Annotations for 1 Kings

1:1—11:43 The United Kingdom of Solomon. The long, colorful reign of David’s son Solomon opens the book’s history of Israel’s kings. Solomon’s reign receives the longest treatment except for David’s (1 Sam 16—2 Sam 24). 1 Kgs 1–11 covers Solomon’s accession (chs. 1–2), wisdom (ch. 3), kingdom (ch. 4), temple (5:1—9:9), other activities (9:10—10:29), and condemnation (ch. 11).

1:1—2:46 Solomon’s Accession. Solomon becomes king with David’s blessing, and David charges him to rule properly. But Solomon’s accession is not without incident: an influential faction supports his half brother, and he must deal with some threats leftover from David’s era to secure his throne.

1:1–14 Adonijah Sets Himself Up as King. Adonijah’s attempt to succeed David precipitates the crisis that quickly ends in Solomon’s accession.

1:1 could not keep warm. Symptomatic of David’s waning life. Heightens the need for him to publicly designate a successor.

1:2 Ancient medical practice provided warmth for the sick by having a healthy person “lie beside” them.

1:3 Shunammite. Shunem was an Issacharite town in the Jezreel Valley near the Hill of Moreh (2 Kgs 4:8; Josh 19:18). For Adonijah’s later play for Abishag, see 2:17, 22.

1:5 Adonijah. David’s oldest surviving son; he behaves like his dead older brother, Absalom. put himself forward. Suggests bragging or outright campaigning, echoing Absalom’s politicking (2 Sam 15:1). God rejects those who appoint themselves as kings without his approval.

1:6 handsome. A trait typical of kings (1 Sam 9:2; 16:12; 2 Sam 14:25).

1:7 Joab. The outspoken army commander with a history of violence (2 Sam 11:16–17; 18:14).

1:8 Benaiah. Joab’s military rival.

1:9 sheep . . . fattened calves. The expensive sacrifice reflects a joyful prince eager for the throne. Stone of Zoheleth. Probably a prominent landmark. En Rogel. “Spring of Rogel,” a water source south of Jerusalem in the Kidron Valley (see note on 2:37). Traditionally, public royal accessions take place near springs (see vv. 33, 38).

1:10 For obvious reasons the guest list excludes the anti-Adonijah faction (vv. 7–8) and Solomon.

1:11 knows nothing about it. Cf. v. 18; a sign that David’s advancing age perhaps limits the king’s involvement in daily matters of state.

1:12 save your own life and the life of your son. Life and death hang in the balance for Bathsheba and Solomon, for a usurper typically tried to liquidate all potential claimants to the throne in an attempt to secure his own position.

1:13 My lord. Shows the king the highest respect (cf. vv. 11, 16–17).

1:15–27 David’s Decision Sought. The scene shifts to David’s private quarters and visits in turn from Bathsheba and Nathan.

1:16 bowed down. Traditional sign of respect, especially before a king (cf. v. 23; 18:7; 2 Sam 14:4).

1:17 Quotes the king’s earlier promise to name Solomon as his successor (cf. v. 30).

1:18 Cf. vv. 7–11.

1:19 not invited Solomon. Implies that Solomon and Adonijah are dangerously at odds.

1:21 treated as criminals. Terrible punishment will befall Bathsheba and Solomon if David fails to announce his choice of Solomon (cf. v. 12).

1:26 A once-united kingdom is at risk of splitting into factions.

1:28–53 David Makes Solomon King. David responds to Bathsheba and Nathan by declaring Solomon to be his successor and ordering his installation as coregent.

1:28 Call in Bathsheba. Implies that David and Nathan had talked alone. Unlike Adonijah, Solomon does nothing to promote himself as king.

1:29 As surely as the LORD lives. The traditional oath formula (cf. 2:24; 17:1; 18:10; 2 Kgs 2:2, 4, 6; 4:30; 5:16, 20). delivered me. Echoes David’s earlier appeal to Yahweh as deliverer (2 Sam 4:9).

1:30 Fulfills David’s earlier promise (cf. v. 17).

1:33 mule. The preferred royal transportation in Israel (2 Sam 13:29; 18:9; Zech 9:9 [“donkey”]); symbolized utility and humility. Gihon. The underground spring south of Jerusalem at the western base of the Kidron Valley; within earshot of En Rogel to its north (cf. vv. 39–41).

1:34 anoint him. Symbolizes Solomon’s divine appointment through a prophet (cf. 19:15–16; 2 Kgs 9:1–10; 1 Sam 10:1; 16:1–13).

1:35 sit on my throne. Ceremonially installs Solomon as coregent until David’s death.

1:36 Amen! Enthusiastically signals that the group will execute David’s orders.

1:38 the Kerethites and the Pelethites. Mercenary units in David’s private army (2 Sam 8:18; 20:23).

1:39 sacred tent. The temporary structure David set up in Jerusalem to house the ark of the covenant (2 Sam 6:17; 7:2, 6).

1:48 successor on my throne. Alludes to Nathan’s prophecy that David would found a lasting royal dynasty (2 Sam 7:12).

1:50 horns. The four corners of Israelite altars curved upward, thus resembling horns (Exod 29:12; 30:10; Lev 4:7). See photo. altar. Ancient Near Eastern custom featured asylum shrines, while biblical practice offered sanctuary from reprisals only for unintentional crimes (2:28–35; Exod 21:14). Adonijah’s treason was intentional, so only the king could extend him mercy.

2:1–12 David’s Charge to Solomon. Sensing his imminent death, David prepares Solomon to reign as king of Israel. Israel’s historians often feature farewell speeches by Israel’s leaders to guide coming generations (Gen 47:29—49:33; Deut 33–34; Josh 23–24; 1 Sam 12).

2:3 David charges Solomon to live out Deuteronomy’s vision of the ideal king (Deut 17:14–20) through faithful obedience of Moses’ law (Deut 4:29, 40; 6:5; 8:6; 10:12; 11:1, 22; Josh 23:14–16). prosper. Royal success and continuation of the dynasty that God promised David.

2:4 David sums up God’s dynastic promise in his own words (cf. 2 Sam 7:14), words that echo later in Solomon’s prayer (1 Kgs 8:25) and in God’s reiteration of the promise (9:4–5; cf. 2 Chr 7:17–18). Here David articulates the standard by which all later kings will be judged. The promise states that the Davidic covenant will remain in force as long as David’s successors faithfully keep the Mosaic covenant.

2:5 Joab. See note on 1:7. Abner. Former commander of Saul’s army; Joab killed him (2 Sam 3:22–30). Amasa. David’s replacement for Joab as chief of staff; Joab killed him (2 Sam 17:25; 19:11–15; 20:4–10). he stained. Implies that leftover bloodguilt might harm Solomon’s kingdom if Joab and Shimei remain unpunished (cf. Gen 9:6; Deut 21:1–9).

2:7 Barzillai. David’s ally who supplied his entourage food during their escape from Jerusalem (2 Sam 17:27–29). He was deemed worthy to dine at the king’s table (cf. 2 Kgs 25:29; 2 Sam 9:7).

2:8 Shimei. A Benjamite who cursed David for killing off Saul’s family (2 Sam 16:5–13).

2:10 City of David. The small Jebusite settlement that became Jerusalem after David conquered it; implies that the city is his personal property (cf. 3:1; 2 Sam 5:6–9).

2:12 firmly established. Cf. vv. 45–46. Fulfills God’s promise to David (2 Sam 7:12–13, 16); but threats remain (see note on vv. 13–46).

2:13–46 Solomon’s Throne Established. Solomon consolidates his hold on the kingdom by heading off threats from Adonijah, Adonijah’s supporters (Abiathar the priest, Joab), and Shimei. The king’s actions display a lack of true wisdom. They alienate rather than placate his opponent—they may even exceed his royal authority.

2:13 Solomon’s mother. The queen mother commands great respect and influence with Solomon and Judah’s royal court (cf. 1:16–31).

2:17 Abishag. A royal concubine (cf. vv. 21–22; 1:15) and thus belonging to Solomon (2 Sam 3:6–7; 12:8; 16:21–22).

2:22 Solomon reads Adonijah’s simple request as a play for kingship and a violation of their asylum agreement (1:52). The king may merely be using the request as a pretext to get rid of Adonijah. More likely, Solomon acts in light of a popular perception that to marry Abishag, a member of the royal harem, gave Adonijah the right to claim succession to David. Abishag’s intimate association with David might have further strengthened Adonijah’s case (cf. 2 Sam 3:7; 12:8; 16:21).

2:26 Abiathar. David’s faithful servant (cf. 1:19, 25) receives exile rather than death for supporting Adonijah (1:7). Anathoth. A village three miles (4.8 kilometers) northeast of Jerusalem; hometown of Abiathar’s descendants, including Jeremiah (Jer 1:1; 32:7–9; cf. Ezra 2:23; Neh 7:27).

2:27 fulfilling the word. Samuel’s judgment on Eli the priest (1 Sam 2:27–36; cf. 1 Kgs 4:4). house of Eli. Abiathar’s ancestral family.

2:28 Joab. Cf. vv. 5–6; see note on 1:7. horns of the altar. See note on 1:50.

2:31 innocent blood. Joab’s two innocent murder victims, Abner and Amasa (v. 32; see note on v. 5). Abner had killed Joab’s brother in battle (2 Sam 2:18–23), a justifiable act in warfare, but Joab’s killing of Abner was premeditated, vengeful murder. Jealousy over a military demotion or paranoia protective of David drove his murder of Amasa (2 Sam 19:13; 20:10). The bloodshed saddles Joab with bloodguilt (i.e., liability for punishment for the killings). But by executing Joab without a proper trial, Solomon may have gone too far.

2:33 Joab and his line pay the price for bloodguilt (see notes on vv. 31, 37).

2:36 As David had advised (cf. vv. 8–9, 33), Solomon confines Shimei to Jerusalem rather than kill him.

2:37 Kidron Valley. The deep valley that marks Jerusalem’s eastern boundary (cf. 1:9, 33 and notes). your blood will be on your own head. Cf. vv. 32–33. Notably, under normal circumstances Shimei’s route to Gath would not cross the Kidron Valley. Thus, his execution by Solomon seems as unjustified as Joab’s (v. 46).

2:39 Achish. For an earlier man of the same name, see 1 Sam 21; 27–29. Gath. A Philistine city in the coastal plain 23 miles (37 kilometers) west of Jerusalem.

2:44 Shimei seditiously curses David (2 Sam 16:5–13).

3:1–28 Solomon’s Wisdom. Solomon requests and receives remarkable wisdom.

3:1–15 Solomon Asks for Wisdom. At Gibeon, the Lord grants Solomon’s request for wisdom and legitimates his rule over Israel. The scene offers an early indication of how Solomon measures up to Deuteronomy’s ideal king (Deut 17:14–20).

3:1 Solomon sealed his peaceful relationship with Egypt by marrying Pharaoh’s daughter (9:16). Earlier, Solomon had married Naamah, mother of Rehoboam (14:21, 31), and other wives as well (cf. 11:1–3). This marriage alliance probably was with Siamun (978–959 BC), one of the last pharaohs of the Twenty-First Egyptian Dynasty, and probably took place in Solomon’s third or fourth year. Construction of the temple began in his fourth year (6:1). The union suggests Egyptian recognition of Israel’s emerging political and economic importance under Solomon (7:8; 9:16, 24; 11:1); it served the interests of both kingdoms. However, it implies religious syncretism, clearly violates Deut 17:17, and later proves Solomon’s undoing.

3:2 high places. Hilltop, open-air shrines for Israelite worship prior to the temple. Their hilltop location followed Canaanite practice, and many probably stood on existing centers of Baal worship. Their legitimacy, however, remains an open question. Clearly, the law prohibits Israelites from using high places and pagan altars to worship Yahweh (Num 33:52; Deut 7:5; 12:3). It also limited altar-building to divinely approved locales (Exod 20:24; Deut 12:5, 8, 13–14). Whether conformity to these conditions made the use of multiple altar-sites acceptable is uncertain (see 19:10, 14; Lev 26:30–31; Deut 12; 1 Sam 9:12). What is clear, however, is that under Solomon incorporation of pagan high places into Yahweh worship was common, produced religious apostasy and syncretism, and was roundly condemned (2 Kgs 17:7–18; 21:2–9; 23:4–25). Apparently, a multiplicity of worship sites was thought normal prior to the building of the temple. Later, royal toleration of the high places became the basis for critiquing kings (11:7; 15:14; 22:43; 2 Kgs 12:3; 15:4; cf. Jer 19:5).

3:3 love for the LORD. The ideal piety in Deuteronomy and implicit in David’s instructions (2:2–4). Because Solomon worshiped at local shrines, the comment may implicitly criticize Solomon. Indeed, one major flaw in Solomon’s early reign was his inconsistent implementation of Mosaic requirements governing places of worship.

3:4 Gibeon. Israel’s most important high place at the time; six miles (9.7 kilometers) northwest of Jerusalem (cf. Josh 9:3–10:15; 2 Sam 2; 21:1–9). Its hosting of the tabernacle and the altar of burnt offering after the Philistines destroyed Shiloh (1 Sam 4:11–22) may account for its unique importance (1 Chr 21:29; 2 Chr 1:2–6).

3:5 appeared . . . in a dream. A common way God communicated with people. Most dreams in the Bible feature a symbolic story (Gen 37:5–10; Dan 4:5–18), interaction with an angel (Gen 31:11–13; Matt 1:20; 2:13, 19), or direct conversation with God (vv. 5–15; Gen 20:3–7).

