Annotations for Revelation

1:1–8 Introduction. These verses establish the book’s divine origin (v. 1), John’s prophetic credentials (vv. 1–2), and the first readers’ identity (v. 4), and promise divine blessing for those who read and keep these words (v. 3).

1:1–3 Prologue. “The revelation from Jesus Christ” (v. 1) reaches the church by a three-stage process: (1) God gave it to Jesus, (2) who sent his angel to John, (3) who writes to believers (“his servants,” v. 1). This book is identified as “revelation” (v. 1), “prophecy” (v. 3), and Christian Scripture (“the word of God and the testimony of Jesus Christ,” v. 2).

1:1 The revelation from Jesus Christ. Book summary or title. It may mean revelation from Jesus, revelation about Jesus, or both (cf. 1 Cor 1:7; Gal 1:12; 1 Pet 1:7, 13). Here it emphasizes that Jesus discloses unseen, divine realities. what must soon take place. Alludes to Dan 2:28–30; cf. v. 19; 22:6; see Introduction: Interpreting Symbolism. angel. In Revelation and other apocalyptic literature, angels mediate God’s Word and execute God’s purposes (8:2; 10:8–10; 22:16; Dan 8:15–17; 9:21–22). John. See Introduction: Author.

1:3 Blessed. Revelation’s first beatitude promises God’s favor to those who read, hear, and rightly respond to John’s prophetic testimony (see “Seven Blessings in Revelation”; see also Ps 1:1; Matt 5:3–11). because. Introduces the reason that virtuous readers are blessed: God’s revealed purposes will soon be fulfilled (cf. v. 1; 22:10).

1:4–8 Greetings and Doxology. John’s circular letter to seven Asian churches begins with an introduction and theological greeting typical of other NT letters (vv. 4–6; see Introduction: Genre). Then he prophetically announces Jesus’ imminent coming (vv. 7–8).

1:4 seven churches. See Introduction: Recipients; cf. v. 11. Grace and peace. Standard Christian blessing (cf. Rom 1:7), here rooted in the triune God (see Introduction: Theology). is . . . was . . . is to come. Recalls God’s self-disclosure as “I AM” in Exod 3:14; cf. v. 8; 4:8; 11:17. seven spirits. See NIV text note. Probably alludes to Isa 11:2 (in the Septuagint, the pre-Christian Greek translation of the OT) and denotes the perfect work of God’s Spirit (3:1; 4:5; 5:6).

1:5 faithful witness. Cf. 3:14; Isa 55:4. Jesus bore witness unto death (cf. John 18:37; 1 Tim 6:13); believers like John (vv. 2, 9), Antipas (2:13), and others “follow the Lamb” (14:4) and must testify amidst suffering (6:9; 11:3; 12:11; 17:6). firstborn . . . ruler. Jesus’ resurrection establishes him as the exalted Davidic king (Ps 89:27; cf. Ps 2:6–9) and anticipates believers’ future resurrection (cf. 1 Cor 15:20). Jesus—not Caesar—is the supreme ruler, worthy of worship and total allegiance (11:15; 12:10; 17:14; 19:6). To him. Introduces a doxology that celebrates Jesus’ unsurpassed love for his people (cf. Rom 8:35–39) and his atoning death as the slain Lamb (5:8–9).

1:6 kingdom and priests. Describes the church’s vocation in light of Israel’s calling to be a “kingdom of priests” (Exod 19:6; cf. 5:10; 20:6; Isa 61:6; 1 Pet 2:9).

1:7 he is coming. Jesus’ second coming is a major theme in Revelation (16:15; 22:7, 12, 20). with the clouds. Alludes to Dan 7:13 and recalls Jesus’ teaching (Matt 16:27; 24:30; Mark 14:62). those who pierced him. Alludes to Zech 12:10. These prophecies find initial fulfillment in Jesus’ crucifixion (John 19:34, 37) and heavenly exaltation (Acts 7:55–56) but also anticipate Jesus’ glorious return (Matt 24:30). all peoples on earth “will mourn . . .” Refers either to sorrowful repentance from sins (Zech 12:10) or lamentation over divine judgment (cf. 18:9).

1:8 Alpha . . . Omega. The first and last letters of the Greek alphabet; equivalent to “the Beginning and the End” (21:6) and “the First and the Last” (v. 17; cf. Isa 44:6). These titles emphasize that God and Christ are eternally and totally sovereign over history (cf. 22:13). who is . . . was . . . is to come. See note on v. 4. Almighty. Title emphasizing God’s absolute power and control (cf. 4:8; 11:17; see Introduction: Theology).

1:9—22:5 Body. The central section of this prophetic letter includes a series of visions concerning the present and future kingdom of God and the Lamb. John’s initial vision of Christ (1:9–20) prepares for the messages to the seven churches (chs. 2–3). Then the throne-room vision initiates three cycles of divine judgment, beginning with the seven seals (4:1—8:5). Between the seven trumpets (8:6—11:19) and seven bowls (15:1—16:21), John presents the basic conflict between God and Satan for the nations’ allegiance and adoration (12:1—14:20). The body concludes with visions detailing Babylon’s punishment (17:1—19:10); God’s final victory, judgment, and restoration (19:11—21:8); and his enduring presence with his people in the new Jerusalem (21:9—22:5).

1:9—3:22 Christ in the Midst of the Lampstands. John hears and sees the risen Son of Man, who is present with and ruling over the churches (1:10–20). This vision expands upon 1:1–2 and introduces the seven prophetic messages in chs. 2–3.

1:9–20 John’s Vision of Christ. John recounts his situation in exile (v. 9), his vision of Jesus (vv. 10, 12–18), and his commission to write (vv. 11, 19–20).

1:9 brother and companion. John identifies with his readers in their present suffering and future glory, modeled on Jesus’ own experience (v. 5; cf. 1 Pet 2:21). suffering. Expected for believers (cf. 2:9–10; 7:14), who share already in God’s “kingdom” and hope for its future fullness (11:15; cf. Acts 14:22). patient endurance. Entails waiting on the Lord and overcoming evil amid suffering (cf. 13:10; 14:12). Patmos. See map. Because of his faithful testimony about Jesus, John was exiled to this small, rocky, volcanic island in the Aegean Sea, 37 miles (60 kilometers) southwest of Miletus (Acts 20:15).

1:10 Lord’s Day. Sunday, “the first day of the week” (Matt 28:1), the day Jesus rose. The majority of Christ’s followers see this passage as evidence that already in the first century this day was set aside for worship and fellowship (Acts 20:7; 1 Cor 16:2). in the Spirit. Indicates a prophetic vision (4:2; 17:3; 21:10; Ezek 2:2; 3:12) and introduces Revelation’s next major section (see Introduction: Structure).

1:11 Write . . . what you see. Like some OT prophets (v. 19; Isa 30:8; Jer 36:2; Hab 2:2). seven churches. See Introduction: Recipients; cf. v. 4.

1:12 seven golden lampstands. Explained in v. 20. See Introduction: Interpreting Symbolism.

1:13 son of man. Alludes to Dan 7:13; see v. 7. Jesus frequently referred to himself as the Son of Man (Matt 26:64; John 1:51). robe . . . golden sash. Suggests a king’s authority (Isa 22:21), a high priest’s purity (Exod 28:4; 29:5–9), or both.

