” 81–94.
8. Igler, Great Ocean, 27–29.
9. Daws, Shoal of Time, 65–66.
10. Hiram Bingham quoted in Andrew, Rebuilding the Christian Commonwealth, 154.
11. Translation of the Constitution, 10.
12. Walters, American Reformers, 33–35. By 1850 the ABCFM was ordaining 40 percent of all U.S. missionaries, yet its membership had declined from 20 percent of the U.S. public in 1776 to just 4 percent. See Kling, “New Divinity.”
13. Andrew, Rebuilding the Christian Commonwealth, 119.
14. Rufus Anderson, correspondence, October 24, 1849, Foreign Letters (ABC 2.1.1), ABCFMA.
15. Andrew, Rebuilding the Christian Commonwealth, 145–46.
16. Andrew, Rebuilding the Christian Commonwealth, 130.
17. Whitehead, “Noncontiguous Wests,” 320.
18. Bingham, Residence of Twenty-One Years, 355–56.
19. Repousis, “‘Devil’s Apostle,’” 812.
20. Pratt, Story of Mid-Pacific Institute, 28.
21. Whitehead, “Hawaii,” 160.
22. Whitehead, “Hawaii,” 164.
23. Whitehead, “Hawaii,” 164.
24. Sereno Bishop coined the phrase “crossroads of the Pacific.” See Bishop, Reminiscences of Old Hawaii, 9.
25. Sanford Dole, born and raised in the Hawaiian Islands, should not be confused with his cousin James Dole, founder of Dole Pineapple. James Dole arrived in Honolulu in 1899 at the age of twenty-four. See Cumings, Dominion from Sea to Sea, 182–83. Gary Okihiro discusses the influence of Samuel Armstrong in Island World, 129–30.
26. Missionary children left a prolific written record, much of which can be accessed in the Children of the Mission Collection, 1830–1900, Hawaiian Mission Children’s Society Library, Honolulu, Hawai‘i (hereafter cited as HMCS), and Punahou Gazette and Critic, September 7, 1848–August 13, 1851 (Box 1–5) and Weekly Star, February 25, 1852–February 16, 1853 (Box 1–3), Cooke Library Archives, Punahou School, Honolulu, Hawai‘i (hereafter cited as CL). The Annual Report of the Hawaiian Mission Children’s Society contains annual addresses by missionary descendants to their peers, as well as printed correspondence among the missionary children.
27. I would like to thank Gary Okihiro for his insights on the Hawaiian League.
28. Key texts include Osorio, Dismembering Lāhui; Silva, Aloha Betrayed; Kame‘eleihiwa, Native Land; Trask, From a Native Daughter.
29. Trask, From a Native Daughter, vi.
30. Unless otherwise noted I have used Mary Kawena Pukui and Samuel H. Elbert’s Hawaiian dictionary for my translations. See Pukui and Elbert, New Pocket Hawaiian Dictionary. Missionary translation projects are complicated by the indigenous appropriation of missionary discourses for their own cultural usage, missionary mistranslation of indigenous concepts into Western-oriented ideals, and emergence of new or hybrid meanings created out of a transcultural “middle ground.” See Bhabha, “Signs Taken for Wonders,” 163–84. Richard White explores the “middle ground” of Jesuit missionaries, French traders, and Native Americans in Middle Ground. The problem of hybridity or colonial “debris” is outlined by Nancy Rose Hunt in her study of British missionaries in the Congo in Colonial Lexicon. On cultural (mis)readings of missionary Bible translations, see Peterson, “Rhetoric of the Word,” and Peterson, “Translating the Word.”
31. John Papa Ii lived through tremendous cultural and political changes affecting his Hawaiian people. Throughout his writings John Papa Ii laments the loss of Hawaiian history through chanting. See Ii, Fragments of Hawaiian History.
32. Kame‘eleihiwa, Native Land, 315.
33. The Hollywood movie The Descendants (2011), directed by Alexander Payne and starring George Clooney, was based on the bestselling novel by Kaui Hart Hemmings. The Obama administration pursued executive action to recognize Native Hawaiians as a tribe. See Akina, “The Racial Spoils System,” A13.
34. More recently, Nancy Shoemaker counted as many as twelve differing forms of colonialism within the United States and Pacific. See Shoemaker, “Typology of Colonialism,” 29–30. Paul Kramer argues that the “imperial is a necessary tool for understanding the United States’ global history, with both prospects and limits.” See Kramer, “Power and Connection,” 1349.
35. Jennifer Fish Kashay shows that American missionaries and merchants in the Hawaiian Islands shared many concerns by the mid-nineteenth century in “Agents of Imperialism.” Ian Tyrell demonstrates that post-1898 American missionary efforts in the Philippines were influential in forming “webs of communication” between international Protestant reformers and U.S. diplomats in Reforming the World. Similarly, Emily Rosenberg has explored the influence of American nongovernmental forces in spreading Protestant “liberal-developmentalism” in East Asia at the turn of the twentieth century in Spreading the American Dream. Michael Hunt argues that Protestant “moralism” shaped all American encounters with foreign populations throughout the nineteenth century in Ideology and U.S. Foreign Policy.
36. Conroy-Krutz, Christian Imperialism, 10.
37. Children as fields of colonization or agents of imperialism have remained relatively unexplored outside basic colonial and parental concerns related to the preservation of white society. See, for example, M. Jacobs, White Mother, and Stoler, Carnal Knowledge. Sara Fieldston notes the role American sponsorship of Vietnamese children played in Cold War propagandizing in “Little Cold Warriors,” 240–50. Paula Fass explores the development of the U.S. educational system as a mechanism for the Americanization of nineteenth-century immigrant families in Children of a New World.
38. Missionary Hiram Bingham quoted in Andrew, Rebuilding the Christian Commonwealth, 152–54. On the ABCFM practice of putting cultural artifacts sent by missionaries on display in Boston, see Andrew, Rebuilding the Christian Commonwealth, 126. Sally Engle Merry discusses missionary perceptions of the Hawaiian body in Colonizing Hawai‘i, 236–37. For a domestic theory of mission among missionary wives in Hawai‘i, see Robert, “Evangelist or Homemaker?,” 127–30. Early nineteenth-century British evangelical missionaries in Tahiti inspected native homes to make sure they were “plastered in and out, have doors and windows, bedrooms with doors and shutters, and a garden encircling the house.” See Stanley, Bible and the Flag, 158. On the politics of missionary exhibitions, see Lawson, “Collecting Cultures.”
39. Timothy Dwight quoted in Drinnon, Facing West, 66.
40. Southern slave owner quoted in Bailey and Kennedy, American Spirit, 359.
41. Ephraim Clark, correspondence, June 18, 1857, Hawaiian Islands Mission (ABC 19.1), ABCFMA.
42. Silva, Aloha Betrayed, 70.
43. Luther Gulick quoted in Putney, Missionaries in Hawai‘i, 190n21. Missionaries considered native children intellectually bright but morally damaged. See Merry, Colonizing Hawai‘i, 237.
1. Wright, Real Mother Goose, 106.
2. Amos Cooke quoted in B. Smith, Yankees in Paradise, 292.
3. Andrew, Rebuilding the Christian Commonwealth, 108, 131–32.
4. Rufus Anderson, correspondence, April 10, 1846, Foreign Letters (ABC 2.1.1), ABCFMA.
5. Missionary Hiram Bingham quoted in Zwiep, Pilgrim Path, 137–38.
6. Lydia Bingham Coan, in Annual Report (1887), 23–33.
7. American Board, “Report of the American Board,” 234.
8. American Board, “Report of the American Board,” 234.
9. M. Alexander and Dodge, Punahou, 6–7.
10. Lucy G. Thurston, Life and Times, 101–2.
11. Frear, Lowell and Abigail, 210–13.
12. Correspondence, June 5, 1841, Hawaiian Islands Mission (ABC 19.1), ABCFMA.
13. Bingham, Residence of Twenty-One Years, 331.
14. Not all Christian denominations required such high educational standards for their missionaries. See Robert, American Women in Mission, 131.
15. M. Alexander and Dodge, Punahou, 21.
16. Ephraim Clark, correspondence, June 28, 1853, Hawaiian Islands Mission (ABC 19.1), ABCFMA.
17. Dwight Baldwin, correspondence, June 22, 1848, Hawaiian Islands Mission (ABC 19.1), ABCFMA.
18. Jeremiah Evarts, correspondence, October 27, 1827, Preliminary series (ABC 2.01), ABCFMA.
19. Evarts, October 27, 1827 (ABC 2.01), ABCFMA.
20. Evarts, October 27, 1827 (ABC 2.01), ABCFMA.
21. American Board, “Report of the American Board,” 334–36; Rufus Anderson, correspondence, September 5, 1834, Preliminary series (ABC 2.01), ABCFMA; M. Alexander and Dodge, Punahou, 6; Zwiep, Pilgrim Path, 247.
22. On the concept of disinterested benevolence, see Brekus, “Children of Wrath,” 315; Walters, American Reformers, 27–28.
