African Americans: assemblies of, 38; attacks on, 32–33; black codes, 34; blamed for Klan violence, 143; and child apprenticeship, 43–45, 48, 50, 92, 93, 196 (n. 41), 213 (nn. 7, 9); at constitutional convention (1868), 106; convention of (1865), 33–34; convention of (1866), 50; disfranchisement, 181; and education, 47, 50–51, 101–3, 154–55; efforts to codify freedom, 33–34; employment in tourism and service jobs, 179–80; exodus of, 29–30; experiences of Reconstruction, 3; and family, 47–48, 92, 96; hopes of, 89; ideas of freedom, 47, 191 (n. 2); lack of relief for poor, 43–44; loyalties of, 28, 31, 53; marriages of under slavery, 47–48; nominated for school committee, 154; opportunities for, 28–29; political organization of, 50; political participation by, 55, 73, 112, 183, 219 (n. 54); population of in western North Carolina, 5; religious services, 35; in Republican Party, 73, 90, 98, 112; in Republican strategy, 153–55; soldiers, 31–33, 192 (n. 10); testimony of, 34, 94–95; in tobacco industry, 170–71, 236 (n. 50); and transition to free labor, 37–47; and unpaid wages, 91; violence against, 51–52, 120–22 (see also Ku Klux Klan); voting, 125, 181; whites’ view of postwar role of, 65; women, 48–49, 213 (n. 9). See also Emancipation; Freedmen’s Bureau; Freedom; Freedpeople; Slavery; Slaves, in western North Carolina
Agriculture, 164–73. See also Farmers; Tobacco
Alabama, 130
Alcohol, 104–5, 108–10, 127, 131, 188 (n. 6), 217 (n. 35). See also Whiskey: tax
Andrews, Alexander Boyd, 177
Animals, ownership of, 209 (n. 69)
Anti-Confederates, 55, 57, 205 (n. 45); attempts to organize, 89; at constitutional convention, 63, 69–70; in 1865 elections, 64–66; in 1866 elections, 70–71; embrace of Reconstruction, 55–56; loss of support of moderates, 71; need for Unionists’ support, 62; treatment of, 67–69
Appalachia, Southern: guerrilla war in, 2, 3; images of, 1, 118, 228–29 (n. 68); as mirror for America, 6; neglect of by Reconstruction scholars, 199 (n. 4); white settlement of, 10, 12
Apprenticeship, child, 43–45, 48, 50, 92, 93, 196 (n. 41), 213 (nn. 7, 9)
Asheville, N.C.: during Civil War, 24–25; friction with surrounding counties, 151; increased prominence of, 169, 171–72, 173–74, 179; and railroad, 155–56, 175–77; in southern economy, 169
Avery, Alphonso C., 145
Bell, John, 16
Bender, Thomas, 5
Best, William J., 176–77
Black codes, 34
Boosterism, of western North Carolina, 150–51, 166–67, 168, 169, 171–72, 174, 179, 235 (nn. 39, 40, 41), 236 (n. 46)
Breckinridge, John C., 16
Bryan, John Quincy Adams, 20
Bryson, A. S., 234 (n. 31)
Chur, Jacob, 113–14
Church, William, 60–61
Cilley, Clinton A., 42, 44–45, 91, 104, 195 (n. 39), 213 (n. 9)
Civil rights policy, 5
Civil War: Conscription Act, 19, 202 (n. 22); diversity of responses to, 3–4; effects of on western North Carolina, 10, 24–25, 54; federal presence in western North Carolina during, 22–25; guerrilla war during, 2, 3, 19, 20–21, 189 (n. 22); and introduction of northerners to Southern Appalachia, 179; lower-class whites’ resentment of, 62; taxation during, 25; treatment of civilians during, 23–25; western North Carolina loyalties during, 18–19
Class: in boosterism, 172; before Civil War, 12–13; and loyalties, 5; and reform movements, 173; and resentment of Civil War, 62; and service in militia, 134; tensions in late antebellum period, 15. See also Slave owners
Clingman, Thomas Lanier, 16–17
Cloud, J. M., 97
Coffey, Austin, 200 (n. 12)
Coleman, David, 78–79, 81–85, 87, 94–95, 209 (n. 68), 210 (n. 81)
Collett, W. A., 154
Colonization, by freedpeople, 65
Confederates, consistent, 18