1:14 hair . . . white like wool. Symbolizes the perfect wisdom of the Ancient of Days (Dan 7:9), which Jesus also possesses. eyes . . . like blazing fire. Suggests penetrating, divine insight (2:18; 19:12; Dan 10:6).

1:15 feet . . . like bronze. Recalls Dan 10:6, symbolizing glory, stability, and security (cf. 2:18). voice . . . rushing waters. Alludes to Ezek 1:24; 43:2. Jesus speaks with the awe-inspiring, authoritative divine voice (v. 10).

1:16 he held seven stars. Symbolizes complete power and control (cf. v. 20; 2:1; 3:1). sword. Alludes to Isa 11:4; 49:2. Christ will execute judgment on the nations (19:15) and on false teaching and immorality within the church (2:12, 16). face . . . like the sun. Pictures divine glory and light (cf. 21:23; Ps 84:11; Isa 60:19), applied to Jesus here and at the transfiguration (Matt 17:2).

1:17 I fell at his feet. A common response to a prophetic vision (cf. Ezek 1:28; Dan 8:17–18; 10:7–9); appropriate reverence toward the exalted Christ (cf. Matt 17:6) but not toward angelic messengers (19:10; 22:8–9). the First and the Last. Alludes to God’s self-description in Isa 41:4; 44:6; 48:12; similar to “the Alpha and the Omega” in v. 8; cf. 2:8; 22:13.

1:18 Living One. The risen Christ lives forever like God (4:9–10; cf. Dan 4:34). keys. Convey power or control over something (3:7; 9:1; 20:1; Isa 22:22; Matt 16:19): Christ has complete authority over the cosmic forces of “death and Hades” now and will abolish them forever (20:13–14; 1 Cor 15:54–57; Heb 2:14–15).

1:19 Write. See note on v. 11. therefore. Because of Christ’s resurrection and authority over death. seen . . . now . . . later. Recalls Dan 2:28–29, 45 (cf. Rev 1:1); Isa 48:3–6. May recall vv. 4, 8: God is the one “who is, and who was, and who is to come.” Many futurists interpret this threefold division as indicating the book’s outline (see Introduction: Structure).

1:20 mystery. A divine secret previously hidden but now disclosed (10:7; 17:5, 7; cf. Dan 2:47; Rom 16:25–26). Here Christ interprets two symbols from the previous vision (vv. 12, 16). stars . . . angels. May refer to (1) heavenly angels, (2) earthly messengers/ministers (see NIV text note), or (3) personifications of each church’s identity. In v. 1 and elsewhere in Revelation, the Greek term angelos denotes heavenly beings. lampstands. Symbolize the churches’ light-bearing role (cf. 2:1, 5; 11:4; Matt 5:14–16; see Introduction: Interpreting Symbolism).

2:1—3:22 Prophetic Messages to the Seven Churches. The risen Christ addresses each of the churches that 1:11 introduces. These prophetic messages or edicts follow a common literary structure (see “Structure of Messages to the Churches”). Christ highlights features of his earlier self-revelation (1:12–16) relevant to the church’s situation. He asserts his detailed knowledge of the church (“I know,” 2:2, 9, 13, 19; 3:1, 8, 15), then commends (for five churches), rebukes (for five churches), and exhorts believers to repent or persevere amidst adversity. Finally, Christ calls everyone to hear the Spirit’s message to the churches and promises life and blessing in the new Jerusalem to victorious, persevering believers. These messages directly addressed the struggles of seven first-century churches, but together they present a unified message relevant for all churches.

2:1–7 To the Church in Ephesus. Christ commends believers in Ephesus for doing good works, persevering, and rejecting false teaching but summons them to repent of letting their love for Jesus fade, which threatens their very identity as a church.

2:1 angel. See note on 1:20; cf. vv. 8, 12, 18; 3:1, 7, 14. Ephesus. The fourth largest city in the Roman Empire and a major center for commerce, political administration, and religion, and home to the massive temple of Artemis (Acts 19:27, 35; Eph 1:1). See Introduction to Ephesians: City of Ephesus. him. Jesus. stars. Angels (1:16). lampstands. Churches (1:12–13, 20).

2:2 I know your deeds. Commendation, as in v. 19; 3:8. hard work. Cf. “labor” in 14:13. perseverance. Cf. v. 19; “patient endurance” in 1:9. The same three Greek words occur in 1 Thess 1:3 (“work . . . labor . . . endurance”). claim to be apostles. Cf. 2 Cor 11:13.

2:4 I hold this against you. Introduces Christ’s rebuke (vv. 14, 20). love you had at first. Love for Jesus (Eph 6:24) and/or one another (Eph 5:2).

2:5 Consider . . . Repent . . . do the things you did at first. Jesus exhorts the church to seriously consider their situation and change their mind, heart, and actions. remove your lampstand. If the Ephesians do not repent, they will lose their identity as a church.

2:6 Nicolaitans. A heretical sect whose name means “victory people.” They apparently promoted false teaching, idolatry, and immorality like Balaam (v. 14) and Jezebel (v. 20), and the Ephesian church opposed their practices, while some in Pergamum did not (v. 15).

2:7 Whoever has ears, let them hear. Echoes similar exhortations in the Gospels (Matt 11:15; Mark 4:9) and the Prophets (Isa 6:9–10; Ezek 3:27) to hear and respond to God’s Word. what the Spirit says. See note on 14:13. the one who is victorious. Believers share in Jesus’ victory (5:5; 17:14) and must faithfully bear witness to Jesus (12:11, 17) and maintain hope of their promised inheritance (21:7). tree of life. Symbolizes eternal life in fellowship with God, fellowship that was lost after humanity’s exile from Eden (Gen 2:9; 3:22–24) but is restored in the new creation (22:2, 14, 19; see “Paradise Restored”).

2:8–11 To the Church in Smyrna. Jesus praises and encourages the suffering, faithful church at Smyrna.

2:8 Smyrna. A harbor city (modern-day Izmir) 35 miles (56 kilometers) north of Ephesus (see map), Smyrna was renowned for its beauty, civic pride, and claim to be Homer’s birthplace. The city was an important center of emperor worship and home to a temple to the goddess Roma. the First and the Last. See note on 1:17. died and came to life again. Thus, Jesus comforts and secures suffering believers. The city itself had “died” (600 BC) and been magnificently restored (290 BC).

2:9 afflictions. Cf. v. 10 (“suffer persecution”). Includes economic hardship, verbal abuse, and marginalization, likely because they refused to participate in idolatrous trade guilds. your poverty—yet you are rich! This church is materially poor yet spiritually prosperous—the antithesis of Laodicea (3:17). Cf. 2 Cor 8:2, 9; Jas 2:5. synagogue of Satan. Smyrna’s large, influential Jewish population persecuted Christians, possibly slandering them in Roman court, thereby aligning with Satan against God’s purposes (cf. 3:9; John 8:44–47; Acts 13:10).

2:10 ten days. An intense, brief period of persecution and testing (cf. Dan 1:12, 14). life as your victor’s crown. Athletic imagery fitting for Smyrna and Philadelphia (3:11), famed for their games. Jesus promises honor, victory, and life to maligned believers facing potential death (cf. 2 Tim 4:6–8; Jas 1:12).

2:11 second death. The lake of fire, eternal death (20:6, 14; 21:8).

2:12–17 To the Church in Pergamum. Jesus commends Pergamum for remaining true amid persecution, but they must repent of doctrinal and moral compromise.