23. Peter Gulick, correspondence, August 30, 1842, Hawaiian Islands Mission (ABC 19.1), ABCFMA. Jennifer Fish Kashay notes the role of the 1830s financial panic on contributions to the ABCFM in “Agents of Imperialism.”
24. General Meeting Minutes, 1832, Hawaiian Islands Mission (ABC 19.1), ABCFMA.
25. B. Smith, Yankees in Paradise, 217.
26. Dwight Baldwin, correspondence, October 15, 1847 (ABC 19.1), ABCFMA.
27. Levi Chamberlain, correspondence, December 21, 1847, Hawaiian Islands Mission (ABC 19.1), ABCFMA.
28. Zwiep, Pilgrim Path, 247.
29. Damon, Letters from the Life, 289.
30. On nineteenth-century gender spheres, see Cott, Bonds of Womanhood; or Welter, “Cult of True Womanhood.”
31. Horace Bushnell quoted in Bendroth, “Horace Bushnell’s Christian Nurture,” 356.
32. Grimshaw, Paths of Duty, 129–30.
33. Correspondence, July 20, 1840, Hawaiian Islands Mission (ABC 19.1), ABCFMA. Missionary Peter Gulick, for instance, called the United States the “land of temptations, and seducers,” August 30, 1842 (ABC 19.1), ABCFMA.
34. Correspondence, July 20, 1840, Hawaiian Islands Mission (ABC 19.1), ABCFMA.
35. John S. Emerson, correspondence, July 27, 1840, Hawaiian Islands Mission (ABC 19.1), ABCFMA.
36. Translation of the Constitution, 10.
37. Quoted in Hobbs, Hawaii, 28–29.
38. Whitehead, “Noncontiguous Wests,” 321.
39. Resolutions adopted at meeting of Sandwich Islands Mission, June 1838, Hawaiian Islands Mission (ABC 19.1), ABCFMA.
40. Correspondence, June 1, 1840, Hawaiian Islands Mission (ABC 19.1), ABCFMA.
41. J. Emerson, July 27, 1840 (ABC 19.1), ABCFMA.
42. Correspondence, June 5, 1841, Hawaiian Islands Mission (ABC 19.1), ABCFMA.
43. Hobbs, Hawaii, 34; Bradley, American Frontier in Hawaii, 341–60.
44. Emily Dole quoted in M. Alexander and Dodge, Punahou, 61.
45. Dotts and Sikkema, Challenging the Status Quo, 20.
46. Grimshaw, Paths of Duty, 103–4.
47. P. Gulick, August 30, 1842 (ABC 19.1), ABCFMA.
48. Richard Armstrong, correspondence, March 21, 1841, Hawaiian Islands Mission (ABC 19.1), ABCFMA.
49. Sarah Andrews quoted in B. Smith, Yankees in Paradise, 25.
50. Lorrin Andrews quoted in M. Alexander and Dodge, Punahou, 12–13.
51. Wight, Memoirs of Elizabeth Kinau Wilder, 55.
52. Bishop, Reminiscences of Old Hawaii, 44. The economies of herding are discussed in B. Smith, Yankees in Paradise, 25, 291–92.
53. R. Anderson, April 10, 1846 (ABC 2.1.1), ABCFMA.
54. Levi Chamberlain, correspondence, December 16, 1847, Hawaiian Islands Mission (ABC 19.1), ABCFMA.
55. Newspaper clipping, January 1, 1859, Hawaiian Islands Mission (ABC 19.1), ABCFMA.
56. Correspondence, June 1, 1840, Hawaiian Islands Mission (ABC 19.1), ABCFMA.
57. Levi Chamberlain, correspondence, August 22, 1848, Hawaiian Islands Mission (ABC 19.1), ABCFMA.
58. L. Chamberlain, August 22, 1848 (ABC 19.1), ABCFMA.
59. Rufus Anderson, correspondence, October 22 and 24, 1849, Foreign Letters (ABC 2.1.1), ABCFMA.
60. Rufus Anderson, correspondence, July 19, 1848, Foreign Letters (ABC 2.1.1), ABCFMA.
61. R. Anderson, July 19, 1848 (ABC 2.1.1), ABCFMA.
62. On the Māhale, see Kenui, “Concerning Foreigners,” 119; Hobbs, Hawaii, 39–41; Kame‘eleihiwa, Native Land, 12.
63. Ii, Fragments of Hawaiian History, 50.
64. Kame‘eleihiwa, Native Land, 15.
65. Kame‘eleihiwa, Native Land, 304.
66. Kamakau, Ruling Chiefs of Hawaii, 335.
67. Ministry of Interior quoted in Hobbs, Hawaii, 100.
68. Ephraim Clark, correspondence, May 10, 1849, Hawaiian Islands Mission (ABC 19.1), ABCFMA.
69. Rufus Anderson, correspondence, December 3, 1851, Foreign Letters (ABC 2.1.1), ABCFMA.
70. Richard Armstrong to Samuel Chapman Armstrong, correspondence, January 15, 1850, quoted in Kuykendall, Hawaiian Kingdom, 1:326n. See also Samuel Castle, correspondence, February 27, 1852, Hawaiian Islands Mission (ABC 19.1), ABCFMA; Peter Gulick, correspondence, April 29, 1852, Hawaiian Islands Mission (ABC 19.1), ABCFMA.
71. Rufus Anderson, correspondence, December 3, 1851, Foreign Letters (ABC 2.1.1), ABCFMA.
72. Kame‘eleihiwa, Native Land, 305.
73. Abigail Smith quoted in Frear, Lowell and Abigail, 210–13.
74. William P. Alexander, correspondence, August 15, 1859, Hawaiian Islands Mission (ABC 19.1), ABCFMA.
75. On U.S. slavery and American Protestant denominations, see Conkin, Uneasy Center; R. Anderson, Sandwich Islands Mission, 289. The ABCFM reduced missionary Abner Wilcox’s salary during the Civil War, believing his seven sons could support him. See Damon, Letters from the Life, 381–82.
76. Levi T. Chamberlain, correspondence and papers, n.d., Children of the Mission Collection, HMCS.
77. Editorial, Punahou Gazette and Critic, September 7, 1848–March 30, 1849 (Box 1), CL.
78. James Chamberlain, correspondence, late 1850, February 21, 1851, and April 20, 1852, HMCS.
79. Lyman, Hawaiian Yesterdays, 219–21. Under 1851 legislation the government appointed land agents for each island. Agents had the responsibility to survey and sell government lands. They received a commission on each sale. See MacLennan, Sovereign Sugar, 254.
80. J. Chamberlain, late 1850 and February 21, 1851, HMCS.
81. Warren Chamberlain, correspondence, October 17, 1849, HMCS. Just a few of the missionary sons who sought to benefit from their parents’ relationship to the monarchy were Henry Lyman, Henry Whitney, William Armstrong, and Sanford Dole.
82. On missionary sons engaged in sugar planting, see Daws, Shoal of Time, 174–75; B. Smith, Yankees in Paradise, 327; Piercy, Hawaii’s Missionary Saga, 179; Grimshaw, Paths of Duty, 190; O. Emerson, Pioneer Days in Hawaii, 205.
83. Lucy and Edward Wilcox quoted in Damon, Letters from the Life, 375–80.
84. Krauss and Alexander, Grove Farm Plantation, 94.
85. Rufus Anderson, correspondence, October 22, 1849, Foreign Letters (ABC 2.1.1), ABCFMA.
86. Maria Whitney, correspondence, 1878, HMCS.
87. R. Anderson, Sandwich Islands Mission, 330.
88. Hobbs, Hawaii, 101; Osorio, Dismembering Lāhui, 96–98; B. Smith, Yankees in Paradise, 323.
89. J. Chamberlain, late 1850, HMCS.
90. Sanford Dole, in Annual Report (1888), 35.
91. On missionary sons appointed to government positions, see O. Emerson, Pioneer Days, 229–30; W. Alexander, Brief History of the Hawaiian People, 340–45; B. Smith, Yankees in Paradise, 342–25; Osorio, Dismembering Lāhui, 247.
92. David Igler discusses the catastrophic demographic changes in the Hawaiian Islands in “Diseased Goods,” 693–719. Between 1840 and 1860, the native Hawaiian population fell from one hundred thousand to seventy thousand. The number would continue to decline throughout the nineteenth century. See Daws, Shoal of Time, 167–68; Amos Cooke quoted in B. Smith, Yankees in Paradise, 292.
93. Bird, Six Months, 192.
94. Sanford Dole, in Annual Report (1888), 36.
95. Anderson Forbes, in Annual Report (1863), 25.
96. Asa Thurston, in Annual Report (1853), 18.
97. Pratt, Story of Mid-Pacific Institute, 2.
98. W. Alexander, History of Later Years, 8.
99. Lili‘uokalani developed a close relationship with German medium Fraulein Wolf. See Daws, Shoal of Time, 264–69.
100. W. Alexander, History of Later Years, 12.
101. Bishop, Reminiscences of Old Hawaii, 22.
102. Missionary son W. D. Alexander discusses white attitudes toward the last two Hawaiian monarchs in Brief History of the Hawaiian People, 308–9, 314–15.