Conservatives: after Civil War, 26–27; and agricultural future, 166; attempt to prevent constitutional convention, 63; blamed for war, 65; during Civil War, 56; concerns about extended suffrage, 98; connection of racial and class rhetoric, 127–28; and constitutional convention (1875), 159–60; control of governorship, 166; control of state legislature, 135; desire to restore antebellum status quo, 200 (n. 7); and distillation, 109, 127, 158–59; divisions within, 145–46; efforts to intimidate Republicans, 124–26; in 1865 elections, 65–66, 204 (n. 33); in 1868 elections, 110, 124–26; in 1870 elections, 135–36; in 1876 elections, 160; impeachment of Holden, 137–38; and Klan, 111, 118–19, 122–23, 137, 148; and local control, 98, 150; loyalties of, 61, 66, 70; militia unit, 205 (n. 41); name of, 187 (n. 8); opposition to Fourteenth Amendment, 72; oppression of opponents, 94–95; organizations of, 68, 69; and political order, 84; principles of, 135; and race, 111–12, 118, 124, 126–27; reaffirmation of Unionist credentials, 61; recapture of power, 118–19, 120, 148; resurgence of, 67; return to Whiggish roots, 56; rise of, 19–20; shift in approach to opponents, 119; shift to politics of white supremacy, 107–8; and stability of region, 166; views of Red Strings, 69; and voter registration, 98; and whiskey tax, 123; in Wilkesboro riots, 74–75
Constitution, state: 1871 vote for convention, 145, 147; proposed, 205 (nn. 42, 44); proposed changes to, 106–8; referendum on, 110; vote on, 70. See also specific constitutional convention entries
Constitutional convention (1865), 63–64, 202–3 (n. 26), 203 (n. 27)
Constitutional convention (1867), 98
Constitutional convention (1868), 106
Constitutional convention (1875), 159–60
Constitutional Union Party, 107
Contract labor, 37–47
Cordell, Elisha, 82–83
Council, James W., 60
Courts: and African Americans’ testimony, 34, 94–95; Klan’s control of, 110; monitored by Freedmen’s Bureau, 96–97; treatment of Unionists in, 76–85
Deaver, W. H., 159
Dempsey, Harriet, 81
Destitution, 217 (n. 34)
Dick, Robert, 159
Disfranchisement, 181
Distillation, 104–5, 108–10, 127, 131, 188 (n. 6), 217 (n. 35). See also Whiskey: tax
Douglas, Stephen, 16
Duckworth, John C., 63
Dunaway, Wilma, 12
Duncan, David Robinson, 175
Dupré, Ovide, 162
Durham, Plato, 225–26 (n. 36)
Eastmond, Oscar, 91–92, 93–96, 105, 110, 114, 115–16, 119, 125–26, 159, 215 (nn. 16, 17), 223 (n. 18), 232 (n. 24)
Economic development, 179
Education, 47, 50–51, 101–3, 106–7, 114–17, 154–55, 231 (n. 12)
Eller, Ronald D., 6
Emancipation: African Americans’ reaction to, 197 (n. 52); Harper’s account of, 118; reaction to, 30–33, 34–53, 65; slaves’ return to former owners, 191 (n. 6); and transition to free labor, 37–47; votes for in western North Carolina, 64
Equal Rights Leagues, 50
Ex parte Milligan, 44
Family: and freedom, 47–48, 92, 96; and service in militia, 134–35
Farmers, 11–12, 25–26, 41, 43, 166–67. See also Farming; Tobacco
Farming, 164–73
Federal power: access to, 67; and Freedmen’s Bureau, 42, 108; lack of help from, 147; lack of in 1871, 143; over local affairs, 77; promotion of social and political change by, 178; Republicans’ cooperation with, 119, 120; and success of reconstruction, 182. See also Government, federal
Feuds, 228–29 (n. 68)
Freedmen’s Bureau, 212 (n. 3), 219 (n. 56); access to charitable organizations, 103; assistance to whites, 103–6, 217 (n. 34); and biracial makeup of Republican Party, 115; and child apprenticeship, 43–45, 93, 196 (n. 41), 213 (nn. 7, 9); closure of offices, 113–14; and Congressional Reconstruction, 90; continued need for, 114; difficulties of in western North Carolina, 122; difficulty of staffing, 42, 90–91; and distillation, 108–10; and education for African Americans, 50–51, 101–3, 114–17; efforts to protect Unionists, 93–94; failure to protect African Americans, 122; and federal power, 42, 67, 108; impact of, 212 (n. 4); lack of authority, 109; lack of support for, 45; monitoring of courts, 96–97; motivations of agents, 93; and political landscape in western North Carolina, 92; power of, 90; presence of in western North Carolina, 91; reversal of civil court action by, 95, 215 (n. 16); and transition to free labor, 42–47; views of, 108; and voter registration, 97–98. See also Allison, James F.; Bogle, R. B.; Cilley, Clinton A.; Eastmond, Oscar; Hawley, George; Murphy, Patrick E.; Norton, Hannibal D.; Thompson, William N.