2:12 Pergamum. A magnificent city of 100,000 located 70 miles (113 kilometers) north of Smyrna and 16.5 miles (26.5 kilometers) inland (see map). Pergamum was an important intellectual city with a library holding 200,000 volumes; it was Asia’s leading religious center, the foremost city for emperor worship, and home to a 40-foot-high (12 meters) altar to Zeus (king of the gods). sword. See note on 1:16. Symbolizes Jesus’ ultimate authority to exercise judgment, confronting Roman officials who misused their “right of the sword” to persecute Christians (v. 13) and warning the church to turn from idolatrous compromise (vv. 14, 16).

2:13 where Satan has his throne. May refer to the altar of Zeus or the pagan shrine to Asklepios, the god of medicine (symbolized by a serpent); most likely designates the prominent practice of emperor worship in Pergamum. Antipas. The first martyr of Asia, a “faithful witness” (Greek martys) unto death like Jesus (1:5; 3:14) and Stephen (Acts 22:20). Christians who refused to show political and religious loyalty to Rome through emperor worship were marginalized and persecuted.

2:14 Balaam. The Gentile prophet who blessed Israel when Balak asked him to curse them (Num 22–24); he advised Balak to use Moabite women to seduce Israel into sexual immorality and idolatry (Num 25:1–2; 31:16; cf. Jude 11).

2:15 Nicolaitans. See note on v. 6.

2:16 Repent. The church must turn away from immorality and false teaching to avoid imminent judgment (v. 5; 3:3, 19).

2:17 hidden manna. Recalls Exod 16:32–34, where the Lord commands Moses to preserve an omer of manna for future generations. Jesus, the “living bread” from heaven (John 6:51), promises everlasting food (cf. 19:9) to this church tempted by idolatrous Roman feasts (v. 14). white stone. White symbolizes purity and victory (see note on 3:5) and recalls the description of manna in Exod 16:31. White stones were associated with acquittal in court and admission to special feasts for athletic victors or members of a guild; here they may suggest entrance to the Messianic feast. new name. In the new creation, victorious believers who remain true to Jesus’ name (v. 13) will receive an enduring identity and status in relationship with God (Isa 62:2; 65:15).

2:18–29 To the Church in Thyatira. Jesus praises Thyatiran believers for their love and faith but rebukes them for tolerating heresy and immorality. The least important of the seven churches receives the longest, most challenging prophetic message.

2:18 Thyatira. A commercial town about 40 miles (64 kilometers) southeast of Pergamum (see map) known for its many influential trade guilds, each with a patron deity. Lydia was “a dealer in purple cloth” from Thyatira (Acts 16:14). Son of God. A common NT title (Mark 1:1) that occurs only here in Revelation. Jesus, not Apollo (son of Zeus), is the true divine Son worthy of worship. eyes . . . feet. See notes on 1:14, 15. bronze. One of Thyatira’s major industries.

2:19 love and faith. Essential Christian virtues (cf. 1 Thess 1:3). doing more than you did at first. Contrast with Ephesus (vv. 4–5).

2:20 Jezebel. A false prophet who deceived church members by leading them into moral and religious compromise. Her symbolic name alludes to King Ahab’s wife, who promoted unprecedented Baal worship, sorcery, and evil in Israel (1 Kgs 16:31–32; 21:25–26). sexual immorality . . . food sacrificed to idols. Gentile Christians faced pressure to participate in these practices associated with pagan temple worship and guild feasts. Cf. v. 14; Acts 15:29; 1 Cor 8:1.

2:22–23 Physical judgment is imminent for Jezebel and her unrepentant followers. Cf. 1 Cor 11:29–30.

2:23 he who searches hearts and minds. Recalls the Lord’s self-description in Jer 17:10. repay each of you according to your deeds. Based on Jesus’ penetrating divine insight. See 20:12 and note; see also note on 20:11–15.

2:24 Satan’s so-called deep secrets. Like early Gnostics (see Introduction to 1 John: Gnosticism), the false teachers may have claimed esoteric insight into “the deep things of God” (1 Cor 2:10b) or advocated that believers’ superior “knowledge” allowed them to continue to participate in pagan idolatry (cf. 1 Cor 8:4). Such deep “knowledge” is satanic (cf. v. 9). any other burden. Cf. Acts 15:28–29.

2:26 Jesus, the Messianic king, shares his authority, victory, and kingdom rule with believers (1:6; 3:21; 20:4; cf. Matt 28:18).

2:27 iron scepter. Cites Ps 2:9. See note on 12:5.

2:28 morning star. Christ (22:16). Balaam identified a star and scepter as Messianic symbols (Num 24:17).

3:1–6 To the Church in Sardis. Sardis believers are spiritually complacent and deceived by their reputation. They must stir to action, repent, and embrace a new identity and way of life.

3:1 Sardis. Located approximately 35 miles (56 kilometers) southeast of Thyatira (see map). Sardis had a glorious past and a large Jewish population in the first century. Sardis and Philadelphia were devastated by an earthquake in AD 17 and rebuilt with Roman aid. seven spirits. See notes on 1:4; 5:6. Sardis needs the Spirit’s life-giving power that Jesus alone can give. seven stars. Identified as angels in 1:20 (see note there). Christ’s self-identification here is similar to 2:1 (Ephesus). I know your deeds. Highlights the church’s weakness (as in v. 15), not its strength (as in v. 8; 2:2, 19). reputation. Translates a word rendered “people” in v. 4 and “name” in v. 5 (twice), playing on the city’s proud reputation. dead. Their true spiritual condition.

3:2 Wake up! Sardis had a reputation as an impregnable military stronghold, but in 546 and 214 BC it was defeated because watchmen were not vigilant. The church must awake from spiritual slumber. unfinished. Like the city’s uncompleted, worthless temple to Artemis.

3:3 Remember . . . repent. Cf. 2:5. come like a thief. The NT often uses this analogy for Jesus’ second coming (16:15; Matt 24:42–44; Luke 12:39; 1 Thess 5:2; 2 Pet 3:10). Here Jesus warns that he will come like a thief in judgment if the church refuses to repent.

3:4 Sardis was famous for its textile industry, but most in the church had “soiled” or defiled spiritual garments (cf. 14:4; Jude 23).

3:5 The one who is victorious. See note on 2:7. white. Contrasts with soiled clothes. People wore white garments for festivals, sacred ceremonies, and Roman celebrations; here they signify purity, cleansing, and end-time victory (v. 18; 7:9; 19:14; Isa 61:10). book of life. The heavenly register listing the names of true believers, who are ultimately protected from Satan’s spiritual deception (13:8; 17:8; 20:12; 21:27; Dan 12:1; Luke 10:20). acknowledge . . . before my Father. Alludes to Matt 10:32 (cf. Luke 12:8).

3:7–13 To the Church in Philadelphia. Like Smyrna, Philadelphia has remained faithful to Jesus’ word and name amid Jewish persecution and receives praise and reassurance.

3:7 Philadelphia. An important commercial city (modern Alashehir, Turkey) 30 miles (48 kilometers) southeast of Sardis (see map), strategically located along trade routes and home to temples to Zeus and the emperor. Following the devastating earthquake of AD 17, Philadelphia (meaning “brotherly love”) was temporarily renamed Neocaesarea (meaning “Caesar’s new city”) out of gratitude for the emperor’s aid. holy and true. A divine title (6:10) here applied to Jesus. key of David . . . opens . . . shuts. Alludes to Isa 22:22. The Jews probably excluded Philadelphian Christians from the synagogue (cf. v. 9), but Christ stresses his supreme authority to “open” and “shut” the doors of the kingdom (cf. Matt 16:19).