3:6 great kindness. Alludes to the Davidic covenant (2 Sam 7:8–16), the sole basis for Solomon’s accession.

3:7–9 Solomon sincerely desires to serve God well.

3:7 I am only a little child. May allude to Solomon’s relative youth for a king (perhaps about 20 years old at his accession; see 2:11–12; cf. Jer 1:6) or simply express genuine humility in the face of the demands of wise rule.

3:9 discerning heart. The ability to distinguish between true and false testimony, key to administering justice (cf. v. 11). In making decisions, Solomon desires that his heart listen to God, not humans; only then will his rulings be truly wise (cf. vv. 16–28). He also seeks the trait that in the ancient Near East defines a “good king,” i.e., to patiently hear all competing views on a matter in order to make the wisest decision (cf. Isa 11:2–5).

3:14 keep my decrees and commands. Obey Moses’ law as David did. In Lev 18–20, this phrase defines the basic requirement of holiness (Lev 18:5, 26; 19:37; 20:22; cf. 1 Kgs 11:38).

3:15 ark. The sacred object in Jerusalem symbolized God’s ruling presence. This is where Solomon publically accepts God’s promised gifts (v. 13) and the burden of lifelong obedience (v. 14).

3:16–28 A Wise Ruling. Solomon’s worldwide reputation for unrivaled wisdom debuts here (cf. 4:29–34). His famous decision confirms that God has enabled him to wisely administer justice.

3:25 The prostitutes follow an Israelite legal practice that permits Israelites and others in the land to appeal directly to the king without first consulting lower judges (Deut 16:18; cf. 2 Kgs 8:3; 2 Sam 15:2). Cut the living child in two. Solomon’s clever ploy to find the disputed baby’s true mother and thus restore a broken relationship assumes that she would rather surrender custody to her rival than witness the baby’s death.

4:1–34 Solomon’s Kingdom. This early glimpse of Solomon’s new kingdom describes his royal staff appointments (vv. 1–19), the scope of his realm, and the palace’s life of luxury (vv. 20–28). It closes with high praise for the king’s unparalleled wisdom (vv. 29–34).

4:1–19 Solomon’s Officials and Governors. These lists of royal officials probably derive either from royal records in Jerusalem or from “the book of the annals of Solomon” (11:41). The first concerns officials headquartered in the capital (vv. 2–6); the second lists governors who run Solomon’s 12 districts (vv. 7–19). They portray Solomon as a skilled administrator and organizer, and they portray a united Israel in control of territory east and west of the Jordan River.

4:1 ruled over all Israel. Affirms the smooth, stable transition from David’s rule to Solomon’s. Solomon rules the same united kingdom as his father (2 Sam 8:15).

4:2 son. Azariah was the son of Ahimaaz, Zadok’s son (2 Sam 15:27, 36; 1 Chr 6:8–9). Zadok’s grandson Azariah succeeded him probably because Ahimaaz had died. See note on v. 8. Zadok. See v. 4; cf. 2:27, 35.

4:3 secretaries. The king’s scribes. Jehoshaphat son of Ahilud. The same person who had held the position on David’s royal staff (2 Sam 8:16; 20:24). recorder. See note on 2 Sam 8:16.

4:4 Benaiah. Solomon’s replacement for Joab as commander of the army. See 2:35; 2 Sam 8:18. Zadok and Abiathar. Early in his reign Solomon banished Abiathar, a supporter of Adonijah (1:7) and replaced him with Zadok, the priest who had anointed him king (1:39; 2:27, 35). Zadok’s grandson Azariah (v. 2) succeeded him.

4:5 Nathan. Either the well-known prophet (1:11) or one of David’s sons (2 Sam 5:14). district governors. See vv. 7–19. adviser to the king. See v. 16 and note; see also note on 2 Sam 15:37.

4:6 palace administrator. The first mention of a high-ranking royal official often noted in 1-2 Kings (16:9; 18:3; 2 Kgs 10:5; 18:18, 37; 19:2). He was probably the royal chief-of-staff over palace operations and manager of royal properties. Adoniram. Supervisor of the compulsory labor program of David, Solomon, and Rehoboam (12:18; 2 Sam 20:24). forced labor. See notes on 5:13; 9:15.

4:7 twelve district governors. These districts replaced the traditional tribal boundaries with redrawn district ones. Tribal agricultural productivity varied considerably, and the new boundaries probably sought administrative efficiency attuned to those variations. Solomon’s innovation, however, may have stirred up tribal jealousies and resentment that ultimately divided his unified kingdom. provisions. What governors provided king and palace by levying supplies from their districts (vv. 22–23, 27). This echoes Samuel’s warnings about having a king (1 Sam 8:11–18; cf. Deut 17:14–20).

4:8 Ben-Hur. Ben here means “son/grandson of” in Hebrew; cf. v. 2.

4:11 Ben-Abinadab. Probably the son of David’s brother (i.e., Solomon’s cousin and son-in-law).

4:12 Baana son of Ahilud. Probably a brother of the recorder Jehoshaphat (v. 3).

4:16 Baana son of Hushai. Possibly the son of David’s close confidant (2 Sam 15:32, 37) whose advice God used to defeat Absalom (2 Sam 17:11–14).

4:18 Shimei son of Ela. Perhaps the Shimei listed with those who did not support Adonijah (1:8).

4:20–28 Solomon’s Realm. This section glories in the wealth, size, and peace of Solomon’s empire.

4:20 Judah and Israel. Solomon’s two principal constituencies; they later become two separate nations (ch. 12; cf. 1:35). sand on the seashore. A common metaphor for a number too huge to be counted, especially attacking enemy hordes (Josh 11:4; Judg 7:12; 1 Sam 13:5; Rev 20:8; cf. 2 Sam 17:11). Here the phrase reminds one of God’s promise to the patriarchs of numerous descendants (Gen 12:2; 15:18–19; 22:17; 32:12). Israel’s large population under Solomon measures one impressive moment of fulfillment, their future restoration after judgment another (Hos 1:10; cf. Heb 11:12). It will reach its maximum number at the consummation of history when believers from everywhere finally gather (Rev 7:9). Cf. v. 29.

4:21 land of the Philistines. Along the Mediterranean about where the Gaza Strip is today. tribute. Payments by subject nations that luxuriously supply the palace (cf. 7).

4:24 Tiphsah. A city where ancient caravans forded the Euphrates River; the northern boundary of Solomon’s vast empire. Gaza. A Philistine city and caravan stop; the empire’s southern border (cf. v. 21).

4:25 Dan to Beersheba. See note on 1 Sam 3:20; cf. Judg 20:1; 2 Sam 17:11; 24:2. their own vine and . . . their own fig tree. Symbolizes universal prosperity under Solomon.

4:26 four thousand. See NIV text note. Biblical records report that Solomon had 1,400 chariots (10:26; 2 Chr 1:14), a number that would require stalls for two horses per chariot and for about 1,200 reserve steeds. For perspective, according to an Assyrian report, a century after Solomon at the battle of Qarqar (853 BC) Damascus fielded 1,200 chariots; Hamath, 700; and Israel’s northern kingdom, 2,000. The presence of numerous royal steeds attests both to Solomon’s magnificent wealth and his violation of Deut 17:16.

4:27 nothing was lacking. Shows the burden that governors bore to sustain palace luxury. This explains the popular resentment that surfaces in ch. 11.

4:29–34 Solomon’s Wisdom. This extols the superiority and international fame of Solomon’s wisdom, insight, and broad understanding (see note on 7:14). These qualities attest to the greatness of the God who gifted Solomon with them.

4:29 wisdom. The primary, general term for the ability to live life with maximum success and a minimum of failure. It is the highly prized skill that Adam and Eve risked divine displeasure to acquire (Gen 3:6) and that Solomon’s teaching passionately seeks to cultivate in people (Prov 2:12; 4:6). Its starting point is the fear of God (Prov 1:7), and to live wisely is to align one’s conduct with the way God created the world to work (Prov 8:32–36). insight. The ability to perceive the heart of a matter; to “see the light” (i.e., to distill the truth lurking behind initial impressions). Often closely associated with wisdom and translated “understanding” (e.g., Exod 35:30—36:1; Prov 2:6; 3:13; 8:1), it sharpens one’s grasp of wisdom as a whole. understanding . . . measureless. Vast knowledge of important information. It supplies the hard data that informs wisdom and its decisions. Wisdom, insight, and understanding are separate qualities, yet they overlap and interrelate. Paul stressed that the search for wisdom begins with Christ, the person in whom all wisdom and knowledge is hidden and awaiting discovery (Col 2:2–3).

4:31 Ethan the Ezrahite. Author of Ps 89 and among the wisest men ever known at that time. Solomon is ultimately eclipsed by Jesus Christ (see Luke 11:31). Heman, Kalkol and Darda. Renowned Israelite musicians. sons of Mahol. Probably an Israelite musical guild rather than a family.

4:32 spoke. Probably means “quoted.” three thousand proverbs. The book of Proverbs preserves only a portion of that total. songs. Perhaps music both composed and sung from memory.

4:33 Solomon was a learned botanist with a vast knowledge of living things.

4:34 all the kings of the world. Evidences Solomon’s regional renown as consultant of kings. In the background stands the historical emergence in the early Iron Age of mini-empires across Syro-Palestine.

5:1—9:9 Solomon’s Temple. This details Solomon’s construction projects, especially the temple, his showpiece and lasting legacy. The king’s preparations (ch. 5) lead to the construction of both the temple (ch. 6) and a large palace complex (ch. 7). The lengthy temple dedication ceremony (ch. 8) elicits Yahweh’s acceptance and a solemn warning about divine judgment for royal idolatry (9:1–9).

5:1–18 Preparations for Building the Temple. International diplomacy and the conscription of laborers supply Solomon with the materials and labor to build the temple.

5:1 Hiram. Ruler of Tyre and longtime ally of David (2 Sam 5:11). Tyre. An ancient, wealthy Phoenician commercial port.

5:5 Fulfills God’s promise to David (cf. 2 Sam 7:13; 1 Chr 22:10; 2 Chr 6:9). the Name of the LORD. Yahweh’s personal presence.

5:6 cedars. Source of fabled, fragrant, and durable wood for building ships and important buildings. Their height supplied long beams to erect as tall pillars and to roof over large buildings. cut. Hiram’s skilled lumberjacks precut the lumber. Sidonians. Inhabitants of Sidon (in modern Lebanon), a prosperous Phoenician port 23 miles (37 kilometers) north of Tyre.

5:8 cedar and juniper. Types of logs native to Phoenicia (cf. 6:15, 34).

5:9 food. The form of payment for Hiram’s supplies. Implies that Hiram’s palace may match Solomon’s in abundant foodstuffs (cf. 4:22–23, 27).

5:12 peaceful relations. Further evidence of Solomon’s God-given wisdom.

5:13 conscripted laborers. See note on 9:15. After Solomon died, popular resentment over his forced labor policy spilled out in public protests and led to the division of his kingdom into two separate countries (12:1–18). Ironically, the desire for a king had originated with the people themselves (cf. 1 Sam 8:7–18), who now resented the current king.

5:14 shifts. Rotations between work in Lebanon and time at home. This posed a hardship for farmers sent abroad during planting or harvesting. Adoniram. The labor program’s administrator (cf. 4:6; 12:18; 2 Sam 20:24).

5:15 The state’s need for huge quantities of stone led to the conscription of carriers and stonecutters from non-Israelite residents conquered and incorporated into the kingdom by David (2 Chr 2:17–18).

5:17 quarry. The source of high-grade foundation stone; probably near Jerusalem; implies ingenious, labor-intensive transport to the temple site.

5:18 Byblos. An ancient coastal city 20 miles (32 kilometers) north of present-day Beirut; biblical Gebal; modern Jubayl.

6:1–38 Solomon Builds the Temple. Construction follows the assembly of costly materials and skilled manpower. Chronological summaries bracket the report (vv. 1, 37), and v. 38 dates the temple’s completion. Its general layout resembles the tabernacle’s (Exod 26:33–35; Lev 16:16–17). The report’s rare architectural vocabulary makes the sense of some items uncertain. See illustration.

6:1 four hundred and eightieth year. The number of years between the exodus and the laying of the temple’s foundation. Assyrian records and synchronizations between known extrabiblical events and events involving later Israelite kings confirm Solomon’s “fourth year” as ca. 966 BC. If chronological, the 480-year figure would date the exodus to ca. 1446 BC, during the rule of Pharaoh Thutmose III of the Eighteenth Dynasty. Egyptian place-names in Exod 1:11 and other historical evidences, however, seem to preclude a date before the reign of Pharaoh Rameses II (ca. 1279 BC; cf. Gen 47:11). If so, the 480 years would be a schematic or symbolic figure (e.g., 12 generations times the traditional 40-year length of a generation [in actuality, 25 years]). It could also be an aggregate number, i.e., the sum total of a list of time periods, some partly concurrent, an ancient approach known from Egypt and Mesopotamia (cf. Deut 1:3). Ziv. The local Canaanite name for the second month (April–May); cf. v. 38. Ancient Near Eastern monarchs typically dated as historic events the laying of the foundations of important buildings like temples.

6:5 structure around the building. An exterior, attached, three-story structure. Each story was slightly wider than the one below it (v. 6). side rooms. Spaces for storage or residency (1 Chr 9:33).