Freedpeople: and colonization, 65; education for, 50–51, 101–3, 114–17; rights of, 44. See also African Americans
Frost, William Goodell, 5
Garren, Alfred, 85–86
Garrett, A. W., 98
Gash, Leander Sams, 34–35, 54, 55, 57, 65, 72, 73, 104, 203–4 (n. 31)
Government, federal: accessibility in western North Carolina, 6; need for flexibility in, 181; power of in mountain communities, 4–5. See also Federal power; Freedmen’s Bureau
Government, local, 182, 233 (n. 5); control of, 11, 12, 98, 150, 173; federal power over, 77; issue of in western North Carolina, 182; made elective, 107; revival of aristocratic order of, 160
Gudger, James J., 78
Guerrilla war, during Civil War, 2, 3, 19, 20–21, 189 (n. 22)
Hagins, Goldman, 98
Hammer, John, 32
Hardin, R. J., 104
Harris, E. A., 42–44
Harris, J. C. L., 180
Hawley, George S., 91, 93, 102, 103, 105, 106, 113, 120–22, 213 (n. 9)
Heath, Thomas, 59
Henry, James L., 224 (n. 26)
Hickerson, Lytle, 38–39
Holden, William W., 67, 119, 204 (nn. 33, 34); on African Americans’ freedom, 33; appointment of magistrates by, 59; Conservatives’ view of, 110; downfall of, 120; efforts against Klan, 130, 132; in 1864 election, 22; in 1865 elections, 65, 66; in 1868 elections, 112; impeachment of, 137–38; influence of, 20; leadership of, 19; peace movement, 56, 57; relationship with Johnson, 218–19 (n. 49); on Republicans in Wilkesboro riots, 75; showdown with Klan, 133; split with Vance, 21–22; on Unionists’ frustrations, 73; and WNCRR’s collapse, 153
Horses, 209 (n. 69)
Indebtedness, 87
Internal improvements, 14–15, 107, 150, 151, 206 (n. 49), 231 (n. 6). See also Railroads
Isbell, James M., 146
Jarvis, Thomas J., 177
Johnston, Thomas, 176
Jones, Alexander H., 57, 62, 63, 66, 70, 72, 78, 92, 94, 124, 126, 136, 202 (n. 22)
Jones, Calvin C., 146–47
Keith, J. A., 21
Ku Klux Klan, 6, 220 (n. 2); African Americans and Republicans blamed for, 143; in Asheville, 222 (n. 11); attack on Lusk, 128–29; attacks on Republicans, 138–42; and Conservatives, 111, 118–19, 122–23, 137, 148; and conspiracy of silence, 140; control of justice system, 110; denial of existence of, 137; and destruction of Republicans, 148; difficulty in prosecuting, 178, 228 (n. 64); efforts to suppress, 132, 133–35, 136; in 1868 elections, 111; emergence of, 110; escalation of violence of, 131, 137; and Holden, 120, 133; impact of, 148; impact on 1871 elections, 145; increased activity of, 121–22, 130; increased appeal of, 120; intimidation by, 140; Justice on, 136–37; justification of violence of, 123, 148; legislation against, 130–31, 132; and need for federal troops, 133; objectives of, 220–21 (n. 5); origins of, 219 (n. 50); presence in piedmont, 130; prosecution of members, 128–29, 140; in Rutherford County, 136, 138–42; targets of, 110–11; violence of, 131, 136, 137; watching of polls, 140
Labor, free: and child apprenticeship, 43–45, 48, 50, 92, 93, 196 (n. 41), 213 (nn. 7, 9); transition to, 37–47; and unpaid wages, 91
Labor agreements, 37–43
Lankford, William, 76–77
Law enforcement, Klan’s control of, 110
Lenoir, Rufus, 30
Lenoir, Sally, 30
Lenoir, Walter W., 37, 40–41, 127–28, 164–67, 234–35 (n. 39), 235 (nn. 40, 41)
Lenoir, William, 41–42
Liberia, 65
Lipps, Martin, 60–61
Littlefield, Milton S., 153
Love, James R., 157
Loyalties: of African Americans, 28, 31, 53; during Civil War, 3, 18–19; of Coleman, 81, 82, 84; and Conservatives, 61, 66–67, 70, 122; evolution of, 5; language of, 61–62; and postwar politics, 55–61; and race, 5; and service in militia, 134–35; of Shipman, 86; and Unionists’ claims for respect, 71. See also Anti-Confederates
Lusk, Virgil S., 128–29, 178, 181–82, 222 (n. 11), 225 (nn. 28, 29), 232 (n. 24)
Mace, Solomon, 79
Marriage: miscegenation, 77; unrecognized under slavery, 47–48