3:8 I know your deeds. Commendation, as in 2:2, 19. open door. An opportunity for ministry (Col 4:3) or more likely, access to God’s kingdom as in v. 7 (Acts 14:27). little strength . . . kept my word. This persecuted church lacked power and influence but remained faithful. have not denied my name. Alludes to Matt 10:32–33; cf. 2:13.

3:9 synagogue of Satan. See note on 2:9. fall down at your feet. Jesus’ followers will be vindicated before their Jewish persecutors, which ironically fulfills OT prophecies that Gentile oppressors would bow down before Israel (Isa 49:23; 60:14).

3:10 keep you from. This Greek phrase can mean either “keep you from undergoing” or “keep you through.” The parallel expression in John 17:15 refers to spiritual protection. hour of trial. The time of testing and tribulation before God’s kingdom comes in its fullness (Dan 12:1–2). whole world. Either the entire inhabited earth (cf. 12:9; 16:14) or the inhabitants of the Roman Empire (Luke 2:1; Acts 11:28). to test. The purpose of this trial. the inhabitants of the earth. Unbelievers who worship the beast, persecute believers, and deserve divine judgment (6:10; 13:8).

3:11 I am coming soon. The risen Christ will come in glory at the end (1:7; 22:7, 12, 20), but he also comes now to his churches to judge and save (cf. 2:5, 16, 25). crown. See note on 2:10.

3:12 pillar in the temple. Contrasts with pagan temples felled by the earthquake (see note on v. 7) and perhaps with the Jerusalem temple destroyed in AD 70. Victorious believers will never be excluded from God’s presence in the new Jerusalem (21:2–4). For the church as God’s temple, see note on 2 Cor 6:16. name of my God . . . new Jerusalem . . . my new name. Philadelphia had taken on Caesar’s name after the city’s destruction (see note on v. 7), but Jesus promises them a new identity (cf. 2:17; 14:1; 22:4) and citizenship in a glorious, eternal city (21:2; Phil 3:20; Heb 11:10, 16; 12:22).

3:14–22 To the Church in Laodicea. Jesus does not commend Laodicea at all but sternly rebukes them for being spiritually complacent (like Sardis), satisfied with their wealth and material comfort but blind to their true state before God.

3:14 Laodicea. A prosperous center for banking, medicine, and textile industries located about 45 miles (72 kilometers) southeast of Philadelphia (see map). Laodicea’s chief deities were Zeus and Men Karou, god of healing and patron of the city’s famous medical school. Epaphras likely evangelized Laodicea and nearby Colossae and Hierapolis (Col 4:13). faithful and true witness. See note on 1:5. Jesus’ faithfulness contrasts with the church’s unfaithful witness. ruler. Translates a Greek word that can also mean “beginning” (John 1:1). Jesus is both (1:5; 22:13).

3:15–16 cold nor hot . . . lukewarm. Colossae, located 10 miles (16 kilometers) east of Laodicea, had plentiful cold, pure drinking water, while the hot springs of Hierapolis, located 6 miles (9.5 kilometers) north of Laodicea, were famed for their healing power. Laodicea lacked its own water supply, and its solution was inadequate: water flowing in by aqueduct arrived tepid and contaminated by minerals. Jesus rebukes the complacent church for not offering life or healing to its community.

3:17 I am rich. Recalls Israel’s boast in Hos 12:8 and Laodicea’s decision to decline imperial assistance and fund its own rebuilding after the earthquake in AD 60. The church boasted of its self-sufficiency and overlooked its need for God’s help.

3:18 gold . . . white clothes . . . salve. The church’s spiritual destitution contrasts with the city’s reputation for banking, fine wool, and medicine. They must “buy” from Jesus true spiritual resources (cf. Isa 55:1–3).

3:19 I love . . . discipline. Alludes to Prov 3:11–12; cf. Heb 12:5–6.

3:20 stand . . . knock. Suggests the return of a lover (Song 5:2) or master (Luke 12:36). Jesus addresses complacent church members, not primarily individuals outside the church. come in and eat. In the ancient world, a meal invitation to an estranged person opened the way for reconciliation. Jesus offers to accept and renew intimate fellowship with those who repent, anticipating the final Messianic banquet (19:9).

3:21 sit with me on my throne. Jesus shares his Father’s throne as Messianic king and judge (22:3; Ps 110:1; Heb 1:3; see Introduction: Theology), and believers share in his reign (5:10; 20:4; 22:5; 2 Tim 2:12; cf. Matt 19:28).

4:1—8:5 The Heavenly Throne Room and the Seals. John’s second vision “in the Spirit” (4:2; cf. 1:10) directs readers to God’s heavenly throne room (ch. 4), where the living creatures and elders declare that Jesus, the slain Lamb, is “worthy” to execute God’s plan of judgment and redemption (5:9). The sealed scroll symbolizes this plan (5:1), and Jesus opens it in 6:1—8:5.

4:1–11 The Throne in Heaven. John sees the Lord God Almighty enthroned in heaven, receiving unending praise as the holy, eternal creator and ruler of all.

4:1 door standing open in heaven. Similar to other biblical visions (Ezek 1:1; Matt 3:16; Acts 10:11) and Jewish apocalyptic writings. Cf. 19:11 (“heaven standing open”). Come up here. Cf. 11:12. what must take place after this. See note on 1:19.

4:2 in the Spirit. See note on 1:10. throne. Represents God’s authority to rule and judge (3:21); contrasts with the thrones of Satan (2:13) and the beast (13:2).

4:3 jasper . . . ruby . . . emerald. Precious stones signifying God’s glory and radiance (21:11, 18–20). rainbow. Recalls God’s covenant promise in Gen 9:13–17 and Ezekiel’s vision of divine glory (Ezek 1:28).

4:4 twenty-four elders. May designate the whole company of God’s people in heaven but most likely refers to an exalted order or to angels who continually worship and serve God around his throne (vv. 10–11; 5:8; 11:16; 19:4). Their number probably reflects Israel’s 12 tribes together with the 12 apostles (cf. 21:12; Matt 19:28), though it also parallels the orders of OT priests who served God in the temple (1 Chr 24:4–19) white. Symbolizes purity and holiness (see note on 3:5). crowns of gold. Represents royal status; cf. v. 10.

4:5 lightning, rumblings . . . thunder. Recalls God’s majestic presence in Exod 19:16; 20:18. See note on 8:5. seven lamps. Alludes to Ezek 1:13; signifies God’s presence. seven spirits. See note on 1:4.

4:6 sea of glass. May recall the vault separating the waters in Gen 1:7, on which rests God’s exalted throne (Ps 104:3; Ezek 1:22, 26; 10:1); cf. Rev 15:2. clear as crystal. Ancient glass was semi-opaque; this heavenly sea perfectly reflects and radiates God’s perfect holiness. Cf. 21:1; Ezek 1:22. four living creatures. Heavenly angels nearest the throne who lead in worship (v. 8; 5:14) and initiate God’s judgment (6:1). These beings represent all created life and ever live to worship and glorify God, who “lives” forever (vv. 9–10). John’s depiction combines allusions to Isa 6:2–3; Ezek 1:5–14 (see “OT Background for the Living Creatures”).