6:6 offset ledges. Structures that stabilized the sanctuary’s outer wall without disturbing its integrity (cf. v. 10, which describes an additional exterior structure).

6:11 The word of the LORD came to. Common preface to a prophetic message (cf. 16:1; 17:2, 8; 18:1; 19:9; 21:17, 28). The phrase is an important theme in 1-2 Kings. It may refer to a message given in the past that has just been fulfilled (15:29; 17:16; 2 Kgs 4:44; 10:17; 23:16; 24:2). The phrase is central to the prophecy-fulfillment theme of the book. It may also refer to a word given earlier to authorize someone to deliver a divine message (13:2, 17, 32; 20:35). The phrase “the word of the LORD came to” prefaces announcements by prophets of a new message (16:1, 7; 18:31; 21:17), as does “Hear the word,” which underscores that the urgent message demands an immediate hearing. The theme teaches that people who obey God’s spoken word avoid disaster (12:24), while disaster falls on those who defy it (13:21, 26). Behind it stands Israel’s covenant God whose care for and commitment to his people leads him to warn them of coming destruction or to give them future hope. The Lord is a God who breaks his silence and communicates because he wants his people to know his voice and his character; he wants to tell them how to continue to enjoy his full blessings. Theologically, this is the same God whose love for humanity drove him to clothe his only Son, also called “the Word,” in human flesh and send him to live, speak, die, and rise again among them (John 1:1, 14; 3:16). It is the same God whose powerful spoken word called the whole universe into being (Gen 1; Ps 33:6) and still speaks powerfully today (Heb 4:12). Jesus, the Word, still urges anyone with ears to listen carefully to what he has to say, especially the good news he announced (Mark 4:9, 23; Luke 8:8; 14:35). See note on 13:1.

6:15 cedar . . . juniper. See notes on 5:6, 8. The woods would imbue the temple’s interior with fragrant beauty.

6:16 Most Holy Place. See note on v. 19.

6:19 inner sanctuary. The Most Holy Place (v. 16). The small room at the temple’s west end. ark of the covenant. Yahweh’s portable throne (Ps 80:1) and Israel’s holiest object; contained the Ten Commandments (8:9; Exod 25:16). Cf. 2 Sam 6.

6:20 pure gold. Gleaming precious metal; may symbolize the holiness and glory of God. Gold was used extensively in the construction of the tabernacle (Exod 25–26, 28).

6:23 cherubim. Winged creatures symbolizing Yahweh’s royal throne attendants and his flight transportation (2 Sam 22:11; Ps 18:10; Ezek 1; 10). ten cubits high. That is, about 15 feet (4.6 meters) high, an unusually gigantic size for cherubim. This presents the cherubim as royal guards who intimidate would-be intruders into God’s sacred presence (cf. v. 32). The cherubim denying access to the tree of life in the Garden of Eden (Gen 3:24) play the same role.

6:29 palm trees. A common sight in both coastal and desert locales of the Near East. They decorate the doorjambs and walls in Ezekiel’s visionary temple (Ezek 40:16, 37; 41:26). open flowers. Cf. v. 18.

6:36 inner courtyard. The small, walled-in, outdoor area immediately around the temple.

6:38 Bul. The local Canaanite word for the year’s eighth month (October-November); see note on v. 1 (“Ziv”).

7:1–12 Solomon Builds His Palace. A brief interlude details the construction of Solomon’s palace complex before the narrative returns to the temple in vv. 13–51. The complex lies south of the sanctuary and includes three official state buildings (vv. 1–7) and two private royal residences (vv. 8–12).

7:1 thirteen years. Contrasts with the seven years it took to build the temple. The contrast, however, need not imply that Solomon was less devoted to the temple than to his own house. In fact, the king’s piety and desire to honor God may account for the temple’s intense, compressed completion time. On the other hand, the architectural complexity and multifaceted mission of the palace complex (i.e., both royal residence and kingdom administrative center) explain why it took longer to build.

7:2 Palace of the Forest of Lebanon. Its name probably describes its forest of cedar columns and beams.

7:4 sets of three. Implies a building of enormous size.

7:6 colonnade. A large hall with rows of stately pillars; this has royal architectural analogies at Karnak (Egypt) and Persepolis (Persia).

7:7 Hall of Justice. Israel’s Supreme Court. The king was the presiding judge.

7:8 set farther back. To ensure the privacy of the royal residences (cf. vv. 2–7). similar in design. Aesthetically blends with other structures. Pharaoh’s daughter. Cf. 3:1. Ancient queens typically had their own palaces.

7:12 great courtyard. Probably the open area surrounding the palace complex. inner courtyard. See note on 6:36.

7:13–51 The Temple’s Furnishings. This details the furnishings of the courtyard in front of the temple. Highly skilled craftsman from Tyre take center stage (vv. 13–45), but the king returns at the end (vv. 46–51).

7:13 Tyre. See note on 5:1.

7:14 Huram. A craftsmen of Tyrian-Israelite parentage, symptomatic of ongoing dealings between Naphtali and Phoenicia. wisdom . . . understanding . . . knowledge. Skills similar to those of Bezalel, builder of the tabernacle, but without the latter’s filling by the Spirit of God (Exod 31:3; 35:31; see note on 1 Kgs 4:29). The three terms also figure prominently in the brief creation account in Prov 3:19–20.

7:17-19 interwoven chains . . . pomegranates . . . lilies. Probably Phoenician decorative motifs. Cf. vv. 22, 42.

7:21 Jakin . . . Boaz. See NIV text notes. Both may comprise key words in a memorable temple motto.

7:23 Sea. Water source for priests to wash during rituals (2 Chr 4:6). Cf. the tabernacle’s bronze basin (Exod 30:18–21). thirty cubits. Probably a round number measuring the basin’s circumference as either a perfect circle (technically, 31.416 cubits [about 47 feet or 14.3 meters]) or an oval with diameters of 10 cubits by 9.1 cubits (about 15 feet by 13.7 feet or about 4.6 meters by 4.2 meters).

7:27 movable stands. Highly decorative, portable water supply for rituals in the inner courtyard.

7:40 pots and shovels and sprinkling bowls. Service items for sacrificial rituals with antecedents at the tabernacle (Exod 27:3).

7:45 burnished bronze. Polished to a smooth, bright surface.

7:46 Sukkoth and Zarethan. Ancient towns just east and west, respectively, of the Jordan River and about 20 miles (32 kilometers) north of Jericho. Excavations at Sukkoth confirm the prominence of metallurgy in the area during the monarchy.

7:48 furnishings. For their tabernacle counterparts, see Exod 25:23–40; 30:1–10, 17–21 and illustration. bread of the Presence. Cf. Exod 25:23–30; 40:23; Lev 24:5–9; see note on Exod 25:30.

7:51 things . . . David had dedicated. Cf. 2 Sam 8:9–12; 1 Chr 29:1–5. treasuries. Storage for the temple’s metal valuables (cf. 15:18; Josh 6:19, 24; 2 Chr 12:9). For palace treasuries, cf. 14:25–26; 2 Chr 36:18; Ezek 28:4. Kings of Judah often draw on both treasuries to pay for foreign military intervention in crises (15:18–20; 2 Kgs 16:8) or to end a siege (2 Kgs 12:18; 18:15). Victors also carry off the treasuries of their enemies as a prize of war (2 Kgs 14:14).

8:1–66 The Temple’s Dedication. With great ceremony, Solomon leads Israel in dedicating the temple for worshiping Israel’s covenant God. The festivities include installing the ark (vv. 1–21), Solomon’s dedicatory prayer (vv. 22–61), and the Festival of Tabernacles (vv. 62–66).

8:1–21 The Ark Brought to the Temple. Israel solemnly installs the ark of the covenant in the temple’s inner sanctuary.

8:1 heads of the tribes and the chiefs of the Israelite families. The leaders of Israel’s traditional kinship groups together comprise its national leadership alongside the king and priests. ark. See note on 6:19; cf. 2:26; 3:15. Zion. The Jebusite fortress-city that David conquered (2 Sam 5:7); also designates the temple hill (Ps 2:6) and Jerusalem as a whole (Ps 48:2, 12). City of David. See note on 2:10.

8:2 festival. Probably Sukkoth, i.e., the Festival of Tabernacles (Lev 23:34; Deut 16:13–17; 31:9–13). Ethanim. Canaanite name for the seventh month (September-October); cf. vv. 65–66; 6:1, 37–38.

8:4 tent of meeting. The tabernacle (Exod 27:21; Lev 16:7), formerly at Gibeon (3:4; 1 Sam 7:1 [see note on 1 Sam 6:21]; cf. 2 Chr 5:4–5) but now in Zion (see note on v. 1). priests and Levites. Custodians of the ark (Deut 31:9; 2 Sam 15:24).

8:6 inner sanctuary. See note on 6:19. Most Holy Place. Cf. 6:16; 7:50. cherubim. See note on 6:23.

8:8 still there today. Cf. 9:13; 10:12; 12:19; 2 Kgs 2:22; 8:22; 14:7; 16:6; 17:23, 34, 41. This indicates that the writer wrote sometime before the temple’s destruction in 586 BC.

8:9 Horeb. Another name for Mount Sinai (see note on 19:8; cf. Exod 3:1; Deut 5:2).

8:10 cloud. A visible sign that the Lord currently occupies the temple (cf. v. 1; Num 12:10; Ezek 10:3). The cloud visibly verifies that God’s presence has now descended to live there just as its descent upon the tabernacle below Mount Sinai did (Exod 40:34–35; Ezek 10:3–5, 18–19; 43:4–5).

8:12 dark cloud. The thick darkness protects humans from the dangers of seeing God (Exod 20:21; Deut 5:22; Ps 97:2), but Solomon asserts (v. 13) that God’s long-term stay in the temple (and, presumably, proper ritual protocols) offers Israel ongoing access to God’s presence without such danger (cf. v. 21).

8:20 promise. To David: a dynasty and a temple built by his son (cf. vv. 24–26; 1:48; 2 Sam 7:5–16).

8:22–61 Solomon’s Prayer of Dedication. This marks the centerpiece of the text’s three main events. This prayer articulates the behavioral standard of Deuteronomy by which the people and all kings will be judged. Solomon’s seven petitions share a common format: “When x happens (condition), then, God, hear and do y (petition)” (vv. 30, 31–32, 33–34, 35–36, 37–40, 41–43, 44–45, 46–51).

8:22 altar. Probably in the inner courtyard (cf. 6:36; 7:12), not the sanctuary proper (6:20, 22). spread out his hands toward heaven. An action during prayers that often accompanies pleas (cf. vv. 38, 54; see Exod 9:29). It symbolizes that petitioners direct their appeals to Israel’s God alone and do so in a posture of humble submission.

8:23 no God like you. God is incomparable (cf. Ps 86:8–10; Isa 40:25; 46:5; Mic 7:18). covenant of love. God’s unwavering commitment to relationship with Israel. Solomon affirms that only Israel’s God (and no others) has intervened in history through great miracles and sovereign guidance of events, all to make his long-awaited covenant promises a present reality for his people (Exod 15:11–13; Deut 4:39—7:9). See “Covenant.”

8:24 as it is today. The present celebration evidences God’s faithfulness to David.

8:25 if only. The common proviso in 1-2 Kings that the dynasty’s survival hangs on royal faithfulness (cf. 2:1–4; 9:4–9).

8:28 plea for mercy. God answers prayer because he is merciful, not because humans deserve it (cf. v. 30).

8:30 forgive. Implies that the petitioner’s repentance and God’s forgiveness precede God’s answering of prayers.

8:31 swear the oath. Oath taking is the means by which people making claims verify that they are telling the truth. They willingly accept terrible consequences for lying or not keeping their word. Through oaths, people charged with crimes prove their innocence, witnesses in court confirm they are telling the truth, and parties to agreements guarantee they will faithfully carry out their promises.

8:32 Judge between. Settle disputes. This prayer calls on God to expose the guilty and vindicate the innocent by imposing the consequences each deserves (cf. vv. 31, 39).

8:36 the right way to live. This is the key lesson (i.e., behavior in accordance with covenant obligations) that Israel is to learn through the historical and natural disasters described (vv. 33–36). These behaviors confirm that the petitioner’s repentance is genuine, and God keeps his covenant promises by granting forgiveness and sending relief.

8:38 spreading out their hands. See note on v. 22; Exod 9:29.

8:40 fear. Revere with firm resolve. This is the ultimate goal of the disaster-plea-hear-act sequence (cf. v. 43).

8:42 they will hear. Presumes that testimonies by Israelites will spread in foreign lands. This key text bears witness to a fundamental biblical truth: God desires to bless all the nations of the earth through Israel and its worship of Yahweh (Gen 12:1–3). This truth underlies God’s blessing of the non-Israelite widow of Zarephath during Elijah’s residence in her home (17:8–24). It also drives the testimony the Israelite servant girl gives the enemy general Naaman and the kind treatment he receives from Elisha (2 Kgs 5). mighty hand . . . outstretched arm. Metaphor for God’s awesome power (cf. Deut 4:34; Ps 136:12; Jer 21:5; Ezek 20:33–34).

8:43 know your name and fear you. The reasons God should do whatever the foreigner asks (cf. v. 40). This signals an open door for non-Israelites to worship the Lord.