Matthews, Henry, 120–21
McKinney, Gordon B., 18–19
McLean, Sidney, 21
Memminger, Christopher G., 174
Merrill, Ransom P., 77–78
Merrimon, Augustus, 59–60, 71, 94–95, 201 (n. 16), 224–25 (n. 28); on Coleman, 84; in 1872 elections, 146, 147; at Ledford trial, 80–81; on opportunity in western North Carolina, 149; on Red Strings, 69; resignation of, 84–85; vision for future, 149
Mica, 162–63
Military: lack of presence of in western North Carolina, 122; need for, 133, 215 (n. 17); occupation by federal troops, 57–58, 193 (n. 21); power in occupied South, 89; protection of Republicans, 76–87 passim; role of in Reconstruction, 96, 97, 186 (n. 4); sympathy to debtors, 211 (n. 91); withdrawal of, 125
Miller, R. K., 33
Mills, Ladson Arthur, 62–63
Mineral resources, 161–64
Miscegenation, 77
Mississipians, 10
Morganton, N.C., 24
Mountains, in western North Carolina, 9
Mules, 209 (n. 69)
Native Americans, 10
Neutrals, 18
North Carolina: secession controversy in, 16–18; sectional rivalry in, 14, 15
North Carolina, western: African American presence in, 4; counties in, 187 (n. 2); demographic changes in, 26; divisions in, 4, 18–19; effects of Civil War on culture of, 10; images of, 1; in larger regional and national process, 6; mountains in, 9; in New South paradigm, 230 (n. 4); outside influences in, 6; shift to younger leaders in, 230 (n. 5). See also Appalachia, Southern
Paternalism, 111
Patron-client relationships, 186 (n. 4)
Patterson, Rufus L., 64
Phifer, Edward, 13
Politics: African Americans’ role in, 73, 90, 183; in aftermath of Civil War, 26–27; amnesty petitions, 18, 62–63, 202 (n. 24); appointment of magistrates, 59–61; Asheville riot, 125, 223 (n. 18); and Freedmen’s Bureau, 92; and loyalties, 55–61; power in western North Carolina, 84; representation, 15; two-party system, 19; violence in, 73–75, 125, 223 (n. 18), 229 (n. 68); Wilkesboro riots, 73–75, 96–97
—elections: of 1864, 21–22, 26, 27; of 1865, 64–66, 204 (nn. 33, 34); of 1866, 70–71; of 1868, 110, 111–13, 124–26, 222 (n. 15), 223 (nn. 17, 21); of 1870, 135–37; of 1871, 145; of 1872, 145–47; of 1876, 160; presidential (1860), 16; presidential (1868), 124 See also Anti-Confederates; Conservatives; Democrats; Federal power; Government, federal; Republicans; Whigs
Presidential election (1860), 16
Presidential election (1868), 124
Progress, rhetoric of, 151. See also Boosterism, of western North Carolina; Internal improvements; Railroads
Railroads, 14–15, 231 (n. 6), 232 (n. 15); and 1876 elections, 160; benefits of, 160; in eastern Tennessee, 11; effects of, 179; and industrial growth, 180; and integration into economy, 174–75; and interregional rivalries, 157, 174–75; lack of, 11, 163; promotion of, 151; Spartanburg and Asheville Railroad, 174, 175, 176; support for, 157; and tourism, 179–80; Western Division scandal, 152–53; Western North Carolina Railroad (WNCRR), 15, 151–53, 155–57, 158, 159, 174, 176, 177, 180
Reconstruction: as continuation of Civil War, 178; creation of new social order, 182; and dialogue between state authority and local reality, 2; embrace of, 55–56; evolving understandings of, 3; and importance of flexible central government, 181; and intersection of state and social history, 181; legacy of, 183; perceived success of, 113; use of term, 185–86 (n. 2)
Red Strings, 68–69, 89, 205 (n. 39). See also Heroes of America
Registrars, 97–98
Reid, David, 15
Religious services, African Americans’, 35