4:7 lion . . . ox . . . man . . . eagle. Represent the noblest, strongest, wisest, and swiftest created beings.

4:8 six wings. Used by the seraphim in Isa 6:2 to cover their eyes and feet and to fly. eyes all around. Represent alertness and knowledge (cf. Ezek 1:18; 10:12). Holy, holy, holy. Recalls Isa 6:3; see Introduction: Theology. was . . . is . . . is to come. See note on 1:4.

4:10 lay their crowns. Submit to God’s supreme authority (cf. 21:24).

4:11 glory and honor and power. Praise for God (cf. 7:12) and the Lamb (cf. 5:12–13). for. Introduces a reason to praise God: he is the all-powerful Creator (cf. 10:6; Ps 148:5; Rom 1:25).

5:1–14 The Scroll and the Lamb. After setting the heavenly stage (ch. 4), John presents the drama of the slain Lamb taking God’s sealed scroll and receiving honor and praise.

5:1 scroll . . . sealed with seven seals. Modeled after the double-sided scroll containing “words of lament and mourning and woe” in Ezek 2:9–10 and the sealed books in Isa 29:11; Dan 12:4. A wax seal indicated that important ancient documents were authentic and unaltered, and the number seven indicates fullness or completion (see Introduction: Sevens in Revelation). This scroll contains God’s consummate plan of judgment and redemption, which Jesus alone reveals and executes.

5:2 Introduces the problem of the heavenly drama: a “worthy” mediator is needed to “open the scroll” and reveal God’s secret plan.

5:4 wept. John laments like the OT prophets (Isa 22:4; Jer 9:1).

5:5 Lion of the tribe of Judah. Alludes to Judah’s prophesied kingship (Gen 49:9–10). Root of David. Recalls the ideal king in David’s line prophesied in Isa 11:1–4; he would execute perfect justice and slay the wicked.

5:6 Lamb. Israel’s Messianic king has conquered through sacrifice, not military prowess. Revelation’s favorite symbol for Jesus is the lamb, which may combine three OT backgrounds: the Passover lamb (Exod 12:3–6; cf. John 1:29), the slaughtered servant (Isa 53:7; cf. Acts 8:32), and the suffering prophet (Jer 11:19; cf. Luke 11:50). seven horns. Symbolizes royal power and strength (cf. Dan 7:24; 8:21–22). Seven signifies completion and perfection (see Introduction). seven eyes . . . seven spirits. The Lamb executes God’s plan with complete knowledge (cf. Zech 4:10), endowed by the fullness of God’s Spirit (see note on 1:4; cf. Isa 11:2; John 3:34).

5:8 living creatures. See notes on 4:6–8. twenty-four elders. See note on 4:4. harp. Accompanies joyous temple worship (14:2; 15:2; 2 Chr 9:11; Ps 43:4). incense. Symbolizes “the prayers of God’s people” (Ps 141:2; Luke 1:10), which God dramatically answers in 6:9–11; 8:3–5; 15:7–8.

5:9 new song. Worship celebrating God’s saving actions (14:3; Pss 96:1–2; 144:9–10). You are worthy. Answers the question in v. 2 and echoes praise to God in 4:11 (cf. v. 12). because you were slain. Jesus’ sacrificial death is the basis of his worthiness. purchased. Commercial metaphor for emancipating slaves (cf. 14:3–4; 1 Cor 7:23). every tribe and language and people and nation. God’s universal people transcend ethnic, linguistic, cultural, and national boundaries (7:9; Dan 7:14); contrast the nations’ false worship in 13:3–8; Dan 3:4–5.

5:10 kingdom and priests. See note on 1:6.

5:12 Both the Lamb and God (7:12) receive sevenfold praise.

5:13 every creature in heaven and on earth. Echoes v. 3; anticipates the Lord Jesus’ universal acclamation in Phil 2:11.

6:1–17 The Seals. The Lamb progressively opens the scroll’s seven seals, initiating judgments on the earth (the four horsemen, vv. 1–8) and cosmic judgments (vv. 9–17; 8:1). These seals are variously understood. Many interpreters stress the first-century relevance of the seals, trumpets, and bowls. Some identify the first seal with the beginning of a future “great tribulation” (7:14), while others understand these judgment cycles to have relevance throughout the church age until Christ’s return (see Introduction: Interpretive Approaches).

6:1 living creatures. See notes on 4:6–8. Come! Cf. vv. 3, 5, 7; 22:17, 20.

6:2–8 The four colored horses allude to Zech 1:8–10; 6:1–8.

6:2 white horse. Symbolizes conquest. rider. Not Christ as in 19:11. bow . . . crown. Represent military and political power that is “bent on conquest.”

6:4 horse . . . fiery red. Represents bloodshed from violence (cf. Zech 1:8; 6:2). take peace . . . make people kill. Desire for conquest leads to war and great strife.

6:5 black horse. Symbolizes mourning from famine caused by war (cf. 2 Kgs 6:24–33; Zech 6:2). scales. Symbolize commerce.

6:6 wheat . . . barley. Primary food staples in the Roman Empire and in Israel (Deut 8:8). The famine prices are inflated 8 to 16 times the normal rate. do not damage the oil and the wine! Sets limits on the rider’s destruction. Olive trees and vines are not immediately impacted by drought, suggesting a limited shortage rather than a severe famine as in Joel 1:10–11. In AD 92, Domitian ordered half of Asia Minor’s vineyards to be destroyed to increase grain production, which caused such outrage that Domitian repealed the edict.

6:8 Death . . . Hades. Fearsome satanic forces over which Christ has ultimate authority (see note on 1:18; cf. Hos 13:14). fourth of the earth. Severe, yet restrained, judgment. The trumpets (“a third of the earth,” 8:7) and the bowls (“the earth,” 16:1) intensify the destruction. sword, famine and plague . . . wild beasts. God’s “four dreadful judgments” against Israel (Ezek 14:21; cf. Deut 32:24–26; Jer 24:10).

6:9 under the altar. OT sacrificial imagery recalling the altar of incense or the altar of burnt offering (Lev 4:7). those who had been slain. Christian martyrs (20:4), who were “slain” like the Lamb and God’s prophets (5:9; 18:24). Like John (1:9), they suffered for their faithful “testimony.”

6:10 A prayer for divine justice and vindication (cf. Ps 79:4–6, 10) that is answered in 16:5; 19:2.

6:11 white robe. See notes on 3:4, 5; 7:9. wait. The Greek word is translated “rest” in 14:13b. full number. The total number of martyrs that God ordained (a concept that occurs in Jewish apocalyptic writings).

6:12–13 Imagery that depicts the day of the Lord (Isa 13:9–13; Joel 2:10, 31; Matt 24:29; see note on Amos 2:16).

6:12 great earthquake. Associated with God’s presence and judgment in Isa 29:6; Ezek 38:19. Cf. 11:13; 16:18.

6:14 heavens . . . rolled up. Alludes to Isa 34:4. every mountain and island was removed. See note on 16:20.

6:15 God’s judgment will terrify all unrepentant humanity, regardless of social, political, or economic status (cf. Isa 2:19–21).

6:16 Fall on us. Alludes to Hos 10:8 (cf. Luke 23:30). Those who do not acknowledge the Lamb as worthy will face his “wrath” as righteous judge (Ps 2:12).