8:45 uphold their cause. Grant Israelite soldiers victory in combat only when sent by God to achieve God’s (not selfish human) purposes. Theologically, the appeal is to God’s nature as a warrior (Exod 15:3) and as a cosmic king (Pss 10:16; 24:7–10) who rules history to execute his plan for history (see Dan 4). As such, he promises to defend and protect his people against all enemies (Ps 44:4–7), a promise often kept in victories that Israel faithfully remembers (2 Kgs 7; 18–19; Ps 135:8–12). It is God who in Christ defeated evil and death (Rom 8:2; 1 Cor 15:22–28), who defends believers against spiritual enemies today (cf. Rom 8:31–32, 37; Eph 6:10–18), and who will end history as its only king (Rev 18–20).

8:46 there is no one who does not sin. The reason Israel will likely sin and land in exile.

8:50 cause their captors to show them mercy. The clear sign that God has indeed forgiven errant Israel.

8:51 Alludes to Israel’s special status and historic past with God; supports Solomon’s plea for forgiveness.

8:53 singled them out. God selected Israel as his chosen nation (Exod 19:5; Lev 20:24, 26; Deut 7:6). This anticipates later events (2 Kgs 17; 20; 24–25) and offers hope that Israel will return from exile.

8:56 rest. Israel’s settled state in Canaan, militarily secure through God’s victories, and “at home” (Deut 12:10–11; Josh 21:44). The “rest” for believers today is “Sabbath-rest” (Heb 4:9), the full salvation that the gospel promises; both the OT and NT warn all God’s people to avoid disobedience lest they, like the rebellious Israelites in the wilderness, miss its promised blessings (Ps 95:11; Heb 4:5, 11).

8:60 all the peoples of the earth. Echoes the earlier international theme (cf. vv. 41–43).

8:61 hearts be fully committed. The Davidic ideal of which Solomon and many later kings, sadly, fall far short (11:4, 9; 15:3).

8:62–66 Dedicatory Sacrifices and a Festival. Solomon presides over the formal dedication of the temple through sacrifices (vv. 62–63), and he consecrates the center of the temple’s outer court so that worshipers may freely use its altar (v. 64). When the Festival of Tabernacles ends, Solomon dismisses the joyful Israelites to their hometowns (vv. 65–66).

8:63 fellowship offerings. See note on Lev 3:1; see also “Major Old Testament Offerings and Sacrifices.”

8:65 festival. See note on v. 2. from Lebo Hamath to the Wadi of Egypt. From all over Israel (Num 34:7–9; Josh 13:5; Ezek 47:15). Lebo Hamath, a city near the Orontes River in Aram (Syria), was one of Israel’s traditional northern boundaries (Gen 15:18), and the Wadi of Egypt, probably the Wadi el-Arish in northern Sinai, was one of Israel’s traditional southern boundaries (2 Kgs 24:7). fourteen days. Double the festival’s usual duration, underscoring how joyous and monumental the occasion was.

9:1–9 The Lord Appears to Solomon. The Lord answers Solomon’s prayer, affirming that he accepts the temple. But he also threatens to destroy it if Solomon or any successor fails to wholeheartedly obey God’s laws.

9:2 A follow-up dream (probably at Jerusalem) to the one at Gibeon (see 3:5).

9:3 I have heard. Words by which God often responds to prayers in the Bible (2 Kgs 19:20; 20:5; cf. 1 Sam 25:35). God positively answers Solomon’s prayer (cf. 8:16–20, 41–44). Name. See notes on 5:5; Exod 3:15; Pss 8:1a; 74:7; cf. 1 Kgs 11:36; 14:21; 2 Kgs 21:4; 23:27.

9:4 you. Plural, addressing Solomon’s descendants. as David your father did. The standard of faithful obedience for David’s successors (2:4; 11:4; 15:3; 2 Kgs 14:3; 22:2).

9:6 serve other gods. Idolatry, clearly violating the Torah (Deut 6:4). God’s words have an ominous ring, testimony to the seriousness of the issue.

9:7 cut off Israel from the land. Exile, presumably for both king and people, as punishment for idolatry (cf. v. 9). object of ridicule. Public humiliation (cf. vv. 8–9).

9:8–9 The question-answer format may echo Deut 29:24–25.

9:8 heap of rubble. The temple’s destruction (cf. Jer 7:14–15; Mic 3:12).

9:9 Idolatry is the cause of this disaster (cf. 2 Kgs 17:7–8; 21:11–15).

9:10—10:29 Solomon’s Other Activities. This history portrays various aspects of Solomon’s official and personal life. It reports other major projects (9:10–28) and a visit by the queen of Sheba (10:1–13). Its closing glimpse of Solomon’s splendid empire (10:14–29) ominously foreshadows imminent divine judgment (ch. 11).

9:10–28 Solomon’s Actions. Four short accounts flesh out the writer’s larger portrait of Solomon: his repayment of Hiram (vv. 10–14), his compulsory labor policy (vv. 15–23), his religious life (vv. 24–25), and his new commercial fleet (vv. 26–28).

9:11 twenty towns. The balance still due Hiram for his services after Solomon’s prior payments (5:6, 11). It may reflect cost overruns for labor. Galilee. The Israelite region north of the Jezreel Valley; it extends just east of Tyre.

9:13 my brother. A royal ally in ancient diplomatic correspondence and treaties (20:32); implies that the parties are socially equal. Kabul. An insulting regional nickname (see NIV text note) that protests Solomon’s previous payment (cf. 5:1–9).

9:14 Hiram’s huge monetary advance either kept Solomon afloat financially or became gilding in the temple (cf. chs. 6–7).

9:15 Here is the account. Commonly introduces an instruction, explanation, command, or report (cf. 11:27); suggests that vv. 15–23 may derive from royal archives. forced labor. Solomon requires Canaanites to work on his construction projects (Josh 17:13; Judg 1:28, 30). terraces. See NIV text note; see also note on 2 Sam 5:9. Probably an earthen platform that leveled low spots on the ridge with stones and dirt, permitting Solomon to expand Jerusalem from the City of David northward (cf. v. 24; 11:27). Archaeologists have found the enormous, stepped-stone structure that supported it. Hazor. See photo.

9:16–17a This parenthesis concerning the dowry of Solomon’s Egyptian wife points to the political and economic benefits that Solomon gained from that marriage. Two lucrative trade routes crossed near the Canaanite town of Gezer, the pharaoh’s gift to his newlywed daughter. To the west passed a north-south road important to Egyptian commerce, and to the north was an east-west road linking Jerusalem and the Mediterranean Sea and the port of Joppa. Control of Gezer and access to Joppa provided a supply line to support the king’s construction projects, including the temple.

9:17b–19 Throughout Solomon’s vast realm, there were all kinds of construction projects (v. 19). Solomon desires peace (see NIV text note on 1 Chr 22:9), but his wisdom also leads him to prepare for possible wars (Deut 17:16). He strengthens his defenses by fortifying key cities close at hand (e.g., Gezer, Lower Beth Horon, Baalath; vv. 17–18) and far away (e.g., Tadmor, the ancient caravan stop in the desert of central Aram/Syria; v. 18). He builds garrisons to position his chariot corps and its horses and storage sites for grain and other goods (v. 19).

9:22 did not make slaves. Obeys Lev 25:42, 46.

9:24–25 Mentioning both Solomon’s Egyptian wife and his worship life portrays ambiguous devotion.

9:24 Pharaoh’s daughter. Cf. 3:1; 7:8; 11:1.

9:26 Ezion Geber. Nearby port; location uncertain. Elath. A town on the west coast of the modern Gulf of Aqaba. in Edom. Implies that Solomon either rules Edom or that Edom controls the port area. Red Sea. The large body of water between modern-day Sinai and Saudi Arabia.

9:28 Ophir. Perhaps somewhere along the east coast of Africa (see note on Ps 45:9). 420 talents. See NIV text note; cf. 10:10–12, 22; Job 28:16; Isa 13:12.

10:1–13 The Queen of Sheba Visits Solomon. The queen of Sheba personifies Solomon’s international renown for wisdom, wealth, and political preeminence (cf. vv. 23–24; 4:31, 34).

10:1 Sheba. Probably the kingdom of Saba (the Sabeans) in southern Arabia (modern Yemen); represents the area the new Red Sea fleet would visit. relationship to the LORD. This means either that the Lord’s great reputation enhanced Solomon’s reputation because he worshiped Yahweh or that Solomon’s fine reputation in the region brought glory to the Lord.

10:3 The hallmark of a wise person without peer (Ps 49:4; Prov 1:6).

10:8 How happy your people must be! Betrays the queen’s ignorance of popular resentment soon to disrupt Solomon’s kingdom (12:4, 16–18).

10:9 Praise be to the LORD. The queen of Sheba reads Solomon’s wisdom and wealth as evidence of God’s pleasure in him. Her beautiful confession shows that she fully understands Israel’s covenant relationship with their God. But it should be understood in light of her polytheistic pagan background (cf. 5:7; see also 2 Chr 2:12; Dan 3:28–29). She simply recognizes that Yahweh is Israel’s national God; she is not renouncing her god(s) to worship Israel’s God exclusively (cf. 2 Kgs 5:15–19; Ruth 1:16–17). Hiram similarly delighted in God’s choosing Solomon (5:7) without becoming a worshiper of Solomon’s God.

10:10 Heads of state customarily exchanged lavish gifts when meeting (cf. vv. 13, 24–25). many spices. Implies that spice trading was a major Sabean business. For other unparalleled items, see vv. 12, 20.

10:11 Cf. v. 22; 9:26–28. almugwood. Probably red sandalwood (see NIV text note).

10:12 never been imported or seen since. Implies that the Red Sea fleet later no longer sailed (cf. 22:48).

10:14–29 Solomon’s Splendor. The portrait of Solomon’s wealth and royal splendor reaches its climax. He is a monarch who resides in a luxurious royal quarter and presides over (and taxes) an international empire that a sizeable military protects and extends. Its closing glimpse of Solomon’s splendid empire ominously foreshadows imminent divine judgment (ch. 11).

10:14 See NIV text note.

10:16 large shields. Probably full-length rectangles for full-body protection; they function here primarily as decorations (cf. 14:26–27).

10:17 small shields. Probably circle-shaped, heavier decorations. Palace of the Forest of Lebanon. See note on 7:2.

10:22 trading ships. These were vessels specially designed with large cargo space to facilitate long voyages.

10:26 accumulated chariots and horses. Befits a fast, highly maneuverable army (cf. 9:19, 22). See note on v. 29.

10:28 Kue. An area (later called Cilicia) along the southeastern coast of Turkey.

10:29 Egypt. Source of enough horses for Solomon to sell some for profit. The reference is to the Neo-Hittites, Israel’s important trading partner centered in northern Aram/Syria and southern Turkey. Arameans. From Aram/Syria. In Solomon’s day, the Hittites and Arameans lived geographically intermingled. Bilingual inscriptions written in both Luwian (Neo-Hittite) and Aramaic have been found in the region. Ominously, however, Solomon’s dealings clearly violate Deut 17:16–17, which expressly forbids kings from accumulating horses (especially not from Egypt), gold, and silver (vv. 14, 25; 9:11, 14, 28). The hugely successful king stands liable to divine judgment for transgressing the Mosaic law, a judgment soon to unfold after he adds one more violation in ch. 11.

11:1–43 Solomon’s Condemnation. The account of how Solomon’s reign ends features his foreign wives (vv. 1–13) and adversaries (vv. 14–25), Jeroboam’s rebellion (vv. 26–40), and the king’s death (vv. 41–43).

11:1–13 Solomon’s Wives. The upbeat display of Solomon’s wisdom, fame, and splendor (chs. 3–10) sharply contrasts the sober, ominous indictment that his foreign wives violate the conditions attached to God’s promise to David (cf. 2:4; 9:4–5).

11:1 Moabites, Ammonites, Edomites. Eastern and southern vassals of David and Solomon (2 Sam 8:2, 9–14; 12:26–31). Sidonians. See note on 5:6. Hittites. See note on 10:29 (“Arameans”).

11:2 You must not intermarry with them. Applies the prohibition against intermarriage with Canaanites (Deut 7:1–6; Josh 23:12–13) to non-Canaanites. turn your hearts after their gods. Intermarriage risks diverting devotion from Yahweh (cf. v. 3). in love. Genuine affection, not marriage for commerce or politics.

11:4 grew old. Increased Solomon’s vulnerability to his wives’ influence. Marrying Pharaoh’s daughter was his first misstep (3:1; 7:8; 9:24). after other gods. Implies actual worship rather than mere tolerance. not fully devoted. Seriously departs from David’s example (cf. v. 6; 15:3).

11:5 Ashtoreth. A goddess sometimes associated with Baal (cf. ch. 18) and widely popular in Phoenicia and Canaan (also known as Astarte); cf. v. 33; 14:15; 2 Kgs 23:13; see note on Judg 2:13. Compares to Mesopotamian Ishtar and Greco-Roman Aphrodite and Venus. Molek. Means “king, ruler” (see note on Jer 49:1) The Ammonite version of Baal; associated with child sacrifice (see 2 Kgs 23:10, 13; Lev 18:21 and note). Also known as Milkom (see 2 Sam 12:30 and first NIV text note there).

11:7 hill east of Jerusalem. The Mount of Olives today. high place. See note on 3:2. Chemosh. The Moabite god mentioned in the Mesha Stele (ca. 840 BC), a stone monument with King Mesha’s testimony of how Chemosh freed Moab from rule by Israel and restored its lands (cf. Num 21:29; Jer 48:7). See photo.