103. O. Emerson, Pioneer Days in Hawaii, 242.
104. Sereno Bishop, scrapbook, April 29, 1897, HMCS.
105. Samuel Damon, in Annual Report (1882), 32, and Annual Report (1886), 32.
106. O. Emerson, Pioneer Days in Hawaii, 256.
107. R. Anderson, Sandwich Islands Mission, 339–40; Bishop, “Are Missionaries’ Sons Tending?,” 2–3.
108. Albert Lyons, in Annual Report (1883), 33, and Annual Report (1890), 35.
109. On births and deaths in missionary families in the Hawaiian Islands, see Annual Report (1853), 7–9; Grimshaw, Paths of Duty, 89; R. Anderson, Sandwich Islands Mission, 240–42.
110. Kennedy, Magic Mountains, 130.
111. Cultural anthropologist Robert A. LeVine argues parents across cultures pursue parental goals in a three-part hierarchy: physical survival and health are paramount, followed by economic independence and, lastly, the transmission of cultural values, including religious piety and intellectual achievement. See Rogoff, Cultural Nature, 109–16. | Notes to pages 38–43
112. R. Anderson quoted in Harris, Nothing but Christ, 34.
1. Wright, Real Mother Goose, 7.
2. Twain, Roughing It, 211.
3. Twain, Roughing It, 211.
4. Howard Chudacoff argues that nature and family remained the most important influences upon childhood play in the early nineteenth century. Peer culture among the American middle class would begin to supplant such forces by the end of the century. See Chudacoff, Children at Play, 50–51.
5. Lyman, Hawaiian Yesterdays, 17.
6. Kame‘eleihiwa, Native Land, 23–24.
7. Kamakau, Ruling Chiefs of Hawaii, 230–31.
8. Missionary Lucy Thurston quoted in Menton, “‘Everything That Is Lovely,’” 212.
9. MacLennan, Sovereign Sugar, 18–22.
10. On restrictions related to contact with native Hawaiians, see Lucy G. Thurston, Life and Times, 128–29. George Wilcox quoted in Damon, Letters from the Life, 261.
11. Bishop, Reminiscences of Old Hawaii, 14; Malo, Hawaiian Antiquities, 75, 109.
12. Linnekin, Sacred Queens, 15, 21, 70; MacLennan, Sovereign Sugar, 28.
13. On imperial senses, see Rotter, “Empires of the Senses,” 3–19.
14. O. Gulick and A. Gulick, Pilgrims of Hawaii, 52.
15. Wight, Memoirs of Elizabeth Kinau Wilder, 68.
16. Lydia Bingham Coan discusses her parents’ early years in Hawai‘i in Annual Report (1887), 23–33.
17. Malo, Hawaiian Antiquities, 94.
18. William Smith, in Annual Report (1883), 43.
19. Lucy G. Thurston, Life and Times, 101–2, 126–27. On the missionaries’ use of native domestic servants in the Hawaiian Islands, see Grimshaw, Paths of Duty, 138. On domestic service in other colonial contexts, see, for example, Locher-Scholten, “So Close,” 131–53; M. Jacobs, “Working on the Domestic Frontier,” 165–99. See also Kennedy, Islands of White, 153–54.
20. Bingham, Residence of Twenty-One Years, 333.
21. Lyman, Hawaiian Yesterdays, 13.
22. West, Growing Up, 45.
23. Lyman, Hawaiian Yesterdays, 49.
24. Bishop, Reminiscences of Old Hawaii, 18.
25. Student editorials and essays at Punahou are filled with descriptions of their outdoor adventures. See Editorial, Punahou Gazette and Critic, September 7, 1848–March 30, 1849 (Box 1), CL. See also Helen W. Ludlow, ed., “Personal Memories and Letters of General S. C. Armstrong,” 5 vols. (typescript), Archives and Special Collections, Williams College, Williamstown MA, 42.Notes to pages 43–50 |
26. Damon, Letters from the Life, 261.
27. Lucy G. Thurston, Life and Times, 123–24.
28. Wight, Memoirs of Elizabeth Kinau Wilder, 74–75.
29. British missionary William Ellis quoted in MacLennan, Sovereign Sugar, 26–27.
30. Whitney, Hawaiian Guide Book, 27.
31. Bishop, Reminiscences of Old Hawaii, 49.
32. Wight, Memoirs of Elizabeth Kinau Wilder, 72, 101–2. Missionary daughters are described in Frear, Lowell and Abigail, 228, 246.
33. Ludlow, “Personal Memories and Letters,” 37.
34. Chudacoff, Children at Play, 59.
35. Chudacoff, Children at Play, 49, 61.
36. John Thomas Gulick, correspondence, April 4 and June 5, 1854, Children of the Mission Collection, HMCS.
37. Wight, Memoirs of Elizabeth Kinau Wilder, 11.
38. John Gulick’s scientific discoveries and letters to Darwin are recorded in J. Gulick and A. Gulick, Evolutionist and Missionary, 477.
39. Damon, Letters from the Life, 259, 263; Editorial, Punahou Gazette and Critic, August 13, 1851–January 27, 1852 (Box 5), CL.
40. O. Emerson, Pioneer Days in Hawaii, 157.
41. Chudacoff, Children at Play, 64–65.
42. Wight, Memoirs of Elizabeth Kinau Wilder, 18–19.
43. Thigpen, Island Queens, 91.
44. Twain, Roughing It, 274–75, 264.
45. Lyman, Hawaiian Yesterdays, 91; Damon, Letters from the Life, 261.
46. Cummings, Missionary’s Daughter, 113. LaRue W. Piercy describes Thurston’s trip to the volcano in Hawaii’s Missionary Saga, 49.
47. Samuel Chapman Armstrong, “Editorial Correspondence,” 1880, Samuel Chapman Armstrong Collection, Archives and Special Collections, Williams College, Williamstown MA.
48. Wight, Memoirs of Elizabeth Kinau Wilder, 101–3.
49. Weaver, “Memories,” 106.
50. For an early and detailed analysis of Hawaiian land divisions, see Hobbs, Hawaii. For a discussion on land ownership and foreign influence, see Osorio, Dismembering Lāhui.
51. “King’s Speeches at the Opening of the Hawaiian Legislature,” May 28, 1847, Hawaiian Materials, Rare Manuscript Division, Library of Congress.
52. The Hawaiian Legislature published its rationale in Kenui et al., “Concerning Foreigners,” 119.
53. The 1848 whooping cough and measles epidemics hit native populations particularly hard. Missionary children would have seen this in their parents’ church congregations. Missionary Lowell Smith reported his congregation fell from 1,500 to 100. See B. Smith, Yankees in Paradise, 287–88. Jocelyn Linnekin writes that missionaries reported an infant mortality rate as high as 50 percent and a birthrate of one for every eleven women in the 1850s in Sacred Queens, 210. Disease affected the Hawaiian landscape as well. In 1865 the Hawaiian government began quarantining all leprosy patients on the island of Molokai. See Inglis, Ma‘i Lepera.
54. Igler, “Diseased Goods,” 704. Native historian Samuel Kamakau noted the influence of disease on pregnancy and infant mortality in Ruling Chiefs of Hawaii, 237.
55. Editorial, Punahou Gazette and Critic, July 6, 1849–September 27, 1849 (Box 2), CL.
56. Igler, “Diseased Goods,” 717–18.
57. “Anglo-Hawaiian” is found throughout the missionary children’s writings. See, for example, Whitney, Hawaiian Guide Book, 14.
58. Samuel Alexander, in Annual Report (1864), 19.
59. Hiram Bingham Jr., in Annual Report (1857), 19.
60. Chudacoff, Children at Play, 11.
61. Samuel Alexander, in Annual Report (1864), 17.
62. Elliott West notes that frontier characteristics, such as a drive to accomplish and control, were common traits among white children born in the American West. West, Growing Up, 252.
63. MacLennan, Sovereign Sugar, 31–32.
64. On Castle & Cooke’s relationship with missionary sons and the missionary sons’ later investments, see J. Smith, Big Five, viii–xii.
65. In 1876 the Hawaiian legislature allowed for eminent domain over water and land for agricultural purposes. See MacLennan, Sovereign Sugar, 149.
66. On contemporary landholdings, see Siler, “Hawaiian History, Housed in a Ranch,” M3. Carol MacLennan investigates the webs of missionary-descendant holding companies and trusts in Sovereign Sugar, 100–101.