6:17 great day of their wrath. Prophesied day of the Lord (cf. Isa 13:9; Joel 2:11; see note on Amos 2:16). withstand. The Greek word is translated “standing” in 7:9. Sinners cannot withstand God’s wrath (cf. Ps 1:5–6), but John sees the redeemed multitude standing before God’s throne (7:9).

7:1–8 144,000 Sealed. Between the sixth and seventh seals, John sees two related visions of believers protected from God’s terrifying judgment standing in his presence. Interpreters differ on the identity of the 144,000 from Israel’s tribes (vv. 4–8), the great multitude from all nations (vv. 9–10), and the relationship between these visions. Some identify the 144,000 as ethnic Jews saved during the future tribulation, who evangelize the great multitude. Others understand both visions as designating Christian martyrs or the complete church from every nation (14:1–4).

7:1 four winds. Agents of divine judgment (Jer 49:36); likely refers to the four horsemen in 6:1–8 (Zech 6:1–5).

7:2 seal. Symbolizes God’s ownership (2 Tim 2:19) and protection of his people from coming judgments (Ezek 9:4–6).

7:3 on the foreheads. Alludes to Ezek 9:4; contrasts with the mark of the beast (13:16). God’s name is written on believers’ foreheads in 14:1; 22:4.

7:4 144,000. See note on vv. 1–8. May refer to the literal number of Jewish believers; probably indicates the perfect number (12 x 12 x 1,000) of the redeemed (cf. 14:1–4) given Revelation’s frequent use of 12 to symbolize completion (see “Multiples of Twelve in Revelation”). Verses 4–8 may echo the census in Num 1–2, numbering Israel’s military force, though the tribe of Levi was excluded (Num 1:49). In this interpretation, John hears the census of God’s end-time army warring against spiritual foes through faithful witness (cf. 12:11).

7:5–6 Judah. Jacob’s fourth son (Gen 35:23) but here listed first as the tribe of Israel’s king (5:5; Gen 49:8–10). Reuben. Jacob’s first son, like Judah, a son of Leah. Gad . . . Asher . . . Naphtali. Sons from the servants Bilhah and Zilpah appear ahead of the other sons of Leah and Rachel. Manasseh. Joseph’s firstborn, replacing Dan, a tribe notorious for idolatry (Judg 18:29–30; 1 Kgs 12:29–30; Amos 8:14).

7:9–17 The Great Multitude in White Robes. John’s vision of the multiethnic throng of worshipers standing in God’s presence answers the question of 6:17 (see note there [“withstand”]). The first vision stresses God’s protection (vv. 1–8); the second, God’s salvation (vv. 9–17).

7:9 After this I looked. In 5:5–6, John hears OT Messianic promises (Lion of Judah, Root of David) and then sees a surprising NT fulfillment (slain Lamb); likewise here John’s vision reinterprets nationalistic expectation with God’s promise to multiply Abraham’s descendants and bless all nations in him (Gen 22:18; 26:4). great multitude. Explained in v. 14; cf. 19:1, 6. from every nation, tribe, people and language. See note on 5:9. standing. See note on 6:17 [“withstand”]. white robes. Symbolize cleansing from defilement (v. 14; cf. Dan 12:10) as well as purity and end-time victory (3:4–5). palm branches. Recall the Festival of Tabernacles, which commemorated Israel’s exodus and anticipated future redemption (Lev 23:40–43; Zech 14:16; cf. John 12:13).

7:10 Salvation. Cf. 12:10; 19:1; Exod 15:2; Ps 3:8.

7:11–12 Resembles 5:11–13.

7:14 Identifies those in white robes (vv. 9, 13). great tribulation. Alludes to Dan 12:1 (cf. Matt 24:21). Variously interpreted as an intense persecution, the final period of hostility before Christ’s return, or persecution throughout the church age. The Greek phrase also occurs in 2:22 (“suffer intensely”); Matt 24:21 (“great distress”); Acts 7:11 (“great suffering”). washed . . . white. Recalls OT promises of cleansing from sin (Ps 51:7; Isa 1:18), accomplished by the Lamb’s sacrificial death (1 John 1:7; cf. 22:14).

7:15 serve him day and night in his temple. Continuous priestly worship (cf. 3:12; 22:3).

7:16 Never . . . hunger . . . thirst. Alludes to Isa 49:10; fulfilled in 21:6; 22:2.

7:17 Lamb . . . shepherd. Jesus the divine Shepherd-Lamb leads his people to abundant life (cf. Ps 23:1–2; Ezek 34:11–16; John 10:11). wipe away every tear. Alludes to Isa 25:8; see note on 21:4.

8:1–5 The Seventh Seal and the Golden Censer. This section concludes the seals (v. 1; cf. 6:1–17), prepares for the trumpets (v. 2), and links these divine judgments to the effective prayers of God’s people (vv. 3–5).

8:1 seventh seal. The seals cycle resumes after the interlude in ch. 7, and the seven-sealed scroll is fully opened (see note on 5:1). silence in heaven. Dramatic pause in the unceasing heavenly praise (4:8); the angels and redeemed anticipate God’s further acts of judgment (cf. Hab 2:20; Zeph 1:7; Zech 2:13).

8:2 seven trumpets. See note on v. 6; introduces the next judgment cycle (8:6—11:19).

8:3 golden censer. Firepan used by priests to burn spices in temple worship (Lev 16:12; 1 Kgs 7:50). altar. See note on 6:9.

8:4 incense . . . prayers. See note on 5:8. God hears and answers the martyrs’ petitions for justice and vindication (cf. 6:9–11).

8:5 peals of thunder, rumblings, flashes of lightning and an earthquake. Alludes to the Sinai theophany (Exod 19:16–20; cf. Rev 4:5). A storm theophany also concludes the cycles of trumpets (11:19) and bowls (16:18).

8:6—11:19 The Seven Trumpets. The seven angels introduced in 8:2 now sound their trumpets, initiating a second cycle of divine judgments (cf. 6:1–17). These judgments lead to heavenly praise (11:15–18).

8:6—9:21 The Trumpets. The trumpets demonstrate God’s righteous judgment on idolatry (cf. 16:5, 7). This judgment cycle may recall earlier plagues on Egypt.

8:6 seven trumpets. Introduced in v. 2. This scene recalls Josh 6:2–5, where seven priests blow trumpets before Jericho’s destruction. In Scripture, trumpets summon the community for worship or battle (Lev 23:24; Num 10:1–10) and announce the Lord’s glorious presence in revelation (Exod 19:16), judgment (Joel 2:1), and salvation (1 Thess 4:16).

8:7 hail . . . fire . . . blood. Modeled after the seventh plague on Egypt (Exod 9:22–25; cf. Pss 78:47; 105:32; Ezek 38:22). A third of the earth. Escalation from 6:8 (“a fourth”). Judgment is not limited to one nation as in the exodus. trees . . . grass. Devastating destruction of the natural world follows the sealing of God’s servants (7:3; cf. Exod 9:25–26).

8:8 huge mountain, all ablaze. May recall first-century volcanic eruptions, such as Mount Vesuvius (AD 79), and Jer 51:25, where God promises to make Babylon “a burned-out mountain.” sea turned into blood. Alludes to Exod 7:20–21; cf. Rev 16:3.

8:9 a third . . . died. Limited destruction recalls God’s promise in Gen 8:21; contrast the total loss of life in Rev 16:3. ships. Rome depended on the sea for food and commerce; the sea captains lament Babylon’s ruin in 18:17–19.