11:9 twice. See 3:5–14; 9:1–9.

11:11 The disaster to follow disciplines Solomon for violating God’s covenant with David. one of your subordinates. Cf. vv. 26–40; ch. 12.

11:12 for the sake of David. God honors David’s loyal devotion by allowing his dynasty to continue (cf. v. 14; 2 Sam 7:14–15).

11:13 one tribe. Probably Benjamin (cf. 12:20–21), presuming that Solomon’s successor, Rehoboam, already has authority over Judah (see note on vv. 31–32). for the sake of Jerusalem. Implies God’s loyalty to his chosen city (cf. vv. 29–39).

11:14–25 Solomon’s Adversaries. Rebellions on Solomon’s eastern flank signal the end of his empire and bode ill for the survival of his magnificent kingdom. Hadad and Rezon, instruments of divine judgment, each pose a serious threat to Solomon and his kingdom.

11:14 Hadad. Edomite king and Pharaoh’s son-in-law (v. 19); enjoyed Egypt’s backing against Solomon.

11:15 Cf. 2 Sam 8:11–14.

11:18 Midian. Northeastern Arabia along the modern Gulf of Aqaba. Paran. Location unknown but near the Desert of Sinai (Num 10:12).

11:19-20 Queen Tahpenes . . . sister of Tahpenes. Two unknown Egyptian women.

11:24 destroyed Zobah’s army. Cf. 2 Sam 8:3–8; 10:15–19. Damascus. Capital city of the Arameans; popular desert caravan stop (cf. 15:18; note at 19:15).

11:25 Rezon. Conqueror and ruler of Damascus (v. 24). hostile toward Israel. A persistent threatening attitude too serious to ignore.

11:26–40 Jeroboam Rebels Against Solomon. Jeroboam’s rebellion poses the greatest threat to Solomon because Jeroboam has exemplary leadership qualities and because the prophet Ahijah authorized Jeroboam to act.

11:27 Here is the account. See note on 9:15. terraces. See note on 9:15.

11:28 man of standing. Designates an impressive, highly respected person (cf. Ruth 2:1; 1 Sam 9:1). in charge of the whole labor force. Exposed Jeroboam to grievances that Israelite workers harbored against Solomon. tribes of Joseph. Ephraim and Manasseh (Gen 46:20; Josh 17:17; 2 Sam 19:20).

11:29 Ahijah. For his later dealings with Jeroboam and his family, see 14:1–18; 15:29. prophet. Through whom Yahweh customarily authorized kings to rule (cf. 2 Kgs 9:1–6; Hos 8:4). Shiloh. About 20 miles (32 kilometers) north of Jerusalem; previously Israel’s informal capital (Josh 18:1; 22:12); later the site of Israel’s central sanctuary (1 Sam 1:3; 3:21; 4:3–4).

11:30 tore it into twelve pieces. Symbolic action in connection with a prophetic announcement is a common device among prophets (cf. Isa 20; Jer 27; Ezek 4–5). Here it visually illustrates the message that follows (vv. 31–39).

11:31-32 ten tribes . . . one tribe. The eleven-tribe total either excludes Levi (it belongs to Yahweh; see Num 3:11–13) or counts Judah and Benjamin as one tribe (Judah later absorbed Benjamin as it had Simeon previously; cf. v. 13; 12:21; Josh 19:1–9). The understanding that the northern and southern tribes comprise distinct political units first emerges in Judg 5:13–18. A continuing corridor of non-Israelites from Jebusite Jerusalem west to Canaanite Gezer (see 9:16–17) may have created the north-south tribal separation. The distinction explains why David first became king of Judah (2 Sam 2:4) before the northern tribes also recognized him, thus forming a unified kingdom. David’s capture of Jerusalem (2 Sam 5:6–7) and the gift of Gezer to Solomon’s Egyptian wife (1 Kgs 9:16–17) finally unite Israel territorially, but the two political blocks separate again after Solomon’s death (see ch. 12).

11:33 Repeats vv. 4–8 but now holds all Israel guilty of those sins.

11:36 lamp before me in Jerusalem. Symbolizes the continuation of the Davidic dynasty as God promised and in the city where the Lord’s Name dwells (cf. 15:4; 2 Kgs 8:19; Ps 132:17). Elsewhere, a lamp’s burning represents a life flourishing, while its snuffing out means death (2 Sam 21:17; Job 18:6; 21:17; Ps 18:28; Prov 13:9; 24:20).

11:37 Israel. The northern ten tribes.

11:38 as David . . . did. The standard for Jeroboam’s reign.

11:40 Shishak. Jeroboam’s host in Egypt (vv. 16–20), Pharaoh Shoshonq I (ca. 931–910 BC), who will lead an invasion against Rehoboam (14:25–26).

11:41–43 Solomon’s Death. A typical regnal summary brings the report on Solomon’s reign to an end and introduces his successor, Rehoboam.

11:41 annals of Solomon. Unknown source; probably the archival records for ch. 1–11 (cf. 14:19, 29).

11:43 city of David. See note on 2:10.

12:1—16:34 The Kings of Israel and Judah Until Ahab. This series of short sections narrates the first half century of the divided kingdom of Israel and Judah after Solomon died. Skirmishes over the location of their common border erupt and continue, while idolatry and political instability in Israel contrasts with the stable Davidic dynasty in Judah.

12:1–24 Israel Rebels Against Rehoboam. The northern tribes seek relief from Solomon’s harsh labor requirements, but Rehoboam foolishly threatens an increase in demands. The tribes reject Rehoboam and appoint Jeroboam as king, and the unified kingdom that David and Solomon ruled divides.

12:1 Shechem. A major ancient city and favorite religious center for northern tribes about 40 miles (64 kilometers) north of Jerusalem (cf. v. 25; Josh 24). Occupies a small valley between Mounts Gerizim and Ebal where two major highways crisscross (see Deut 27). all Israel. Means representatives of the northern tribes (vv. 16, 20–21; 2 Sam 5:5). make him king. The northern tribes had previously made a personal covenant with David (2 Sam 5:3), so this meeting is to renew their loyalty to the Davidic monarchy (cf. v. 4; 2 Sam 5:1–5). Negotiation of the terms of that renewed submission is part of the process.

12:3 Jeroboam. Respected royal official and recipient of Ahijah’s prophecy against Solomon. Perhaps aware of its contents, Solomon had tried to kill Jeroboam, but Jeroboam fled and took refuge with Pharaoh Shishak in Egypt until Solomon died (v. 2; 11:28, 40). That the northern tribes asks him to attend the assembly attests their high regard for him.

12:4 heavy yoke . . . harsh labor. Voices popular resentment of Solomon’s compulsory labor and heavy taxation (4:6–19; 5:13–18). In antiquity, new kings customarily granted their subjects concessions.

12:6 elders. A mature, seasoned advisory group from Solomon’s cabinet.

12:7 favorable answer. Grant concessions to retain tribal loyalty.

12:8 young men. The king’s inexperienced peers, compared to the advisors with years of experience serving Solomon. Rehoboam himself became king when he was 41 years of age (14:21).

12:10 My little finger is thicker than my father’s waist. This may be a proverb asserting that Rehoboam’s weakest demands will far surpass his father’s harshest ones. “Little finger” may refer to the king’s sexual organ and draw on the ancient Near Eastern association of sexual potency with power (cf. ch. 1). It claims that Rehoboam will be a more powerful king than his father, i.e., that his policy demands will far outdo Solomon’s. Rather than relief, Rehoboam threatens the northern tribes with the opposite—increased demands and increased enforcement of them (see v. 11).

12:11 scorpions. Whips embedded with nails or sharp metal shards to inflict an especially painful scourge. The tribes can expect intense, painful consequences—a scorpion-like sting—for noncompliance with the king’s policies.

12:15 this turn of events was from the LORD. God invisibly, sovereignly guided the sequence of events—the tribes’ discontent, Jeroboam’s emergence, the composition and deliberations of Rehoboam’s advisors—that culminates in the king’s decision (cf. v. 24; 22:20–34). to fulfill the word the LORD had spoken. Cf. 11:29–39; see notes on 6:11; 13:1.

12:16 What share do we have in David . . . ? Angrily renounces fealty to the Davidic monarchy; echoes Sheba’s earlier derision of David (2 Sam 20:1); possibly a popular political slogan among the northern tribes. tents. Alludes to Israel’s presettlement (and premonarchical) nomadic life to underscore the tribes’ radical break with David’s dynasty.

12:17 still ruled. Fulfills the one-tribe provision of Ahijah’s prophecy (11:13, 36).

12:18 Adoniram. An ill-fated royal administrator (cf. 5:14); symptomatic of pent-up popular anger. escape to Jerusalem. Confirms that Rehoboam no longer rules the northern ten tribes (cf. 11:31, 35).

12:21 Judah and the tribe of Benjamin. Cf. v. 23; 11:31.

12:22 man of God. A common way to refer to a prophet (see, e.g., 13:1; 17:18; 20:28; 2 Kgs 4:7; 13:19; Deut 33:1; 1 Sam 2:27; 9:9–10).

12:24 This is what the LORD says. The messenger formula identifies who sent the message and alerts the recipient(s) to hear it (13:2; 20:13, 14; 21:19; 22:11; 2 Kgs 3:16; 9:3; 22:16). this is my doing. Through a prophetic message, God informs Rehoboam that divine action, not human scheming, brought about the kingdom’s division, sparing Judah a futile, disastrous war. Similarly, the Pharisee Gamaliel later counsels the Sanhedrin to release, not punish, the apostles lest the Jewish leaders find themselves “fighting against God” and powerless to stop Jesus’ followers (Acts 5:34–39).

12:25–33 Golden Calves at Bethel and Dan. Despite his divine appointment, King Jeroboam fears that pilgrimages to the temple will drive his subjects to kill him and return to Rehoboam. He oversteps his authority and violates the Torah when he creates an alternative religious system and appoints its clergy to keep the people away from Jerusalem.

12:25 fortified Shechem. Defensive preparations in case Rehoboam invades. Shechem (see note on v. 1) was Jeroboam’s new capital. Peniel. A popular ford east of the Jordan River near the Jabbok River; Jacob wrestled with God there (Gen 32:30–31).

12:28 golden calves. Probably bulls, symbolizing power and fertility (cf. 7:25; 14:9). This violates prohibitions against image-making (Exod 20:4–6; Deut 4:15–19; 5:8–10). Here are your gods. A partial verbatim replica of Exod 32:4, 8 that compares this event to the golden calf episode in which both the people and Aaron sinned.

12:29 Bethel. The northern kingdom’s southern border; about 11 miles (17.7 kilometers) from Jerusalem. Jacob’s encounter with Yahweh there (Gen 28:10–22) had already established the town as a sacred shrine (Judg 20:18–28). Dan. See note on 1 Sam 3:20.

12:30 became a sin. Implies that people actually worshiped the calves. 1-2 Kings tags such worship as “the sin(s) of Jeroboam” that doomed Israel (13:34; 16:26; 22:52; 2 Kgs 17:21; 23:15).

12:31 high places. See note on 3:2. not Levites. Violates Deut 18:1–8; cf. 1 Kgs 13:33.

12:32 festival. The identity of this event is unclear. It could be the Festival of Tabernacles, but its date suggests otherwise. fifteenth day of the eighth month. Exactly a month later than the Tabernacles celebration that Judah would observe in Jerusalem the 15th to the 21st of the seventh month (see note on 8:2; cf. Lev 23:34; Num 29:12–38). offered sacrifices on the altar. Means that Jeroboam performed the duties of a priest, overstepping the boundary between priest and king (cf. 2 Chr 26:16–21).

13:1–34 The Man of God From Judah. Two incidents at Bethel, the northern sanctuary nearest Jerusalem, sound three themes that echo across the rest of 1-2 Kings: prophets of Yahweh condemn sinful kings (vv. 1–10; cf. Deut 18:15–22; Jer 28); God’s people must distinguish between true and false prophecy (vv. 11–32); and Jeroboam’s legacy is disastrous (vv. 33–34). Verses 1–32 address King Jeroboam, v. 33 reports his response, and v. 34 summarizes his negative impact on Israel. Jeroboam marks the first of a long, sordid history of evil northern monarchs who continue Jeroboam’s policy and thus imperil Israel.

13:1 By the word of the LORD. The chapter’s key thematic phrase. Means the spoken message God has commissioned the prophet to give King Jeroboam (vv. 2, 5, 9, 17, 18, 32; cf. vv. 20, 21, 26). Divine initiative drives the story. man of God. See note on 12:22. came from Judah to Bethel. God’s sending to the northern kingdom a prophet from the southern kingdom underscores that Yahweh remains the sovereign covenant God of all his people and warns Jeroboam that his competing religious system is illegitimate because no prophetic word authorized it. Two centuries later another prophet from the southern kingdom, Amos, visits Bethel to condemn the northern kingdom’s worship and its royal patron, Jeroboam II (Amos 7:10–17; cf. 2 Kgs 23:15–20). See note on 6:11.

13:2 altar. Personifies Jeroboam’s evil religious program. This is what the LORD says. See v. 21; see also note on 12:24. Josiah. King of Judah three centuries later (641/40–609 BC) who fulfills this prophecy (cf. 2 Kgs 23:15–16). sacrifice the priests. Defiles the altar and renders it unusable.