67. Cushman, Guano and the Opening, 82–83. Samuel Chapman Armstrong discusses the nitrate trade in Ludlow, “Personal Memories and Letters,” 46. Missionary children reported on peers working on the guano islands in Annual Report (1859), 9. The account of George Wilcox’s experience as an overseer is found in Krauss and Alexander, Grove Farm Plantation, 80–83. By 1870 the United States claimed sovereignty over seventy such guano islands. These uninhabited atolls contained enough “nitrate-rich” guano to appear as several feet of snow. Americans hired Hawaiian labor to collect and load shipments. The relationship between contract labor and the Pacific guano trade is discussed in Melillo, “First Green Revolution,” 1028–60.
68. On Anglo-Saxon manhood in the 1890s, see Hoganson, Fighting for American Manhood, 34–35, 212n14; Bederman, Manliness & Civilization, 11–15, 118–20.
69. Sereno Bishop, in Annual Report (1872), 18.
70. For a missionary son’s account of the Hawaiian Revolution, see W. Alexander, Brief History of the Hawaiian People. Missionary son Sereno Bishop gave strenuous arguments in favor of U.S. annexation that were published in American newspapers. See Sereno Bishop, scrapbook, April 29, 1897, HMCS. U.S. ambassador to the United Kingdom John Hay notoriously referred to the Spanish-American War as a “splendid little war” in a private communication to Theodore Roosevelt. See Millis, Martial Spirit, 340.
71. John Gulick, memoir manuscript, HMCS.
72. J. Gulick, memoir manuscript, HMCS.
73. Fanny Gulick quoted in J. Gulick and A. Gulick, Evolutionist and Missionary, 11.
74. J. Gulick and A. Gulick, Evolutionist and Missionary, 55.
75. John Gulick, correspondence, June 30, 1848, HMCS; J. Gulick, journal, January 18, 1849, HMCS; J. Gulick, memoir manuscript, HMCS; J. Gulick and A. Gulick, Evolutionist and Missionary, 320–21.
76. J. Gulick and A. Gulick, Evolutionist and Missionary, 121.
77. J. Gulick, memoir manuscript, HMCS.
78. John Gulick, June 5, 1854, HMCS.
79. J. Gulick, memoir manuscript, HMCS; Finn, “Guests of the Nation,” 35.
80. J. Gulick and A. Gulick, Evolutionist and Missionary, 177.
81. John Gulick, 1880 notes, HMCS.
82. J. Gulick, 1880 notes; J. Gulick, memoir manuscript, HMCS; J. Gulick and A. Gulick, Evolutionist and Missionary, 185–92. For a discussion on the relationship between the language of photography and imperialism, see Wexler, Tender Violence.
83. J. Gulick and A. Gulick, Evolutionist and Missionary, 231–32.
84. J. Gulick and A. Gulick, Evolutionist and Missionary, 231–32; J. Gulick, memoir manuscript, HMCS.
85. J. Gulick and A. Gulick, Evolutionist and Missionary, 234.
86. J. Gulick and A. Gulick, Evolutionist and Missionary, 484.
87. J. Gulick and A. Gulick, Evolutionist and Missionary, 462.
88. J. Gulick and A. Gulick, Evolutionist and Missionary, 293.
89. J. Gulick and A. Gulick, Evolutionist and Missionary, 351, 493.
90. J. Gulick, memoir manuscript, HMCS.
91. On traditional land use, see Fisher, “Hawaiian Culture,” 7–27. On the transformation to plantation agriculture, see Jones and Osgood, From King Cane.
92. Jones and Osgood, From King Cane, 9, 75.
93. MacLennan, Sovereign Sugar, 9.
94. Joseph Cooke, in Annual Report (1868), 17.
95. John Gulick, Punahou Gazette and Critic, August 13, 1851–January 27, 1852 (Box 5), CL.
96. Editorial, Punahou Gazette and Critic, July 6, 1849–September 27, 1849 (Box 2), CL.
97. Gopnik, Philosophical Baby, 11.
98. Robert Andrews, correspondence, October 31, 1862, HMCS.
99. Gopnik, Philosophical Baby, 163.
100. For opposing revolution against the monarchy, missionary son Henry Baldwin was shouted down by his peers at a mass meeting during the constitutional crisis of 1893. So ubiquitous was the white sentiment for revolution and U.S. annexation that native Hawaiians derogatorily called anyone in favor of annexation a “missionary.” See Daws, Shoal of Time, 273–74, 292.
101. William Smith, in Annual Report (1882), 41.
1. Wright, Real Mother Goose, 2.
2. Robert Andrews, correspondence, February 12, 1865, HMCS.
3. On American missionaries and higher education, see Robert, American Women in Mission, 131.
4. Mary Charlotte Alexander, a missionary descendant and Punahou graduate, and Charlotte Peabody Dodge, a Punahou alumna and teacher, extensively catalogued Punahou School history for the school’s one hundredth anniversary. Their work is a thoroughly researched yet uncritical look at the school. See M. Alexander and Dodge, Punahou, 4–5, 94.
5. Mary Rice, in Annual Report (1887), 187.
6. Peter Gulick to Board, correspondence, August 30, 1842, Hawaiian Islands Mission (ABC 19.1), ABCFMA.
7. Damon, Letters from the Life, 292.
8. J. Gulick and A. Gulick, Evolutionist and Missionary, 22.
9. M. Alexander and Dodge, Punahou, 84.
10. Lyman, Hawaiian Yesterdays, 130.
11. Editorial, Punahou Gazette and Critic, September 7, 1848–March 30, 1849 (Box 1), CL.
12. Editorial, Weekly Star, February 25, 1852–April 14, 1852 (Box 1), CL.
13. The Punahou Gazette and Critic were separate student newspapers but are currently archived together. See Punahou Gazette and Critic, 1848–1852 (Boxes 1–5) and Weekly Star, 1852–1853 (Boxes 1–3), CL.
14. Editorial, Weekly Star, February 25–April 14, 1852 (Box 1), CL.
15. Bird, Six Months, 134.
16. Editorial, Weekly Star, February 25–April 14, 1852 (Box 1), CL.
17. M. Alexander and Dodge, Punahou, 66.
18. Editorial, Punahou Gazette and Critic, September 7, 1848–March 30, 1849 (Box 1), CL.
19. Editorial, Weekly Star, September 1, 1852–December 22, 1852 (Box 2), CL.
20. Kanaka is the Hawaiian word for “person” or “Hawaiian.” Missionary children used the word disparagingly. Wight, Memoirs of Elizabeth Kinau Wilder, 15.
21. Before the Civil War only a few women went to boarding academies or colleges, and the curriculum was always different from that in male institutions. Only a few coeducational opportunities existed, and in those schools women were usually placed on a separate track. See Cremin, American Education, 397.
22. Daniel Dole quoted in M. Alexander and Dodge, Punahou, 68–69.
23. Grimshaw, Paths of Duty, 190.
24. Editorial, Weekly Star, February 16, 1853–April 20, 1853 (Box 3), CL.
25. George Wilcox voted in favor of granting political rights to women. He further defied American gender norms by never marrying. Wilcox become one of the most successful planters in the islands. See M. Alexander and Dodge, Punahou, 226. On Hawaiian women serving in government, see Silva, Aloha Betrayed, 43–44.
26. Editorial, Punahou Gazette and Critic, September 7, 1848–March 30, 1849 (Box 1), CL.
27. D. Dole quoted in M. Alexander and Dodge, Punahou, 153.
28. D. Dole quoted in M. Alexander and Dodge, Punahou, 206.
29. Lyman, Hawaiian Yesterdays, 143.
30. Orramel Gulick, correspondence, January 9, 1844, HMCS.
31. Charles Gulick, correspondence, February 16, 1844, HMCS. Clifford Putney argues that bulimia, caused by fear of disappointing God and his parents, led to Charles Gulick’s lengthy illness and death. Charles was a student at Punahou from 1842 to 1853 and died in the United States attending college. See Putney, Missionaries in Hawai‘i.
32. M. Alexander and Dodge, Punahou, 77.
33. Weekly Star, February 25–April 14, 1852 (Box 1), CL.
34. Editorial, Punahou Gazette and Critic, July 6, 1849–September 27, 1849 (Box 2), CL.
35. Damon, Sanford Ballard Dole, 17.
36. M. Alexander and Dodge, Punahou, 78.
37. Ann Eliza Clark, correspondence, n.d., HMCS.
38. Editorial, Punahou Gazette and Critic, July 6, 1849–September 27, 1849 (Box 2), CL.
39. William Alexander quoted in M. Alexander and Dodge, Punahou, 201.
40. Punahou student newspapers are replete with American standards of deportment. See, for example, Editorial, Punahou Gazette and Critic, July 6, 1849–September 27, 1849 (Box 2), CL. The popular Girl’s Own Book taught children to “have a scrupulous regard to neatness of person. Broken strings and tangled hair are signs that children are not very industrious in any of their habits.” See Child, Girl’s Own Book, 286.
41. Editorial, Punahou Gazette and Critic, July 6, 1849–September 27, 1849 (Box 2), CL.
42. Editorial, Punahou Gazette and Critic, July 6, 1849–September 27, 1849, CL. McGuffey Readers, for example, admonished children: “Do always as your parents bid you. Obey them with a ready mind and a pleasant face.” McGuffey, Eclectic Third Reader, 66.