8:10 great star . . . fell. For falling stars, see 6:13; 9:1; Isa 14:12. Readers in Asia Minor may have linked this star with the “great Artemis . . . which fell from heaven” (Acts 19:35).

8:11 Wormwood. A bitter-tasting shrub (see NIV text note), which symbolizes sorrow (Prov 5:3–4) and judgment (Jer 9:15; 23:15). waters . . . bitter. Recalls the first Egyptian plague (Exod 7:20–21) and the bitter water at Marah (Exod 15:23); contrasts with “springs of living water” (7:17).

8:12 sun . . . moon . . . stars . . . turned dark. Alludes to Exod 10:21–23; Matt 24:29; the darkness is partial, not total, covering “a third of the day.” Darkness symbolizes the primordial world (Gen 1:2), evil (Luke 22:53; John 1:5), and final destruction (Isa 13:10; Ezek 32:7; Joel 2:10). The beast and its kingdom will be “plunged into darkness” (16:10).

8:13 Woe! The final three “trumpet blasts” bring imminent, intensified judgment against unrepentant humanity (cf. 6:15–17).

9:1 star . . . fallen. Cf. 8:10. May represent a fallen angel (possibly Satan, 12:9; Luke 10:18) or a divine agent carrying out God’s will (20:1). key. See notes on 1:18; 20:1. Abyss. The realm of the wicked dead and demons (vv. 2, 11; 11:7; see note on Luke 8:31).

9:3 locusts. Recalls Exod 10:12–15 (see “Parallels Between Bowls, Trumpets, and Exodus Plagues”) and covenant curses against Israel (Deut 28:38; 2 Chr 7:13; Joel 1:4). scorpions. Described in v. 10; symbolize demonic forces in Luke 10:19.

9:4 Locusts always devour vegetation (Exod 10:15; Joel 1:4), but here they are “told not to harm the grass” (contrast 8:7) and instead torture only unbelievers not protected by “the seal of God” (see note on 7:2).

9:5 not allowed to kill. Divinely imposed limitation (v. 10).

9:7–9 John describes the demonic locusts symbolically as swift (like “horses,” v. 7; cf. Joel 2:4), ferocious (having “lions’ teeth,” v. 8; cf. Joel 1:6), intelligent (“human faces,” v. 7; cf. Dan 7:8), and armed for battle with “breastplates” and “chariots” (v. 9; cf. Joel 2:5).

9:11 angel of the Abyss. Variously identified as Satan, the antichrist, personified destruction, or the angel of death. Abaddon. Hebrew for destruction, often linked with death (Job 26:6; 28:22; Prov 15:11 and NIV text notes). Apollyon. May suggest a reference to Apollo, the Greek god of pestilence, often symbolized by the locust. Domitian considered himself Apollo incarnate, so this may be a further presentation of emperor worship as demonic.

9:12 first woe. See note on 8:13.

9:13 golden altar. Recalls 6:9 (see note there); 8:3; suggests this destructive judgment comes in response to the martyrs’ prayers (6:10).

9:14 four angels. Either the four angels introduced in 7:1 or, more likely, the four winds previously restrained (see note on 7:1) but now unleashed for destruction. Euphrates. The longest river in western Asia and the northeastern border of the promised land (Gen 15:18; Josh 1:4) and the Roman Empire. Recalls OT prophecies of foes from the north (cf. Isa 8:7–8; Jer 1:14–15) and prepares for the sixth bowl judgment (16:12–16).

9:15 kill a third of mankind. Escalation of the fifth trumpet from torture (v. 5) to death; cf. v. 18.

9:16 twice ten thousand times ten thousand. 200 million cavalry, 1,000 times the size of Rome’s formidable army.

9:17 breastplates . . . horses . . . lions. Parallels the locusts’ description in vv. 7–9. fire, smoke and sulfur. Recalls the destruction of Sodom and Gomorrah (Gen 19:24, 28; cf. Deut 29:22–23; Luke 17:29) and anticipates God’s eternal judgment on those who side with Satan, the beast, and Babylon (14:10–11; 18:9; 20:10; 21:8).

9:19 snakes. Recalls the judgment against Israel in the wilderness (Num 21:6–7; cf. 1 Cor 10:9) and suggests demonic power associated with “that ancient serpent . . . Satan” (12:9; cf. Gen 3:1).

9:20 still did not repent. Unbelieving humanity responds to the plagues with continued hostility toward God. Cf. Pharaoh’s hard-hearted response to divine judgments on Egypt (Exod 4:21; 14:4). Cf. 16:9, 11. worshiping demons . . . idols of gold. Recalls how the OT describes the material and spiritual essence of idols (Deut 4:28; 32:16–17; Ps 115:4–7).

9:21 These evil deeds are linked with idolatry (v. 20; cf. Jer 7:5–11) and deserve eternal punishment (21:8; 22:15; see “Vice Lists in Revelation”).

10:1–11 The Angel and the Little Scroll. The interlude (10:1—11:14) between the sixth and seventh trumpets parallels the earlier parenthesis between the final two seals (ch. 7). Ch. 10 recounts a vision of a mighty angel (vv. 1–7) and John’s prophetic commissioning (vv. 8–11), emphasizing that God authorizes and will imminently fulfill John’s message.

10:1 another mighty angel. May refer to Christ or a great angel as in 5:2; 18:21. cloud . . . rainbow . . . sun . . . fiery pillars. Majestic description using terms elsewhere applied to God (4:3; Exod 13:21) and the Son of Man (1:7, 16; 14:14; Matt 17:2).

10:2 little scroll . . . open. Alludes to Ezek 2:9–10; see v. 9 and note. May refer to the scroll that the Lamb opened in 6:1—8:1 or to a different scroll. foot on the sea . . . land. Represents dominion over all creation (cf. vv. 5–6); the devil also exercises authority over the earth and sea for a short time (12:12–13).

10:3 roar of a lion. Emphasizes the speaker’s divine authority. The Lord roars like a lion in Hos 11:10; Amos 1:2; 3:8.

10:4 Seal up. John does not disclose what precisely the seven thunders said. Cf. Dan 8:26; 12:4, 9; contrast Rev 22:10. do not write. Contrast 1:19.

10:5–6 raised his right hand . . . swore. Angelic oath based on the Creator God’s supreme authority (cf. Dan 12:7).

10:6 no more delay! Emphasizes that God will soon accomplish his purposes (cf. Dan 12:9; Hab 2:3) to vindicate his suffering people (cf. 6:10–11).

10:7 mystery. See note on 1:20. just as he announced. John’s prophecy (cf. v. 11; 1:3) discloses that God will fulfill earlier biblical prophecy (cf. 17:17; Amos 3:7).

10:8 take. To announce its contents (5:7).

10:9 Take . . . eat. John’s symbolic commissioning as a prophet, patterned after Ezek 2:8—3:3. sour. Because John prophesies bitter judgment (Ezek 2:10; 3:14) and continued suffering for God’s people (cf. 6:9–11). sweet. Because it is God’s true, revealed word (Jer 15:16).

10:10 John obeys his commission, internalizes God’s word, and makes it known (v. 11).

10:11 prophesy again. Reiterates John’s prophetic calling (cf. 1:19). many peoples. Stresses the universal scope of John’s witness, recalling Jeremiah’s calling as “a prophet to the nations” who is given authority “over nations and kingdoms” (Jer 1:5, 10). The nations must worship God and the Lamb (5:9; 7:9–10; 15:4; 21:24); those who ally with Babylon will face divine wrath (11:18; 14:8–10).