13:3 sign. A visible prophetic action to confirm the certainty of a prophecy’s fulfillment. This short-term prediction aims to validate that the long-term prophecy is genuine (Deut 18:21–22). See v. 5 for this fulfillment.

13:6 Intercede. Prophetic mediation with God on behalf of humans (cf. Gen 20:7; 1 Sam 7:5; Jer 7:16; 14:11). restored. Confirms that the intercessor is a trustworthy man of God (cf. v. 1).

13:9 A meal with Jeroboam at Bethel might imply that the prophet tolerates the king’s idolatry.

13:10 Acts out that the prophet disapproves of the site (cf. v. 17).

13:11 sons . . . father. Probably not kinship but a guild of prophet apprentices at Bethel that the old prophet led (cf. vv. 18, 20, 25). This was often called the “company of the prophets” (20:35; 2 Kgs 2:2–3).

13:18 Bring him back. Contradicts what the man of God already knows; lacks the expected, “Thus says the LORD” (cf. v. 21; 22:27). lying. Implies that the man of God may have missed subtle cues to the deception.

13:21 You have defied the word of the LORD. Rejection of a prophecy already received makes the defiant recipient liable to divine judgment (vv. 22, 24). See notes on v. 1; 6:11.

13:22 not be buried in the tomb of your ancestors. A painful, lonely, and humiliating fate (cf. v. 30; 2 Kgs 9:28; 2 Sam 2:32).

13:24 killed him. The fulfillment of the prophecy (vv. 21–22). It warns Jeroboam not to defy God’s message lest divine judgment also destroy him.

13:25 reported it in the city. News of the miracle reached Bethel, where the prophet authenticates it as judgment by connecting it with the man of God’s defiance (v. 26). For Jeroboam’s response, see v. 33.

13:28 The passive lion and donkey personify silent awe before God’s dramatic intervention. Normally a donkey would run and a lion would devour both it and the corpse, but here both recognize the fall of divine judgment. The man of God receives what his defiance deserves.

13:30 own tomb. Fulfills v. 22.

13:31 bury me in the grave. By seeking burial with the man of God, the old prophet signals that he sides with the former’s prediction and personally authenticates it as genuine, notwithstanding the man of God’s disobedience (v. 32). The prophet’s concurrence may also imply that prophecy from the southern kingdom is more reliable than that coming from the northern kingdom and possibly tainted by Jeroboam’s influence.

13:32 certainly come true. That the prophecy condemning the man of God was fulfilled convinces the old prophet that the man of God’s prophecy against the altar in Bethel will also be fulfilled (vv. 1–3). He assumes that the hallmark of genuine prophecy is that its predictions are fulfilled (Jer 28:8–9).

13:33 Even after this. Contrasts Jeroboam’s lack of repentance with the repentance of the prophet. The king’s defiance earns him divine judgment (v. 34).

13:34 sin of the house of Jeroboam. The reason Jeroboam will leave neither dynasty nor survivors (cf. 12:30; 14:1–20).

14:1–20 Ahijah’s Prophecy Against Jeroboam. The prophet Ahijah announces Jeroboam’s condemnation and details the disastrous fates awaiting both king and country. The king’s wife and the sick prince personify the disaster about to befall Jeroboam and his family. Jeroboam instructs his wife to visit the prophet (vv. 1–3); God alerts Ahijah concerning it (vv. 4–6); Ahijah conveys a prophecy to Jeroboam through his queen (vv. 7–16); and its fulfillment plays out (vv. 17–20).

14:2 disguise yourself. The king thinks that he can fool Ahijah into giving the queen a positive prophecy concerning the sick prince. The desperate ploy betrays Jeroboam’s awareness of his own guilt, genuine regard for Ahijah’s prophetic power, and superstitious faith in prophecy as magic. He seems unaware, however, of God’s power to inform Ahijah of the disguise (cf. v. 5; 22:30). told me. See 11:29–39.

14:3 The generous food gift probably amounts to a fee for services rendered (cf. 2 Kgs 5:15; 8:8–9; 1 Sam 9:7–8).

14:4 could not see. Implies that Ahijah is vulnerable to the deception (cf. Gen 27:1, 22–23).

14:5 God exposes the ruse in advance.

14:6 Human disguises can never outwit God’s omniscience (cf. 22:30).

14:7 what the LORD, the God of Israel, says. Cf. v. 11; 13:21; see note on 12:24. appointed you ruler. See 11:29–39.

14:8 my servant David. The paradigm of faithfulness for all subsequent kings (15:3–5, 11; 2 Kgs 14:3; 16:2; 18:3; 22:2). Cf. the similar indictment of Solomon (cf. 11:4, 6).

14:9 more evil than all who lived before you. Alludes to Solomon’s sin (cf. vv. 22–24).

14:11 Not being buried was the greatest shame (cf. v. 13; 21:19, 23–24; 2 Kgs 9:8–10).

14:12 Confirms the mother’s worst fears.

14:15 The announcement anticipates the destruction of the northern kingdom and its exile two centuries later. Asherah poles. Cf. 18:19; 2 Kgs 13:6; 23:7; Isa 27:9; Mic 5:14; see note on Exod 34:13.

14:16 sins. Creation of idolatrous worship centers that imperil Israel.

14:17 Tirzah. The northern kingdom’s new capital; seven miles (11.3 kilometers) northeast of Shechem (12:25; cf. 15:21; 16:8, 15). died. Fulfills Ahijah’s prophecy and ends Jeroboam’s dynastic hopes.

14:19 other events. Typical introduction to a regnal summary in 1-2 Kings (cf. v. 29; 11:41; 15:7, 31; 2 Kgs 10:34; 15:31). annals of the kings of Israel. An as yet undiscovered source of information for the reigns of northern kings.

14:20 twenty-two years. 931/30–910/9 BC.

14:21–31 Rehoboam King of Judah. The back-and-forth, parallel treatments of kings of Judah and Israel begin and continue until Israel’s end (2 Kgs 17). In Judah, Israel-like apostasy, a disastrous Egyptian invasion, and ongoing warfare with Israel typify this period.

14:21 seventeen years. 931/30–913 BC. the city the LORD had chosen. Expresses Jerusalem’s special status as the Lord’s home. Name. See note on 9:3; cf. 11:12–13. Naamah . . . an Ammonite. Mother of Rehoboam and one of Solomon’s foreign wives (cf. v. 31; 11:1).

14:22 Judah’s idolatry under Rehoboam eclipses that of Solomon and Jeroboam (cf. v. 24; 11:6; 14:9).

14:23 high places. See note on 3:2; cf. 12:31; 13:33–34. sacred stones. Stone pillars at sacred places associated with Baal. Asherah poles. See note on v. 15; cf. 2 Kgs 17:10; 18:4; 23:14; Exod 23:24; 34:13; Deut 7:5.

14:24 male shrine prostitutes. Perhaps a holdover from Canaanite cultic practices that Moses had forbidden Israelites to perform (Deut 23:17–18; cf. 1 Kgs 15:12; 2 Kgs 23:7; Hos 4:14).

14:25 Shishak. See note on 11:40. He attacked Jerusalem ca. 926/25 BC.

14:26 Shows Judah’s military vulnerability under Rehoboam. treasures. Cf. 7:51. gold shields. See note on 10:17.

14:29 other events. See note on v. 19. annals of the kings of Judah. The source for royal events in Judah (cf. v. 19; 11:41; 15:7, 23; 22:45; 2 Kgs 8:23; 12:19; 15:6, 36; 16:19; 20:20; 21:17; 23:28).

14:30 Border skirmishes between Judah and Israel continue for a half century (cf. 15:6–7, 16–23, 32).

14:31 Naamah. See note on v. 21.

15:1–8 Abijah King of Judah. Judah’s susceptibility to idolatrous influences and Yahweh’s loyalty to David typify Abijah’s three-year reign (913–911/10 BC).

15:2 Maakah. Abijah’s mother and grandmother of his son Asa. She was perhaps a proponent of royal idolatry (cf. v. 13; 2 Chr 13:2).

15:3 all the sins his father had done. Replays Solomon’s and Rehoboam’s unfaithfulness (cf. 11:4).

15:4 for David’s sake. Divine mercy for Abijah reciprocates David’s exemplary loyalty (cf. v. 5; 2 Kgs 8:19; 19:34; 20:6). lamp. See note on 11:36. God continues David’s dynasty.

15:5 Uriah the Hittite. An allusion to David’s adulterous affair with Bathsheba and the subsequent murder of Uriah (2 Sam 11–12).

15:6 war between Abijah and Jeroboam. Cf. v. 7; see note on 14:30.

15:9–24 Asa King of Judah. Asa enjoys a long reign (911/10–870/69 BC) and ranks among the few kings of Judah whose reign approached that of David’s. Asa is the first of four later Davidic kings to initiate religious reform against idolatry.

15:11 Asa’s conduct satisfies the Davidic standard.

15:13 deposed his grandmother. See v. 2 and note. His action illustrates his firm commitment to religious reform. queen mother. A prestigious, influential position in ancient and modern monarchies. Kidron Valley. See note on 2:37.

15:14 high places. See note on 3:2; cf. 12:31; 13:33–34. fully committed. Israel’s ideal of religious devotion (8:61; contrast v. 3; 11:4).

15:15 Asa’s exemplary act of royal devotion confirms that his reform is sincere (cf. v. 14).

15:16 Baasha. Throughout his 24-year reign (909/8–886/85 BC) this king of the northern tribe of Israel waged war with Asa (vv. 27–30; 15:33—16:7).

15:17 Ramah. A strategic Benjamite town five miles (8 kilometers) north of Jerusalem.

15:18 treasuries. See note on 7:51; cf. 14:26–27. Ben-Hadad. Apparently the traditional name of Aramean kings (ch. 20; 2 Kgs 6:24; 8:9, 14–15; 13:3, 24–25). Aram. A kingdom or confederation of tribes northeast of the northern kingdom of Israel in modern Syria. Damascus. See 11:24; cf. 19:15.

15:19 my father and your father. Probably alludes to Aramean–Israelite relations under David and Solomon (cf. 11:23–25; 2 Sam 8:5–12; 2 Chr 8:3–4). gift of silver and gold. The purchase price to get Ben-Hadad to switch sides (see note on v. 21).

15:20 These towns are along Israel’s northern and eastern borders—a sizeable territorial loss for Baasha.

15:21 stopped building. Confirms that Asa’s diplomacy worked (v. 19). Tirzah. See note on 14:17; cf. 16:8, 15; 2 Kgs 15:14.

15:22 Geba . . . Mizpah. Fortified cities east and north of Ramah. Relocating the border three miles (4.8 kilometers) north eases the threat to Jerusalem.

15:23 other events. See note on 14:19; cf. 16:5; 2 Kgs 10:34; 13:8, 12; 14:15, 28; 20:20. his feet became diseased. The type of illness that plagues Asa is unclear; the Talmud diagnoses it as gout. Throughout his suffering Asa relies solely on his royal physicians rather than seeking God’s healing (cf. 2 Chr 16:7–9, 12). Later, Elijah will condemn King Ahaziah of Israel for consulting Baal-Zebub of Ekron, not the Lord, concerning his recovery from an injury (2 Kgs 1:1–4).

15:25–32 Nadab King of Israel. During his two-year reign (910/9–909/8 BC), Nadab acts just like his father, Jeroboam.

15:26 did evil in the eyes of the LORD. The standard evaluation of bad kings from Solomon on down (cf. v. 34; 11:6; 13:33; 14:22; 16:25; 22:52; 2 Kgs 8:27; 15:24, 28).

15:27 struck him down. The first of three violent coups in the northern kingdom’s early history (cf. 16:10, 15–16; 2 Kgs 21:23–24). Baasha removes a potential threat to his reign. Gibbethon. A Philistine town in the coastal plain (cf. 16:15). Nadab apparently attempted to extend Israel’s southwestern border.

15:29 according to the word of the LORD. Ahijah’s prophecy (14:10–11). See notes on 6:11; 13:1.

15:30 Two other causes for Jeroboam’s terrible fate.

15:32 See vv. 6–7; see also note on 14:30.

15:33—16:7 Baasha King of Israel. This reviews Baasha’s 24-year reign (909/8–886/85 BC). A prophetic announcement condemns Baasha to Jeroboam’s fate.

15:34 did evil. Baasha is yet another northern ruler in Jeroboam’s mold who harms Israel.

16:1 Jehu. This prophet’s only appearance in 1-2 Kings is in this chapter. Hanani. See 2 Chr 16:7–9.

16:4 Virtually quotes Ahijah’s word to Jeroboam (14:11) and resembles what Elijah says to Ahab (21:24; cf. 21:23).

16:7 Summarizes vv. 2–4.

16:8–14 Elah King of Israel. Israel’s second assassination abruptly ends Elah’s two-year reign (886/85–885/84 BC). This mirrors the era’s political instability (cf. vv. 9–10). The report closely follows the narrative pattern of Baasha’s overthrow of Nadab (15:27–30): conspiracy leads to assassination of the current king and the killer’s accession to the throne (vv. 9–10); the new king then annihilates his predecessor’s whole family (v. 11) to fulfill a prophecy (v. 12) because the late king promoted idolatry (v. 13). The irony is that at Zimri’s hands Elah, Baasha’s son, falls victim to the same fate that his father inflicted on Nadab.

16:9 Tirzah. See note on 14:17.

16:10 killed. For the second time (see note on 15:27), judgment strikes a royal successor. Baasha killed Nadab (son of Jeroboam) in 15:27–30 and now Zimri kills Elah (son of Baasha) in 16:9–13.