43. Emma and Angelina Metcalf were the first students of Hawaiian ancestry to attend Punahou, entering the school in 1852. See Foster, Punahou, 34.
44. Dwight Baldwin, correspondence, 1835, HMCS.
45. Punahou Gazette and Critic, September 7, 1848–March 30, 1849 (Box 1), CL.
46. Editorial, Punahou Gazette and Critic, August 13, 1851–January 27, 1852 (Box 5), CL. Haunani-Kay Trask writes that missionary histories of Hawaii were often “the West’s view of itself through the degradation of my [Hawaiian] past.” See Trask, From a Native Daughter, 117.
47. Samuel Alexander quoted in M. Alexander and Dodge, Punahou, 211.
48. John Gulick quoted in Putney, Missionaries in Hawai‘i, 121.
49. On the Royal School, see Menton, “‘Everything That Is Lovely”; Menton, “Christian and ‘Civilized’ Education,” 213–42.
50. Wight, Memoirs of Elizabeth Kinau Wilder, 72–79.
51. Lyman, Hawaiian Yesterdays, 139.
52. M. Alexander and Dodge, Punahou, 157–58, 191–98. The discrepancy in sizes could be pronounced. Missionary son Warren Chamberlain called himself a “great fat fellow” at 120 pounds. See Warren Chamberlain, correspondence, January 24, 1845, HMCS.
53. B. Smith, Yankees in Paradise, 225–26.
54. Wight, Memoirs of Elizabeth Kinau Wilder, 95.
55. M. Alexander and Dodge, Punahou, 77–78, 131.
56. Editorial, Weekly Star, February 16, 1853–April 20, 1853 (Box 3), CL.
57. B. Smith, Yankees in Paradise, 316.
58. Warren Chamberlain, correspondence, October 17, 1849, HMCS.
59. On the temperance movement in the Hawaiian Islands, see James Chamberlain, correspondence, March 7, 1845, HMCS; Levi T. Chamberlain, correspondence, March 12, 1845, HMCS. See also Damon, Letters from the Life, 260; Cummings, Missionary’s Daughter, 51.
60. Editorial, Punahou Gazette and Critic, July 6, 1849–September 27, 1849 (Box 2), CL. Students were well aware of the indigenous population decline occurring around them, ruminating frequently about the reasons for it.
61. Menton, “‘Everything That Is Lovely,’” 164.
62. Editorial, Weekly Star, February 25–April 14, 1852 (Box 1), CL.
63. Bishop, Reminiscences of Old Hawaii, 50.
64. Kuykendall, Hawaiian Kingdom, 1:162–63.
65. Kuykendall, Hawaiian Kingdom, 1:165–66.
66. Editorial, Weekly Star, February 16, 1853–April 20, 1853 (Box 3), CL.
67. Cummings, Missionary’s Daughter, 134.
68. Ephraim Clark, correspondence, August 28, 1849, Hawaiian Islands Mission (ABC 19.1), ABCFMA. On Punahou students and France, see Editorial, Punahou Gazette and Critic, August 13, 1851–January 27, 1852 (Box 5), CL; Levi Chamberlain, papers, n.d., HMCS.
69. On Kalākaua’s reign, see Osorio, Dismembering Lāhui, 184, 199, 225, 284ff, 287fn.
70. William Castle, in Annual Report (1881), 26.
71. Latourette, Great Century, 254.
72. Joseph Emerson, in Annual Report (1898), 51.
73. Penal Code of the Hawaiian Islands; Kuykendall, Hawaiian Kingdom, 3:257, 302.
74. W. Alexander, History of Later Years, 11.
75. Lorrin Thurston, Sanford Dole, Sereno Bishop, Nathaniel Emerson, W. E. Rowell, and William Castle formed the Hawaiian League, which eventually had over four hundred Honolulu members. The group organized a mass public meeting of Honolulu residents that passed resolutions demanding the king sign a new constitution under threat of force. See MacLennan, Sovereign Sugar, 235; Osorio, Dismembering Lāhui, 235–38. For a partial list of attendees—including former Punahou teachers and students—at the June 30, 1887, mass meeting, see Hewett, A Sketch of Recent Events. See also Oahu College Directory.
76. Joseph Emerson, in Annual Report (1898), 51.
77. Kuykendall, Hawaiian Kingdom, 3:581; W. Alexander, History of Later Years, 28.
78. Whitehead, “Noncontiguous Wests,” 326.
79. Menton, “‘Everything That Is Lovely,’” 232–33.
80. Hiram Bingham Jr, in Annual Report (1857), 20.
81. Samuel Damon, in Annual Report (1886), 29.
82. Kashti, Boarding Schools, 79.
83. William D. Alexander, correspondence, January 6, 1851, HMCS.
84. James Alexander, correspondence, October 12, 1859, HMCS.
85. Robert Andrews, correspondence, April 6, 1852, HMCS.
86. Armstrong made this analysis shortly before his death in May 1893 in Ludlow, “Personal Memories and Letters,” 1396–97.
87. Arguments regarding the colonial aspects of Armstrong’s educational ideology include J. Anderson, “Northern Foundations,” 307; Okihiro, Island World, 129–30; Watkins, White Architects, 60.
88. Armstrong, Lessons from the Hawaiian Islands, 213.
89. Menton, “‘Everything That Is Lovely,’” 229–33.
90. Menton, “Christian And ‘Civilized’ Education,” 239–40.
91. On Hawaiian caretakers, see B. Smith, Yankees in Paradise, 225–27.
1. Wright, Real Mother Goose, 3.
2. Holy Bible, New International Version.
3. For an excellent discussion on early U.S. immigration, see Gabaccia, Foreign Relations.
4. Kramer, “Is the World Our Campus?,” 782.
5. See Dwight, Memoirs of Henry Obookiah. An excellent analysis on the impact of Henry Obookiah can be found in Okihiro, Island World. On the legal status of children in nineteenth-century America, see Brewer, By Birth or Consent.
6. Dwight, Memoirs of Henry Obookiah, 18–19.
7. Dwight, Memoirs of Henry Obookiah, 60.
8. Andrew, Rebuilding the Christian Commonwealth, 98–102.
9. Mercy Whitney, letters to children, August 18, 1834, and October 18, 1841, HMCS.
10. Missionary daughter quoted in Grimshaw, Paths of Duty, 133–34.
11. M. Alexander and Dodge, Punahou, 15–16; Zwiep, Pilgrim Path, 247. Brewer discusses nineteenth-century apprenticeships in By Birth or Consent, 277–78.
12. Creighton, Rites and Passages, 23; Yokota, Unbecoming British, 149–50; Zwiep, Pilgrim Path, 247.
13. Warren Chamberlain, personal papers, circa 1909–1910, HMCS.
14. M. Alexander and Dodge, Punahou, 14.
15. Dwight, Memoirs of Henry Obookiah, 14–16; Vickers, Young Men, 191, 238–39.
16. Linnekin, Children of the Land, 61–64; Menton, “‘Everything That Is Lovely,’” 190–91; M. Alexander and Dodge, Punahou, 13.
17. Bird, Six Months, 191–92.
18. Mercy Whitney, letters to children, August 18, 1834, and October 18, 1841, HMCS.
19. Through a strange amendment added to U.S. naturalization law in 1802, children born overseas to fathers who had been born after the date of the amendment, April 14, 1802, were excluded from birthright citizenship. The law was amended in 1855 to correct what was perceived as the unintended consequences of the amendment and to allow citizenship to children born overseas to citizen fathers. See McFarland, “Derivative Citizenship,” 467–510; Binney, Alienigenae of the United States, 5.
20. Brewer, By Birth or Consent, 266.
21. American Board, “Report of the American Board,” 334–36.
22. Rufus Anderson, September 5, 1834, Preliminary series (ABC 2.01), ABCFMA.
23. R. Anderson, September 5, 1834 (ABC 2.01), ABCFMA.
24. Gabaccia, Foreign Relations, 57–65.
25. James Chamberlain, correspondence, March 27, 1856, HMCS.
26. Warren Chamberlain, correspondence, January 19, 1846, and July 17, 1848, HMCS.
27. Grimshaw, Paths of Duty, 134.
28. Sophia Bingham, correspondence, May 31, 1831, HMCS.
29. Warren Chamberlain, correspondence, March 5, 1846, HMCS.
30. Martha Chamberlain, correspondence, November 30, 1850, HMCS.
31. Warren Chamberlain, correspondence, July 17, 1848, HMCS.
32. Mercy Whitney, letters to children, February 23, 1846, HMCS.
33. Mercy Whitney, correspondence, August 14, 1847, HMCS.
34. Cochran Forbes, correspondence, March 9, 1849, HMCS.
35. Lucy Thurston quoted in Cummings, Missionary’s Daughter, 181.
36. Jerusha Babcock, March 14, 1844, Alumnae Biographical Files, Archives and Special Collections, Mount Holyoke College, South Hadley MA (hereafter cited as MHC).