Republicans, 6, 56; accused of misrule, 149; and African American rights, 50, 207 (n. 55); African Americans in party, 73, 90, 98, 112; alliance with Unionists, 71; backlash against, 178–79; and battle for local control, 98; biracial makeup of, 97, 98, 115, 124; blamed for economy, 120; blamed for violence, 137, 143; at constitutional convention (1868), 106; cooperation with federal power, 119, 120; defining, 187 (n. 8); Democrats’ criticism of, 143–44; dependence on federal aid, 120, 146, 158–59; desire to contain African Americans’ political ambition, 154; and distillation, 127; division between races in, 153–55, 158; divisions within, 146; downfall of, 150, 230 (n. 3); in 1868 elections, 112–13, 124–26; in 1870 elections, 136–37; in 1872 elections, 146; enclave in western North Carolina, 119; failure to fight back, 144, 182; growing presence of, 73; Klan attacks on, 131; Klan threats against, 122; need for legitimacy, 202 (n. 23); organization of, 73; struggles in 1880s, 180–81; struggles to maintain law and order, 136; and taxation, 158–59; and Western Division scandal, 153; in Wilkesboro riots, 73–75; and WNCRR, 158. See also Heroes of America; Red Strings
Revenue stamps, 159
Robinson, James L., 157
Rollins, Pinckney, 155
Sams, A. B., 118–19
Sanitariums, 179–80
Scots-Irish, 10
Sevier, Edward, 87
Shotwell, Randolph A., 129, 142, 148, 178, 224–25 (n. 28), 225 (n. 29)
Slave owners: control of land, 11; control of politics, 12; paternalism of, 29, 30; reaction to emancipation, 30–33; relation with other classes, 12; wealth of, 10, 11, 187 (nn. 2, 8)
Slavery: abolition of, 64 (see also Emancipation); belief in stability of, 22; and definitions of freedom, 191 (n. 2); efforts to keep in place, 38–39; experiences under, 197 (n. 52); in western North Carolina’s decision to unite with Confederacy, 17–18; white support for principle of, 181–82
Slaves, in western North Carolina, 13, 22, 28, 191 (n. 1). See also African Americans; Slavery
Smith, James, 125
Smith, W. A., 159
Soldiers, African American, 31–33, 192 (n. 10); amnesty for wartime actions of, 79, 81, 83; Union, 58–59, 78. See also Unionists
South, subregions in, 2
Stay law, 127
Stephens, John W., 132–33
Strudwick, Frederick N., 137
Tate, Samuel McDowell, 151
Tate, William Caldwell, 32–34
Taxation, 227 (n. 46); in campaign pledges, 135; during Civil War, 25; and divisions among Republicans, 158–59; on slave property, 16–17; supporting education and poor relief, 107; whiskey tax, 108, 110, 120, 123, 127, 158–59
Thomas, M. S., 79
Thomas, William Holland, 18
Tillson, Davis, 31–32
Tourism, 179–80
Tracy, Samuel, 84
Tweed, Walter B., 134
Unionists, 17, 18–19, 57–59, 202 (n. 22); alliance with northern Republicans, 71; conditional, 18–19, 60, 70; consistent, 18; Conservatives’ views of, 66; divisions among, 62; in 1865 elections, 66; and emancipation, 64; embrace of Reconstruction, 55–56; execution of, 20, 21; and Fourteenth Amendment, 71–72; Freedmen’s Bureau’s efforts to protect, 93–94; number of, 190 (n. 40); organizations of, 21–22, 67–69 (see also Heroes of America; Red Strings); treatment of, 20, 21, 23, 67–69, 76–87, 200 (n. 12); Union veterans, 58–59; viewed as radical, 71, 72, 80. See also Republicans
Vance, Zebulon B., 111–12; appeal of, 19, 20; arrest of, 27; on Best’s offer, 176; in 1864 elections, 22; in 1872 elections, 146; election of, 26, 56, 166; race in appeals of, 107, 127; split with Holden, 21–22; and WNCRR, 158
Veteran Reserve Corps, 91
Veterans, Union, 58–59
Voter registration, 97–99
Walton, T. George, 76
Welch, Samuel, 60
Western Division scandal, 152–53
Western North Carolina Railroad (WNCRR), 6, 15, 151–53, 155–57, 158, 159, 174, 176, 177, 180
Whiskey, 104–5, 108–10, 127, 188 (n. 6); tax, 108, 110, 120, 123, 127, 158–59
Whiskey Ring, 123
White supremacy, in Conservatives’ politics, 107–8
WNCRR (Western North Carolina Railroad), 6, 15, 151–53, 155–57, 158, 159, 174, 176, 177, 180
Worth, Jonathan, 65–66, 70, 71, 75–76, 97–98, 99–101, 151, 204 (nn. 33, 34), 205 (n. 45)