16:12 word of the LORD. Again connects a king’s fate with prophecy (vv. 1–4, 34; cf. 14:18; 15:29; 2 Kgs 9:26; 14:25; 23:16; 24:2). See notes on 6:11; 13:1.

16:13 because of all the sins. Cf. vv. 19, 26, 31; 15:30, 34.

16:15–20 Zimri King of Israel. Zimri’s inglorious seven-day reign is the shortest in Israel’s history. The report tracks the repercussions of his coup.

16:15 Gibbethon. See note on 15:27.

16:16 plotted against . . . murdered. A royal assassination (cf. 15:27). This sparks a military countercoup.

16:17 Tirzah. See note on 14:17.

16:18 citadel. Maximally fortified city space where the besieged inhabitants took their last stand.

16:19 because of the sins. Cf. v. 16; traces Zimri’s fate to his week-long reign in the pattern of Jeroboam.

16:21–28 Omri King of Israel. After two coups and a short-lived civil war, Omri gives the northern kingdom a period of political stability and a new capital city. He also founds a dynasty that will last more than 40 years. Two of his granddaughters marry kings of Judah, for a time sealing marriage alliances between the Omride and Davidic dynasties (2 Kgs 8:16–19, 26–27). One even ruled Judah as queen until she was overthrown (2 Kgs 11:1–21).

16:21 split into two factions. Evidences Israel’s fragile political situation.

16:23 Omri. Ruled 885/84–874/73 BC. Remembered as Moab’s oppressor in the Mesha Stele (see note on 11:7). Long after his death Assyrian annals still called Israel “the Land of Omri.”

16:24 Samaria. Seven miles (11.3 kilometers) northwest of Shechem (near modern Sebastia). The northern kingdom’s new capital, known as “the wreath” (see Isa 28:1–4 and note), stood on a hill above fertile valleys spread around it 300 feet (91.4 meters) below. The hill’s name recalls the hill’s original owner, Shemer, either to honor him or possibly as a condition of its sale to Omri (cf. Ruth 4:5). Its hilltop location gave northern kings an impregnable capital city with a royal citadel on par with the special fortification protecting kings of Judah (20:1–21; 2 Kgs 6:25; 18:9–10; 2 Sam 5:6–12). According to archaeologists, Omri and Ahab beautified the city with impressive structures comparable to those Solomon had built in Jerusalem. On occasion the royal city’s name stood for the northern kingdom as a whole much as Jerusalem sometimes designated the southern kingdom (e.g., 21:1; Isa 10:10; Amos 6:1).

16:25 did evil . . . more than all. The harshest criticism of any king thus far. Israel’s religious life sinks to a new level (cf. v. 30).

16:26 ways of Jeroboam. Cf. vv. 2, 19; 15:34. See note on 12:30.

16:27 other events. See note on 14:19.

16:28 buried in Samaria. The first burial in the new capital’s royal tombs (cf. 22:37; 2 Kgs 10:35; 13:9, 13; 14:16).

16:29–34 Ahab Becomes King of Israel. This introduces and evaluates Ahab’s reign (874/73–853 BC) in severely negative terms. Yet Ahab’s dynasty had a lasting impact on both Israel and Judah.

16:30 more evil . . . than any of those before him. More sinful that his father (cf. vv. 25–26) and comparable to Judah’s Manasseh (2 Kgs 21:9, 11).

16:31 married Jezebel. Marrying a Phoenician princess forges ties with Sidon (see note on 5:6; cf. 11:1; 18:4), a center of Baal worship. This repeats Solomon’s first misstep: his marriage alliances with foreign nations (3:1; 11:1–11; see note on 11:1–13). Ethbaal. The name implies that the family has long worshiped Baal, the Canaanite deity who debuts here (but other gods were also worshiped; see notes on 11:5, 7; 12:28; 14:15, 23). In the ancient Near East, parents commonly include their favorite god’s name in their children’s names. Jezebel’s grandparents had named Ethbaal, evidence of at least three generations of Baal worship in Jezebel’s family. began to serve Baal. Repeats Solomon’s second misstep, his rejection of Yahweh by worshiping other gods, making Ahab also liable for divine judgment (11:4–13). Ahab, however, goes one step further. He introduces and promotes in Israel the worship of Baal in place of Yahweh as royal policy nationwide.

16:32 altar for Baal in the temple of Baal. Implies that Ahab sponsors Baal worship in Israel. Cf. 2 Kgs 10; 11:18.

16:33 Asherah pole. See note on 14:15; cf. 14:23; see photo. did more to arouse the anger of the LORD. The unprecedented divine fury that Ahab’s actions causes indicates how unprecedented and outrageous God regards Ahab’s royal initiatives.

16:34 In Ahab’s time. Signals that the following brief report illustrates something significant about the Israelite king’s reign. rebuilt Jericho. Joshua’s curse of Jericho after the city’s destruction (Josh 6:26) is the background here. It said that death awaited the oldest and youngest children of anyone who rebuilds Jericho’s foundations and gates. But the Jericho that Israelites safely inhabit is an unwalled town or village (e.g., 2 Kgs 2:4–5, 18; Josh 18:21; Judg 1:16; 2 Sam 10:5; NT Jericho was at a separate location). The forbidden rebuilding is the restoration of Jericho as a fortified city with walls and gates (cf. 9:17, “rebuilt”). It violates God’s purpose for Jericho’s ruins—to remind the Israelites that God’s power has defeated Canaan and God’s grace gives it to them as a gift. at the cost of. No mention is made of how Hiel’s sons die, but he may have followed a Canaanite practice by offering them as a sacrifice, or perhaps some divine judgment strikes them. the word of the LORD spoken by Joshua. Presents Joshua’s curse as a prophetic word that finds fulfillment in Hiel’s fate, and adds another example of the prophecy-fulfillment theme in 1-2 Kings (see notes on 6:11; 13:1). The incident implies that Ahab and Jezebel sanction religious rebellion in Israel and anticipates Israel’s dire fate under their rule.

17:1—2 Kgs 10:36 The Prophetic Ministries of Elijah and Elisha. They gallantly oppose Omri’s dynasty and its promotion of Baal worship. Stories probably passed down and collected by other prophets in the northern kingdom have found their way into 1-2 Kings. The conflicts between prophets and kings mirror a cosmic contest between Yahweh and Baal for Israel’s worship.

17:1—18:46 Elijah’s Confrontation With Baal. This battle turns the tide against the entrenched, state-sponsored Baal worship in Israel. It opens with a drought that Elijah announces (17:1—18:15), climaxes with Yahweh’s victory over Baal on Mount Carmel (18:16–40), and ends with the dramatic return of rainfall (18:41–46).

17:1 Elijah Announces a Great Drought. Elijah’s dramatic debut asserts that Yahweh, not the Canaanites’ Baal, sovereignly controls fertility.

17:1 Tishbe. An unidentified town in Gilead. Possibly Listib, eight miles (12.9 kilometers) north of the Jabbok River. See NIV text note. Gilead. A mountainous region in Transjordan (today, northern Jordan). Tribal home of Gad, Reuben, and half of Manasseh. As the LORD, the God of Israel, lives. A traditional oath formula (see note on 1:29); invokes a condition that the Lord will enforce (cf. v. 12). dew . . . rain. Israel’s primary sources of water. Jas 5:17–18 presumes that God authorized this announcement in response to Elijah’s prior prayer. Elijah’s example encourages any believer to pray because Elijah was human, and God answered his prayers.

17:2–6 Elijah Fed by Ravens. As Israel suffers severe drought and Baal’s credibility as guarantor of fertility falls, God sovereignly provides for his faithful servant Elijah. The miraculous provision keeps Elijah alive east of the Jordan River just as God sustained Israel in the wilderness in Moses’ day. The contrast between a well-fed Elijah in Gilead with a hungry Israel in the promised land clearly portrays Israel’s reliance on Baal for food as foolish.

17:2 the word of the LORD came to. See notes on 6:11; 13:1.

17:3 God relocates Elijah beyond Ahab’s reach. Kerith Ravine. An unknown valley in Transjordan.

17:6 morning . . . evening. The quantity of Elijah’s fare exceeded the amount that common people normally ate. They reserved meat only for special occasions, while the dinner tables of kings featured meat daily (4:22–23). Elijah’s diet of meat twice daily was unusual and portrays him as an honored guest at King Yahweh’s royal table (see Exod 29:38–41; Num 28:4–8). In 18:19, Elijah spotlights the privileged prophets who eat at Jezebel’s table while the common people who follow them into apostasy go hungry.

17:7–24 Elijah and the Widow at Zarephath. God again relocates Elijah a long way from Ahab, though very near the king’s ally in Sidon, where Jezebel grew up. This location again displays God’s sovereignty over fertility and life itself in the heartland of Baal worship (cf. 2 Kgs 4:1–7, 18–37).

17:7 brook. A rain-fed streambed empty in dry seasons.

17:9 Zarephath. A Phoenician coastal town eight miles (12.9 kilometers) south of Sidon and 14 miles (22.5 kilometers) north of Tyre (modern Sarafand). Sidon. See note on 5:6; cf. 11:1; 16:30–32.

17:10 widow . . . gathering sticks. Widows in Israel were often poor, surviving mainly on food distributed from local food-tithe donations (cf. Deut 14:28–29). Verse 12 confirms her poverty. For Jesus, the rejection of Elijah in Israel that leads Elijah to this non-Israelite widow compares to the rejection of Jesus and his Messianic mission in Jesus’ hometown of Nazareth (Luke 4:24–26).

17:12 As surely as the LORD your God lives. An oath (see note on 1:29) to verify her claim of poverty (cf. vv. 1, 14; 18:10). eat it—and die. She is down to her last meal.

17:13 first make a small loaf. Tests the woman’s trust in Elijah as a reliable prophet (cf. v. 18) and affirms his confidence that Yahweh will provide what he promised (v. 9).

17:14 what the LORD, the God of Israel, says. See notes on 6:11; 13:1. not be used up . . . not run dry. Signifies that Israel’s God, not Baal, provides food—even without any rainfall.

17:18 The distraught widow’s questions imply that her hospitality toward Elijah has had an unfortunate effect. Rather than please God, she thinks that it brought her sin to God’s attention. The question betrays a sense of guilt probably rooted in pagan ideas. However, it also puts into words the issue that confronts both her and Elijah: Why did the God whom Elijah promised would keep her and her son alive (vv. 13–14) send death instead? At stake for Elijah is his credibility as a reliable prophet (cf. vv. 20, 24). man of God. See note on 12:22.

17:21 three times. A number that commonly occurs in customary and ritual actions (18:34; 2 Kgs 13:18; Exod 23:14; Num 24:10; 1 Sam 20:41). let this boy’s life return to him. The issue is whether Yahweh or Baal controls life and death. This incident forms part of the larger struggle between the two deities in 1-2 Kgs, the struggle that drives the confrontation between Elijah and Baal’s clergy on Mount Carmel (18:19–40).

17:24 The son’s resurrection confirms for the widow that Elijah is an instrument of God’s power and, more important, that the prophet is a reliable spokesperson of God’s word. It is ironic that a Phoenician woman confesses that God speaks through Elijah, an acknowledgment that God’s own people refused to affirm. Cf. 2 Kgs 4:18–37. God’s care for this needy widow also exemplifies the care of the needy that both OT and NT mandate for God’s people (Exod 22:21; Deut 10:18; 27:19; Ps 68:5; Isa 1:17; Jas 1:27). For God’s relation to non-Israelites, see note on 8:42.

18:1–15 Elijah and Obadiah. Elijah’s return to Israel signals the reversal of the drought that 17:1 decreed. Through Obadiah, Elijah glimpses his homeland as a battleground between state-sponsored idolatry and the persecuted faithful of Yahweh. Their meeting marks the first step toward the climactic contest between the combatants on Mount Carmel.

18:1 Yahweh commissions Elijah to confront the king face to face. I will send rain. Israel’s God, not Baal, controls the weather, including droughts and rainstorms, and determines whether or not Israel enjoys fertility.

18:2 famine was severe. It affected even Ahab. Samaria. See note on 16:24.

18:3 palace administrator. Royal chief of staff over palace operations (cf. 4:6; 16:9; 2 Kgs 10:5; 18:18; 19:2).

18:4 Jezebel. The person who most represents the official, violent oppression of God’s prophets.

18:5 springs and valleys. Water sources not dependent on rainfall, perhaps unscathed by drought. keep the horses and mules alive. Portrays Ahab as a self-centered, calloused ruler scouring his kingdom for what little food and water remain in order to maintain his military strength rather than to ease the suffering of his subjects (cf. 10:26). The annals of the Assyrian ruler Shalmaneser III (ninth century BC) report that Ahab could bring 2,000 chariots against him.

18:7 Pictures a chance meeting. bowed down to the ground. See note on 1:16.

18:12 Cf. 2 Kgs 2:11; Gen 5:24; Ezek 3:14; 8:3; 40:1–3. worshiped the LORD since my youth. Argues that his lifelong devotion either makes him worthy of a better fate than execution or makes him more likely to be executed by Jezebel.

18:13 Another reason Obadiah feels his life is at risk (cf. vv. 3–4).

18:16–46 Elijah on Mount Carmel. The public contest between Yahweh and Baal on Mount Carmel determines who is the real God, the only one worthy of Israel’s worship. Ahab convenes his religious leaders to join in the event (vv. 16–20), the contest ensues (vv. 21–40), and God sends rainfall (vv. 41–46).