37. Wight, Memoirs of Elizabeth Kinau, 170.
38. Ephraim Clark, May 10, 1849, Hawaiian Islands Mission (ABC 19.1), ABCFMA.
39. Abner Wilcox quoted in Damon, Letters from the Life, 355–56.
40. Samuel Alexander quoted in M. Alexander and Dodge, Punahou, 211.
41. John Gulick, memoir manuscript, circa 1912, HMCS.
42. Fanny Gulick quoted in J. Gulick and A. Gulick, Evolutionist and Missionary, 37.
43. Whitehead, “Noncontiguous Wests,” 325.
44. Peter Gulick quoted in O. Gulick and A. Gulick, Pilgrims of Hawaii, 193–94.
45. Lucy G. Thurston, Life and Times, 180.
46. James Chamberlain, correspondence, February 15, 1856, HMCS.
47. Evarts Chamberlain, correspondence, April 1845, HMCS; John Gulick, correspondence, April 4, 1854, HMCS.
48. James Chamberlain, correspondence, January 1, 1898, HMCS.
49. The importance missionaries placed on obtaining a college education can be seen in their chartering of Punahou School as a college in 1853. Even after this noteworthy goal, many missionary parents preferred a U.S. college education. In 1878, for example, ninety-seven mission descendants were studying in the islands, and eighty-seven were in the United States. See Annual Report (1879), 6.
50. Yokota, Unbecoming British, 219.
51. Yokota, Unbecoming British, 224, 238.
52. Gabaccia, Foreign Relations, 138.
53. On U.S. legal restrictions toward native Hawaiians, see Barman, “Whatever Happened to the Kanakas,” 12–20; Koppel, Kanaka, 62.
54. Editorial, Punahou Gazette and Critic, October 25, 1849–May 3, 1850 (Box 3), CL.
55. Lucy Thurston quoted in Cummings, Missionary’s Daughter, 169–70, 199.
56. New York Observer quoted in M. Alexander and Dodge, Punahou, 171.
57. Ludlow, “Personal Memories and Letters,” 114.
58. On Mark Hopkins and Williams College, see Marsden, Evangelical Mind, 15; Hopkins, Discourse Delivered at Williamstown, 5; Durfee, History of Williams College, 244.
59. James Alexander, correspondence, September 30, 1854, HMCS.
60. Ludlow, “Personal Memories and Letters,” 126.
61. James Alexander, correspondence, February 11, 1855, HMCS.
62. Mark Hopkins quoted in Harris, Nothing but Christ, 156.
63. Harris, Nothing but Christ, 156.
64. Ludlow, “Personal Memories and Letters,” 96.
65. Mary Lyon Collection, Mary Lyon, Circular 7, 1837, MHC.
66. Mary Lyon, Circular 1, June 15, 1845, MHC.
67. Harris, Nothing but Christ, 33.
68. Lyon, Missionary Offering, 14–16.
69. Annual Report (1853), 8–9.
70. Lyon, Circular 7, 1837, MHC.
71. Martha Chamberlain, correspondence, December 18, 1850, and February 20, 1851, HMCS.
72. Records of Contributions Supporting Missionary Work, circa 1841–1902, Missionaries Collection, MHC.
73. Jerusha Babcock letter, March 14, 1844, Alumnae Biographical Files, circa 1831–present, MHC.
74. Scott, “Ever-Widening Circle,” 153.
75. Many marriages of early ABCFM missionaries started as a means to achieving missionary status because the ABCFM initially required its missionaries to be married. See Grimshaw, Paths of Duty, 6–7.
76. Ann Eliza Clark, “Around Cape Horn in 1850,” October 1929, Alumnae Biographical Files, MHC.
77. Lyon, Missionary Offering, 248–49.
78. Martha Chamberlain, correspondence, December 23, 1851, HMCS.
79. Sanford Dole, correspondence, July 1867, HMCS.
80. In the 1950s sociologists John and Ruth Hill Useem developed the concept of “third culture” in order to describe children born into a culture different from their parents’ place of origin. Because those children often displayed an understanding of global events but also a tendency to suffer insecurity and dissatisfaction, the Useems explained this displacement as an “interstitial” culture, a “culture between cultures.” See Pollock and Van Reken, Third Culture Kids, 20–21.
81. Editorial, Punahou Gazette and Critic, October 25, 1849–May 3, 1850 (Box 3), CL.
82. Gerrit Judd, correspondence, September 5, 1844, Hawaiian Islands Mission (ABC 19.1), ABCFMA.
83. For missionary children’s discontent, see, for example, James Chamberlain, correspondence, September 6, 1861, HMCS.
84. William Andrews, correspondence, June 15, 1861, October 22, 1865, and May 30, 1866, HMCS.
85. Evarts Chamberlain, correspondence, January 12, 1849, HMCS.
86. Martha Chamberlain, correspondence, December 18, 1850, HMCS.
87. Armstrong writing in 1881 in Ludlow, “Personal Memories and Letters,” 865.
88. O. Emerson, Pioneer Days in Hawaii, 91–92.
89. James Chamberlain, correspondence, July 1875, HMCS.
90. William Dewitt Alexander, correspondence, circa 1856 and 1857, HMCS.
91. James Alexander, correspondence, October 12, 1859, HMCS.
92. Mary Jane Alexander, correspondence, October 8, 186-, HMCS.
93. James Alexander, correspondence, October 31, 1860, HMCS.
94. Evarts Chamberlain, correspondence, October 13, HMCS.
95. Lyman, Hawaiian Yesterdays, 242.
96. James Alexander called those white islanders still in the United States “few.” He also said they looked “worn and wrinkled.” Alexander contrasted their “decay” to the “growth” those able to return to the Hawaiian Islands would experience once there. See Alexander, correspondence, October 12, 1859, HMCS. For correspondence from adult missionary children in the United States to peers in the Hawaiian Islands, see Annual Report (1875), 10, and Annual Report (1885), 16.
97. Greven, Protestant Temperament, 110, 117.
98. Rebecca Forbes, in Annual Report (1862), 11.
99. The Annual Report published detailed updates on missionary children serving in the Civil War. See, for example, the “Report of the Corresponding Secretary” in the Annual Report (1862, 1863, 1864, and 1865).
100. George Dole, correspondence, October 7, 1864, HMCS.
101. Armstrong cited his parents, the Hawaiian Islands, and the U.S. Civil War as the three greatest influences upon his life. See Ludlow, “Personal Memories and Letters,” 1407.
102. Mary Jane Alexander, correspondence, October 8, 186-, HMCS.
103. Samuel Alexander, in Annual Report (1861), 11.
104. See Mary Andrews, correspondence, Annual Report (1864), 10.
105. Newcomb, How to Be a Man, 117–18.
106. Examples of Western-educated nationalists include Sun Yat-sen, Kwame Nkrumah, Sayyid Qutb, and Isoroku Yamamoto. The limits of American acculturation are discussed in Kramer, “Is the World Our Campus?” Gabaccia explores the influence Sun Yat-sen—who received his education in the Hawaiian Islands—had upon China in Foreign Relations. See also Bird, Six Months, 121, 172.
107. Bird, Six Months, 166.
108. Henry Whitney, March 5, 1857, quoted in Silva, Aloha Betrayed, 80.
109. Sereno Bishop, scrapbook, November 24, 1896, and January 21, 1898, HMCS.
110. Gabaccia describes “immigrant foreign relations” as those ways in which immigrants influence foreign policy. See Gabaccia, Foreign Relations, 1.
111. Sanford Ballard Dole quoted in Allen, Sanford Ballard Dole, 19–20.
112. Daniel Dole, correspondence, July 1844, Hawaiian Islands Mission (ABC 19.1), ABCFMA.
113. Oahu College Directory.
114. S. Dole quoted in Allen, Sanford Ballard Dole, 40.
115. S. Dole quoted in Damon, Sanford Ballard Dole, 2.
116. S. Dole quoted in Allen, Sanford Ballard Dole, 40, 55.
117. Sanford Dole, correspondence, November 29, 1867, HMCS.
118. Penal Code of the Hawaiian Islands.
119. Punch Bowl, July 1869, HMCS.
120. Allen, Sanford Ballard Dole, 137.
121. S. Dole, “Systems of Immigration and Settlement.”
122. W. Alexander, Brief History of Land Titles.
123. W. Alexander, Brief History of the Hawaiian People, 347.
124. S. Dole, “Evolution of Hawaiian Land Tenures,” 12, 18.
125. S. Dole, “Hawaii before the World,” 169–70.
126. Dole, Memoirs of the Hawaiian Revolution, 45.
127. Lorrin A. Thurston, introduction to Dole, Memoirs of the Hawaiian Revolution, ix–x.
128. S. Dole quoted in Allen, Sanford Ballard Dole, 245.
129. On the Bayonet Constitution, see Dole, Memoirs of the Hawaiian Revolution, 72–73; W. Alexander, History of Later Years, 47, 57–58; Osorio, Dismembering Lāhui, 241.
130. Zakaria, From Wealth to Power, 106–27.
131. S. Dole, Memoirs of the Hawaiian Revolution, 122–23.
132. Sanford B. Dole to John William Burgess, March 31, 1894, John William Burgess Papers, [ca. 1873]–1930, Rare Book and Manuscript Library, Butler Library, Columbia University, New York.
133. On Dole’s participation in drafting the new republican constitution, see S. Dole to Burgess, March 26, 1894, Burgess Papers, Columbia University; Castle, “Advice for Hawaii,” 28–29; S. Dole, Memoirs of the Hawaiian Revolution, 164–68; Allen, Sanford Ballard Dole, 211. See also Stratton, Education for Empire, 87, 94–95.
134. Allen, Sanford Ballard Dole, 223.
135. Zakaria, From Wealth to Power, 106–27.
136. Punch Bowl, March 1870, HMCS.
137. S. Dole to Burgess, March 31, 1894, Burgess Papers, Columbia University.
138. S. Dole, Memoirs of the Hawaiian Revolution, 113.
139. S. Dole, Memoirs of the Hawaiian Revolution, 76–77.
140. Queen Lili‘uokalani quoted in Silva, Aloha Betrayed, 170.
141. Jones and Osgood, From King Cane, 39. See also MacLennan, Sovereign Sugar, 45, 235.
142. Eating caused Bishop extreme pain. Some believe she may have had a severe spine curvature. See Zweip, Pilgrim Path, 238; Bishop, Reminiscences of Old Hawaii.
143. Daws, Shoal of Time, 273–74.
144. Putney, Missionaries in Hawai‘i, 110.
1. Wright, Real Mother Goose, 43.
2. Sam Wilcox quoted in Damon, Letters from the Life, 276.
3. Newcomb, How to Be a Man, 116–17. Punahou teacher Marcia Smith gave Newcomb’s popular How to Be a Man to graduating students, advising, “It will greatly increase your ability to do good and give you power over other minds.”
4. See M. Alexander and Dodge, Punahou, 165.
5. For citation, probable intent and impact of the law, and the U.S. Supreme Court’s 1898 interpretation, see McFarland, “Derivative Citizenship,” 467–510.
6. Binney, Alienigenae of the United States, 5.
7. Osorio, Dismembering Lāhui, 57–63.
8. Wight, Memoirs of Elizabeth Kinau Wilder, 55.
9. James Chamberlain, correspondence, November 25, 1875, HMCS.
10. Missionary son Warren Chamberlain discussed the views of most missionary parents regarding the Hawaiian oath of allegiance in Warren Chamberlain, correspondence, October 17, 1849, HMCS.
11. Sanford Dole, correspondence, November 29, 1862, HMCS.
12. Ludlow, “Personal Memories and Letters,” 480–81.
13. Statute Laws, 76, 125–26; Forbes et al., Act to Prohibit Hawaiians.
14. “Early Missionaries,” 350.
15. The number of missionary children who spoke Hawaiian despite their parents’ wishes is noted in O. Gulick and A. Gulick, Pilgrims of Hawaii, 52. Recent studies suggest newborns cry in the language their mothers speak and prefer the language and voices they have heard in the weeks before birth. See Kaplan, “Babies Are Found to Cry in Their Mother’s Tongue,” 16. Infants can also differentiate between languages by five months old. See Feldman, Development across the Life Span, 143.
16. Damon, Letters from the Life, 102, 261.
17. Henry Parker, “Old Mission School Home,” 294–95.
18. Sarah Coan, in Annual Report (1875), 10.
19. George Dole, correspondence, October 7, 1864, HMCS.
20. Cummings, Missionary’s Daughter, 189. Jennifer Kashay first brought Lucy Thurston’s short life to my attention in Kashay, “Problems in Paradise,” 81–94.
21. J. Gulick and A. Gulick, Evolutionist and Missionary, 54.
22. Hiram Bingham Jr., in Annual Report (1873), 23.
23. M. Alexander and Dodge, Punahou, 16.
24. The relationship between language and cognitive thinking is discussed in Boroditsky, “Lost in Translation.”
25. Linnekin, Children of the Land, xiii.
26. O. Emerson, Pioneer Days in Hawaii, 246.
27. Bird, Six Months, 190–91.
28. J. Gulick and A. Gulick, Evolutionist and Missionary, 142, 298.
29. Sam Wilcox quoted in Damon, Letters from the Life, 276.
30. Contemporary missionary methodology utilizes Lev Vygotsky, a Russian psychologist who studied the relationship between community, culture, and education. See Shaw, “Beyond Contextualization.”
31. Sereno Bishop, scrapbook, May 4, 189, and August 1900, HMCS.
32. Dotts and Sikkema, Challenging the Status Quo, 20–23.
33. O. Gulick and A. Gulick, Pilgrims of Hawaii, 323–24.
34. M. Alexander and Dodge, Punahou, 276.
35. Rufus Anderson, in Annual Report (1863), 40.
36. Act 51, Section 30, Laws of the Republic of Hawaii, 189.
37. Lyman, Hawaiian Yesterdays, 232.
38. Allen, Sanford Ballard Dole, 277.
39. J. Gulick and A. Gulick, Evolutionist and Missionary, 151.
40. On national identity and childhood, see Barrett, “Children’s Understanding,” 279. Developmental researchers have noted that “children can show preference behavior for some national groups long before they develop any knowledge of these groups.” See Coco, Inguglia, and Pace, “Children’s Understanding of Ethnic Belonging,” 244.
41. George Dole, correspondence, October 7, 1864, HMCS.
42. Annual Report (1857), 9.
43. William Andrews, correspondence, May 30, 1866, HMCS.
44. James Alexander, correspondence, October 31, 1860, and October 12, 1859, HMCS.
45. Dexter Chamberlain, correspondence and papers, circa 1880–1881, HMCS.
46. D. Dole, Monitor.
47. William Andrews, correspondence, October 22, 1865, HMCS.
48. Mary Castle quoted in Grimshaw, Paths of Duty, 189–90.
49. James Chamberlain, correspondence, August 3, 1863, and November 28, 1859, HMCS.
50. Robert Andrews, correspondence, September 30, 1852, HMCS.
51. Joseph Cooke, in Annual Report (1868), 17.
52. For histories of the Hawaiian Mission Children’s Society, see Annual Report (1853, 1880, 1882, 1883).
53. James Alexander, correspondence, March 17, 1858, and October 12, 1859, HMCS.
54. Rufus Anderson, in Annual Report (1882), 40.
55. Gibson, Yankees in Paradise, 274–75; Ludlow, “Personal Memories and Letters,” 120.
56. Martha Chamberlain, correspondence, December 23, 1851, HMCS.
57. Clara Bingham quoted in Pratt, Story of Mid-Pacific Institute, 6.
58. Pratt, Story of Mid-Pacific Institute, 13–15.
59. Hiram Bingham, correspondence, May 19, 1857, HMCS.
60. One of the most telling arguments against missionary service is found in president William Smith’s address to fellow Hawaiian Mission Children’s Society members in 1882. His remarks are reprinted in the Annual Report (1882), 35–44.
61. William Smith, in Annual Report (1882), 35–44.
62. John Gulick describes meeting his friend Nevins Armstrong at Andover in 1854 in J. Gulick and A. Gulick, Evolutionist and Missionary, 141–42.
63. Krauss and Alexander, Grove Farm Plantation, 100.
64. According to the 1853 HMCS report, “twenty-two of eighty-six mission children over the age of twelve did not profess the Christian faith.” See Annual Report (1853), 9. In 1846 the ABCFM assumed that twelve of twenty-eight older mission children in the United States had no profession of the Christian faith. See American Board, “Report of the American Board.”
65. Bingham, Residence of Twenty-One Years, 369.
66. Judd, Honolulu, 105.
67. Bradley, American Frontier in Hawaii, 346–47; R. Anderson, Sandwich Islands Mission, 168.
68. Gibson, Yankees in Paradise, 295.
69. American Tract Society’s Tract Primer inscribed to Richard Baxter Armstrong, correspondence and papers, 1849, HMCS.
70. Children’s Picture Book, Children of the Mission Collection, n.d., HMCS.
71. Andrew, Rebuilding the Christian Commonwealth, 121.
72. Cummings, Missionary’s Daughter, 193–209.
73. Andrew, Rebuilding the Christian Commonwealth, 98–102.
74. ABCFM mission societies and missionary Hiram Bingham are quoted in Andrew, Rebuilding the Christian Commonwealth, 144–45, 162.
75. Bingham, Story of the Morning Stars, 23–24, 75–76, 95–97; American Board of Commissioners for Foreign Missions, The Morning Star at Honolulu; Schwartz, “Resounding the Gospel.”