18:17 you troubler of Israel. Ahab alludes to and blames Elijah for the current drought. Joshua used the same verb to describe the shaken confidence after the defeat at Ai that Achan’s sin had caused Israel (cf. v. 18; Josh 7:25–26). The cause of the present disaster, however, is Ahab’s rejection of Yahweh in favor of Baal, not some fault with Elijah.

18:18 Omri and Ahab are accountable for the drought.

18:19 people from all over Israel. Elijah’s open invitation to all Israelites suggests the national importance of the event and the issue to be decided. Mount Carmel. A mountain ridge overlooking the Mediterranean near modern Haifa. Baal . . . Asherah. See notes on Exod 34:13; Deut 12:3. Jezebel was importing Baal, the national god of Tyre, to replace the Lord as Israel’s national god. Asherah was worshiped as the wife of Baal. eat at Jezebel’s table. Suggests membership in the royal court.

18:21 waver. Elijah’s question describes Israel’s indecision concerning whether Baal or Yahweh is the true God. The religious ambivalence cannot continue because Yahweh demands exclusive allegiance.

18:24 The god who answers by fire. Fire commonly indicates that God is present (cf. Gen 15:17; Exod 19:18; Hos 8:14; Amos 1:4). Thunderstorms were thought to be chariots on which Yahweh and Baal rode (Ps 104:3; see note on Ps 68:4). Thunder was said to be their voice (see Ps 29:3–9 and note) and lightning (“fire”) their weapons (see Ps 18:14; cf. Lev 9:24). Elijah asks the true God to prove his existence by sending a direct, visible answer.

18:27 taunt. Ridicule familiar beliefs about Baal. deep in thought. Pondering more important things. busy. Perhaps a euphemism for relieving himself. traveling. Out of the “office”; may allude to Baal’s regular descent to the underworld in ritual death. sleeping and must be awakened. May refer to rituals to revive him (cf. v. 28).

18:28 slashed themselves. Self-mutilation, common in ancient mourning rites and possibly a familiar Canaanite cultic gesture; shows a last-ditch effort to rouse a lethargic Baal or persuade the death-god Mot to release him. The Mosaic law strictly forbids mutilation of the body (Lev 19:28; Deut 14:1).

18:29 evening sacrifice. At about sunset (Exod 29:39). no response. Silence from Baal despite his clergy’s best efforts.

18:30 torn down. Possibly by Jezebel’s agents, symbolizing her program to replace Yahweh with Baal (cf. vv. 4, 13; 19:10, 14).

18:31 one for each of the tribes. The Yahweh-Baal struggle was a national threat, not just a northern problem. Your name shall be Israel. Quotes Gen 35:10.

18:34 third time. For the significance of expressions with the number three, see note on 17:21.

18:35 The water-drenching perhaps foreshadows the coming rain and also assures the crowd that what follows is no prophetic trick by Elijah.

18:36 Elijah’s simple, direct prayer contrasts with his opponents’ loud, long rituals. His appeal is twofold: (1) to the Lord to act in line with his ancient covenant with Abraham, Isaac, and Israel; and (2) to the Israelites to remember everything God had done for them since those patriarchs lived.

18:38 After Baal’s silence, Yahweh’s answer is decisive, dramatic, and persuasive.

18:39 fell prostrate. Symbolizes renewed submission to Yahweh. The LORD—he is God! A double confession of faith is emphatic (cf. v. 37) and implies that only Yahweh really exists.

18:40 Kishon Valley. A small, fertile area along the northern base of Mount Carmel in the Jezreel Valley (cf. v. 42; Judg 4:7, 13; 5:21; Ps 83:9). slaughtered. The Mosaic penalty for prophets who promote other gods (Deut 13:1–5).

18:43 look toward the sea. Typical source of rainstorms in Israel (cf. v. 44). Seven times. The number is common in ritual actions and is symbolic of completeness (Gen 33:3; 46:25; Lev 4:17; Josh 6:4).

18:44 cloud as small as a man’s hand. Signifies an imminent, unnatural provision of rain.

18:45 Jezreel. A city 17 miles (27.4 kilometers) east of Mount Carmel; site of a second royal palace (21:1, 23; 2 Kgs 8:29).

18:46 Further confirms that God empowers Elijah (17:24).

19:1–9a Elijah Flees to Horeb. After Elijah’s triumph on Mount Carmel, Jezebel’s death threat sends Elijah to again seek refuge beyond her reach (cf. 17:3, 7). He flees to southern Judah and then to Horeb (see note on v. 8). Allusions to Moses’ life paint Elijah as a prophet like Moses (cf. Deut 18:14–22): like Moses, Elijah escapes a royal execution and encounters God at Horeb.

19:3 Beersheba. Judah’s southern frontier town (e.g., 4:25; 2 Sam 3:10); gateway to the Negev desert, Elijah’s next stop.

19:4 broom bush. Probably the still-common white broom (retama raetam); often the only desert shade available. Take my life. Voices Elijah’s deep despair and feelings of failure (cf. Num 11:11–15; Jonah 4:3, 8).

19:6 bread . . . jar of water. A basic meal (cf. 17:10–11).

19:7 journey. Hints at Horeb (v. 8) as Elijah’s final destination.

19:8 forty days and forty nights. God sustains Elijah for the same length of time and at the same place (Mount Sinai) as he did Moses (Exod 24:18; 34:28; cf. Exod 3:1; 19:3). Equals the time period that Jesus will spend in the wilderness (Matt 4:2, 11). The question is: Like Moses, will Elijah also see God, and will that glimpse lift his spirits? Horeb. The larger region in which Mount Sinai is located; an alternate name for Mount Sinai (8:9; Exod 3:1; 19:1–3) where the Lord initiated a covenant with Israel (Exod 19–24). The distance from near Beersheba to Horeb was about 250 miles (400 kilometers), longer if Elijah has taken a less direct route. Rugged terrain during the journey’s last leg would prolong the time it would take Elijah to arrive. mountain of God. Cf. Exod 3:1; 4:27; 18:5.

19:9a cave. Perhaps the cleft of the rock that protected Moses as God passed by (Exod 33:22).

19:9b–18 The Lord Appears to Elijah. The repetition of the same question and answer (vv. 9b–10, 13–14; cf. Exod 19:19) before and after God’s dramatic appearance (vv. 11–12) gives the incident the formality of a ritual. The new prophetic commission (vv. 15–18) may indicate that the story’s purpose is to show that God sends Elijah back to his prophetic mission (see note on v. 12). Echoes of Moses’ encounter with Yahweh abound (cf. Exod 33:12–23), including his receipt of a new commission (Exod 2:15; 3:1–4).

19:11 Israel regarded windstorms and earthquakes as among the visible signs of God’s activity (Exod 19:16, 18; Judg 5:4; Ps 18:11–15; Nah 1:3–5).

19:12 fire. See note on 18:24. Cf. Deut 5:22–24. gentle whisper. The term describes either a hushed sound or complete silence (cf. Job 4:16; Ps 107:29). It probably refers either to a soft verbal message that God gives Elijah or to some undefined, silent sign of God’s nearness. Elijah receives a message through the contrast between the noisy, violent judgment that his indictment of Israel justified (wind, earthquake, fire) and the quiet, soft sound or silence he received. For the moment God’s will is not to judge Israel but for Elijah and Elisha to continue God’s dealings with his people from the present into the next generation (v. 16).

19:14 the only one left. Elijah believes himself to be the sole surviving worshiper of the Lord—and also to be in grave danger. The psalmists also cite imminent death as the reason God should intervene (Pss 28:1; 30:9), and Elijah’s claim may be a similar but less direct appeal. For God’s reply, see v. 18.

19:15 Desert of Damascus. A colorful term for the Aramean capital; highlights the city’s isolation as an oasis surrounded by a vast desert but able to flourish because of its two rivers. See note on 11:24; cf. 15:18. anoint Hazael. See 2 Kgs 8:7–15; cf. 2 Kgs 8–10; 12:17–18; 13:1–25. Aram. See note on 15:18.

19:18 seven thousand. A round number connoting completeness or fullness; corrects Elijah’s mistaken conclusion that he is Yahweh’s only worshiper (vv. 10, 14; 18:22). Despite the opposition of Ahab and Jezebel, God has preserved a godly remnant, an important biblical theme symbolized by Noah’s family (Gen 6–9) and survivors of military sieges (2 Kgs 19:4, 30, 31) and of exile (Isa 10:20–22; 11:16; 46:3). According to Paul, Jews who believe in Christ compose a remnant that also fulfills the claim of this verse (see Rom 11:2–5). not kissed. May allude to kissing idols during Baal worship (Hos 13:2).

19:19–21 The Call of Elisha. Elijah immediately completes the third item of his commission (v. 16): anointing his successor, Elisha.

19:19 threw his cloak around him. Symbolizes Elijah’s transferring prophetic authority and power (cf. 2 Kgs 9:3, 6–7; Exod 29:7). cloak. See note on 2 Kgs 2:8.

19:21 slaughtered them . . . burned the plowing equipment. Though obviously from a wealthy family, Elisha decisively closes that chapter of his life. follow Elijah . . . his servant. Implies that Elisha’s new status is as an apprentice prophet.

20:1–43 Ahab’s Conflicts With the Arameans. Ahab defends his kingdom against the territorial ambitions of the Aramean king, Ben-Hadad. His interactions with several unnamed prophets, incidents probably long remembered among them, further flesh out the portrait of Ahab in 1-2 Kings.

20:1–12 Ben-Hadad Attacks Samaria. Warring kings exchange messages during the siege of Samaria. The besieging king threatens violence to the city to persuade it to surrender and then prepares to attack.

20:1 Ben-Hadad . . . Aram. Cf. vv. 20, 33; see note on 15:18. Chronologically, the king was probably Ben-Hadad II (cf. 2 Kgs 8:7), either a son or grandson of Ben-Hadad I, whose reign began as early as 895 BC. Ch. 20 covers events over a two-year period (see vv. 22–26; cf. 22:1), after which Israel and Aram shared three years of peace before resuming warfare. In 853 BC, following that peaceful interlude, Ahab died while fighting the Arameans. This suggests ca. 857 BC as the date of the events in ch. 20. thirty-two kings. Rulers over cities or regions within the Aramean confederation (cf. v. 16); a sizeable force. Samaria. See note on 16:24.

20:6 everything you value. A sweeping demand that the Arameans be allowed to plunder the palace at will.

20:7 elders of the land. Probably a royal advisory body of tribal and or clan leaders (cf. Prov 31:23; Jer 26:17).

20:10 May the gods deal with me. An oath accepting dire consequences. By voluntarily swearing it, the king underscores that his threatened attack is imminent and that he has full confidence in its likelihood of success (cf. 19:2; Ruth 1:17). See notes on 1:29; 8:31; 17:1, 12; 21:3; cf. 2 Kgs 6:31.

20:11 This proverb warns Ben-Hadad not to “count [his] chickens before they hatch.” Only victorious kings, not confident ones, have the right to boast of a victory, and only after the fact. Prebattle bragging has blinded many a leader to the true dangers that await him.

20:13–34 Ahab Defeats Ben-Hadad. Ahab twice defeats Ben-Hadad after God reassures and guides him through prophets. The prophetic support of Ahab’s military ventures here contrasts sharply with the negative, critical treatment of the king by prophets in chs. 16–19. The story alternates between Israelite and Aramean perspectives.

20:13 This is what the LORD says. See vv. 14, 28, 42; see also note on 12:24. I will give it into your hand today. Prophetic assurances of victory like this are a common component of ancient battle reports (cf. 22:6–8; Deut 7:24; Josh 10:8, 19; 1 Sam 23:4). you will know that I am the LORD. Ahab had not sought divine relief from the Aramean siege of Samaria, but once again God graciously acts to reveal himself to the king and his people (see 18:36–39) by delivering the capital city. The lesson the Baal-worshiper Ahab is to learn from the victory is the same one taught on Mount Carmel (ch. 18): the Lord, not Baal, is the only true and living God (cf. v. 28).

20:14 who will do this? Request for divine tactical guidance through a prophet.

20:20 This improbable rout of superior forces fulfills God’s promise (v. 13) and confirms God’s presence and power.

20:22 spring. The dry, harvest season was ideal for military campaigns (cf. v. 26; 2 Sam 11:1).

20:23 The Aramean intelligence report misreads Israel as polytheistic and Yahweh’s power as limited.

20:24 other officers. This is probably done because these soldiers loyal to Ben-Hadad are more likely to fight bravely than the self-centered kings unwilling to die for their Aramean ally.

20:26 Aphek. A name for several towns, here probably one about three miles (4.8 kilometers) east of the Sea of Galilee.

20:28 man of God. See note on 12:22; cf. 17:18. you will know that I am the LORD. See note on v. 13.

20:31 we have heard. Another Aramean intelligence brief (cf. vv. 23–25). sackcloth. Dark-colored, rough cloth of goat or camel hair. As clothing it symbolizes mourning or slavery (Gen 37:34; 2 Sam 3:31; Lam 2:10; cf. 21:27).

20:32 my brother. See note on 9:13.

20:33 good sign. Implies that Ahab may show mercy (v. 31).

20:35–43 A Prophet Condemns Ahab. An Israelite prophet condemns Ahab because he makes a treaty that spares Ben-Hadad’s life.