76. Lili‘uokalani quoted in Kame‘eleihiwa, Native Land, 315.
77. Noenoe K. Silva writes that the haole were motivated by a belief in their own superiority and created an oligarchy of “haole planters and businessmen.” See Silva, Aloha Betrayed, 125–26. In reference to missionary son and 1887 Hawaiian League member William Castle, who claimed his status as a Hawaiian, Osorio writes, “For haole to claim that they were also Hawaiian was another very significant appropriation of what had once been an exclusively Native possession.” See Osorio, Dismembering Lāhui, 237, 290. Andrews, Vocabulary of Words.
78. Armstrong, “Editorial Correspondence,” 17.
79. Malo, Hawaiian Antiquities, 61.
80. Armstrong, “Editorial Correspondence,” 17.
81. Kame‘eleihiwa, Native Land, 2–3.
82. Kapur, “Gender and Memory,” 168–90.
83. My definitions here are taken from Mary Kawena Pukui and Samuel H. Elbert. Kānaka is the plural of kanaka. See Pukui and Elbert, New Pocket Hawaiian Dictionary. Silva discusses the missionary children’s racist discourse in Aloha Betrayed, 90.
84. Editorial, Weekly Star, February 1852–April 1852 (Box 1), CL.
85. Wight, Memoirs of Elizabeth Kinau Wilder, 15.
86. John Gulick quoted in Putney, Missionaries in Hawai‘i, 121.
87. Silva, Aloha Betrayed, 126–27.
88. Statute Laws, 76, 79.
89. Kame‘eleihiwa, Native Land, 11.
90. Ii, Fragments of Hawaiian History, 105.
91. Samuel Kamakau quoted in Kame‘eleihiwa, Native Land, 318.
92. Ii, Fragments of Hawaiian History, 105.
93. Wight, Memoirs of Elizabeth Kinau Wilder, 7–8, 72.
94. Ludlow, “Personal Memories and Letters,” 44.
95. Henry Lyman on being appointed a government surveyor in Lyman, Hawaiian Yesterdays, 219.
96. George Dole, in Annual Report (1876), 31.
97. S. Dole, Memoirs of the Hawaiian Revolution, 76–77.
98. O. Gulick and A. Gulick, Pilgrims of Hawaii, 309–11.
99. The most profound debates over the future of the Hawaiian people occur in the missionary children’s writings at Punahou during the 1840s and 1850s. See the Punahou Gazette and Critic, September 7, 1848–August 13, 1851 (Box 1–5), and Weekly Star, February 25, 1852–February 16, 1853 (Box 1–3), CL. Missionary son William Dewitt Alexander chronicles the road to revolution from a missionary-descendant perspective in Alexander, Brief History of the Hawaiian People and Alexander, History of Later Years. Noenoe K. Silva provides valuable insight into the native revival of traditional cultural and political practices in Aloha Betrayed.
100. Whitehead, “Noncontiguous Wests,” 326.
101. Thurston, Hand-book on the Annexation.
1. Milton, Paradise Regain’d, Book 4, 220–21.
2. Punch Bowl, December 1869, Children of the Mission Collection, HMCS.
3. Kamakau, Ruling Chiefs of Hawaii, 377.
4. The Student Volunteer Movement for Foreign Missions (SVM) was formed in 1886 to recruit college students for Protestant missionary work. By the First World War the SVM had sent over 5,800 American missionaries around the world. The organization’s agenda was to see “the evangelization of the world in this generation.” See Student Volunteer Movement.
5. Sereno Bishop, in Annual Report (1872), 19. For a discussion on manliness and civilization in late nineteenth-century American culture, see Bederman, Manliness & Civilization.
6. Sanford Dole quoted in Allen, Sanford Ballard Dole, 68.
7. Watkins, White Architects, 60. More recent discussions of Armstrong as southern colonizer include Fear-Segal, White Man’s Club.
8. Armstrong, Lessons from the Hawaiian Islands, 213.
9. Armstrong, Lessons from the Hawaiian Islands, 219.
10. Ludlow, “Personal Memories and Letters,” 916–17.
11. Armstrong, Lessons from the Hawaiian Islands.
12. Armstrong, “Editorial Correspondence,” 17.
13. Ludlow, “Personal Memories and Letters,” 488.
14. Ludlow, “Personal Memories and Letters,” 125, 141–42.
15. Ludlow, “Personal Memories and Letters,” 28, 228, 283.
16. Ludlow, “Personal Memories and Letters,” 193, 294.
17. Ludlow, “Personal Memories and Letters,” 351–52, 499.
18. Ludlow, “Personal Memories and Letters,” 480–81.
19. Ludlow, “Personal Memories and Letters,” 753.
20. Samuel Armstrong quoted in M. Alexander and Dodge, Punahou, 314–15.
21. Ludlow, “Personal Memories and Letters,” 1407.
22. Beyer, “Connection of Samuel Chapman Armstrong,” 43.
23. Engs, Educating the Disfranchised, 135.
24. In his last report to Hampton Trustees, Armstrong wrote, “No one who has taught them doubts the capacity of the Negroes for higher education. . . . There was and is no need of the higher education here when every northern college is, open to the capable earnest colored student.” See Ludlow, “Personal Memories and Letters,” 1398. Andrew Carnegie quoted in J. Anderson, “Northern Foundations,” 293.
25. J. Anderson, “Northern Foundations,” 307.
26. George Carter quoted in Stratton, Education for Empire, 106.
27. Stratton, Education for Empire, 96–97, 105–7.
28. Okihiro, Island World, 129; Nelson, “Tradition of Non-Violence,” 121–36.
29. Mohandas Gandhi quoted in Gandhi, Collected Works, vol. 39 (June 4, 1927–September 1, 1927), 333, and vol. 46 (May 12, 1929–August 31, 1929), 257–58.
30. Mohandas Gandhi quoted in Gandhi, Collected Works, vol. 72 (July 6, 1937–February 20, 1938), 361–62, and vol. 61 (April 27, 1933–October 7, 1933), 287–88.
31. For Puritan New Englanders’ views of land use, see, for example, Drinnon, Facing West. For a discussion on early Jeffersonian Democrats, see Hietala, Manifest Design.
32. Ludlow, “Personal Memories and Letters,” 628–29.
33. Sanford Ballard Dole quoted in Allen, Sanford Ballard Dole, 66, 73, 276. Allen, too, notes Dole’s ambivalence toward cultural difference.
34. Allen, Sanford Ballard Dole, 158–67, 215, 279–90.
35. J. Gulick and A. Gulick, Evolutionist and Missionary, 151.
36. John Gulick, correspondence, April 4 and June 5, 1854, HMCS.
37. J. Gulick and A. Gulick, Evolutionist and Missionary, 152.
38. J. Gulick and A. Gulick, Evolutionist and Missionary, 161.
39. John Gulick, 1880 notes, HMCS.
40. Graham, Gender, Culture, and Christianity.
41. Porterfield, Mary Lyon, 21.
42. Sun Yat-sen married Song Qingling, and Chiang Kai-shek married her younger sister, Song Meiling. The Song family was a prominent Chinese Christian family who were educated in the United States and closely associated with the American missionary community in China. See Bergère, Sun Yat-Sen, 25, 250–51. See also Spence, Search for Modern China, 385–86. On the volatile U.S. relationship with Chiang Kai-shek, see Westad, Decisive Encounters. For the complicated U.S. relationship with Ngo Dinh Diem, see S. Jacobs, America’s Miracle Man.
43. J. Gulick and A. Gulick, Evolutionist and Missionary, 365–66.
44. John Gulick, memoir manuscript, circa 1912, HMCS.
45. J. Gulick and A. Gulick, Evolutionist and Missionary, 358.
46. Mason, “Missionary Conscience,” 10, 393.
47. The Hawaiian Mission Children’s Society printed its occupational findings in Annual Report (1879), 6.
48. William Smith, in Annual Report (1882), 43.
49. On the psychological impact of Protestant parenting, see Greven, Protestant Temperament.
50. The London Missionary Society efforts in Tahiti were derailed, in part, due to the British missionaries’ inability to control their own children. The missionaries gave up their post after numerous problems, including their inability to segregate and educate their children. See Latourette, Great Century; Gunson, Messengers of Grace.
51. Rufus Anderson, correspondence, July 14, 1851, Foreign Letters (ABC 2.1.1), ABCFMA.
52. Lyman, Hawaiian Yesterdays, 205.
53. For an excellent introduction to decolonization theory, see Le Sueur, Decolonization Reader.
54. Hunt describes the Congolese birthing practice of throwing hot water onto mothers who have just delivered babies, a conflation of Western medical practice and Christian missionary cleanliness in the absence of Western medicines. See N. Hunt, Colonial Lexicon.
55. Mercy Whitney, correspondence, April 18, 1850, HMCS.
56. James Chamberlain, correspondence, August 3, 1863, HMCS.
57. Robert Andrews, correspondence, December 24, 1878, HMCS.
58. Newcomb, How to Be a Lady, 10–11.
59. Gopnik, Philosophical Baby, 12–14.
60. Menton, “‘Everything That Is Lovely,’” 201–2.
61. O. Emerson, Pioneer Days in Hawaii, 169.