11:1–14 The Two Witnesses. After God renews John’s prophetic commission (10:8–11), John symbolically describes how God spiritually protects his suffering people (vv. 1–2) and vindicates the “two witnesses” (v. 3) after they prophesy and experience persecution (vv. 3–12). Interpreters throughout church history have debated whether these witnesses refer to individual prophets or symbolize the church (see notes on vv. 3, 4).

11:1 measuring rod. Alludes to Ezek 40:3; cf. Rev 21:15; Zech 2:1–2. Measuring signifies that God protects and owns his people. temple of God. Elsewhere “temple” designates the heavenly temple (v. 19; 7:15), God’s presence in the new Jerusalem (21:22), or the church (see note on 3:12; cf. 1 Cor 3:16–17). Alternatively, many preterists read vv. 1–2 as predicting the Jerusalem temple’s destruction in AD 70 (see Introduction: Date). Many dispensationalists understand v. 1 to refer to a future temple rebuilt during the great tribulation. altar. The place of sacrifice. May refer to literal Jewish sacrifice before AD 70 or during the future tribulation, or to spiritual worship by the church (cf. Rom 12:1; Heb 13:10, 13–14). worshipers. Variously interpreted as ethnic Jews in the first century (preterists), believing Jews in the future tribulation (dispensationalists), or a figurative reference to individual believers in the church (idealists and some modified futurists).

11:2 outer court. The court of the Gentles. Gentiles . . . will trample on the holy city. May refer to Rome destroying the Jerusalem temple (cf. Luke 21:24) or unbelievers persecuting God’s people, heirs of the “new Jerusalem” (21:2). 42 months. Equivalent to 1,260 days (v. 3; 12:6) and “a time, times and half a time” (12:14; cf. Dan 7:25; 12:7). May denote a literal time period at the end of the future tribulation or a symbolic time of the church’s witness that is characterized by physical suffering and spiritual preservation. Cf. vv. 3–4.

11:3 my two witnesses. Modeled after Moses and Elijah (see note on v. 5). Variously interpreted as individual prophets at history’s end, the witnessing church in its suffering and triumph, or individual prophets who represent the church. 1,260 days. Same as 42 months in v. 2 (see note there). sackcloth. Symbolizes mourning over sin and judgment and possibly a message of repentance (cf. Dan 9:3; Jonah 3:5–8; Matt 11:21).

11:4 two olive trees . . . two lampstands. Alludes to Zech 4:2–14, where the gold lampstand represents Israel, and two olive trees probably symbolize Joshua and Zerubbabel, who were empowered by God and “anointed” (Zech 4:14) for rebuilding Israel’s temple. John’s opening Son of Man vision introduces seven lampstands and interprets this symbol as churches (1:20; see Introduction: Interpreting Symbolism). The change from seven to two lampstands may reflect the number of faithful churches in chs. 2–3 (Smyrna and Philadelphia) and/or the number of witnesses needed to establish a charge (Deut 19:15). Some interpreters identify the two witnesses as future individuals who bring revival and renewed temple worship in Israel, like Joshua and Zerubbabel.

11:5 fire comes from their mouths. Recalls Jer 5:14, where the prophet’s word of judgment is likened to devouring fire. In 2 Kgs 1:9–12, consuming fire from heaven validates Elijah as a man of God.

11:6 shut up the heavens. Recalls the drought Elijah announced (1 Kgs 17:1; cf. Luke 4:25; Jas 5:17). waters into blood. Recalls the exodus plague (Exod 7:17) and the second trumpet (see 8:8 and note).

11:7 beast . . . from the Abyss. Revelation’s first reference to this major opponent of God’s people (17:8); equivalent to the beast “coming out of the sea” (13:1; cf. Dan 7:3). attack . . . overpower. The same Greek phrase occurs in 13:7: “power to wage war against God’s holy people and to conquer them” (cf. Dan 7:21).

11:8 great city. Babylon (18:10), which the original readers would likely associate with Rome; contrasts with “the holy city” (v. 2; see “A Tale of Two Cities in Revelation”). Sodom. Proverbial for an immoral, debased society deserving God’s judgment (cf. Gen 18:20; 19:24; 2 Pet 2:6). Egypt. Symbolizes enslaving and oppressing God’s people (Exod 20:2). where also their Lord was crucified. Recalls Jerusalem (Luke 13:33–34). Jesus’ witnesses follow their suffering master (cf. 1:9; John 15:18–20). Revelation emphasizes the great city’s ungodly nature and heritage, not its geographic location.

11:9 three and a half days. Cf. v. 11; recalls the cryptic half week in Dan 9:27. every people . . . nation. Universal unredeemed humanity who worship the beast and persecute God’s people (13:7–8; 17:15). Contrasts with the universal worship of Jesus in 5:9 (see note there). refuse them burial. Treated with utter indignity and contempt (cf. Ps 79:1–4).

11:10 two prophets. Designates the two witnesses (v. 3); recalls John’s call to prophesy about nations (10:11).

11:11 breath of life . . . entered . . . they stood. Alludes to Ezek 37:5, 10, which depicts Israel’s revival after exile as life after death. If the two witnesses symbolize the church (see notes on vv. 3, 4), this describes the church’s vindication in resurrection at the end of the age (cf. 1 Cor 15:20–23). Alternatively, this predicts the vindication of only the individual witnesses.

11:12 “Come up here.” And they went up to heaven. Recalls John’s prophetic commission (4:1), as well as Jesus’ ascension (Acts 1:9, 11).

11:13 severe earthquake. Alludes to Ezek 38:19; anticipates the earthquake accompanying Babylon’s destruction (16:18–19). a tenth of the city. Limited judgment; contrast with 16:19. terrified . . . gave glory. The multitude either acknowledge God’s power while persisting in unbelief (cf. 6:15–17; 16:21) or respond with reverent fear and repentance (14:7; 15:4).

11:14 second woe . . . third woe. Recalls 8:13; 9:12; prepares for the seventh trumpet in v. 15.

11:15–19 The Seventh Trumpet. This does not describe but proclaims the “third woe” (v. 14) as worshipers celebrate that God will reign forever and judge his enemies.

11:15 seventh angel sounded his trumpet. Completes the cycle of seven trumpets (cf. 8:7). loud voices. Recalls worship in 5:12; 7:10. the kingdom of our Lord and of his Messiah. God’s kingdom is inextricably bound to the Messiah, Jesus (cf. Ps 2:1–2), who reigns in heaven following his ascension (1:5; Acts 2:33–36) and will return to consummate his kingdom (19:6, 11, 16). reign for ever. Fulfills the OT expectation that God will reign forever through the Davidic king (Isa 9:7; Dan 2:44; Mic 4:7; cf. Luke 1:33). The redeemed will participate in this eternal reign (22:5).

11:16 elders. See note on 4:4.

11:17 Lord God Almighty. See note on 1:8. who is . . . was. Recalls the divine title in 1:4 (see note there) but omits the final phrase “who is to come” because God’s coming reign is realized.

11:18 nations were angry. Recalls Exod 15:14; Ps 2:1. your wrath. See notes on 6:16, 17. judging the dead. See note on 20:12. rewarding. Cf. 22:12; Matt 5:12. your servants the prophets. Designates (1) OT prophets (10:7; cf. Amos 3:7), (2) Christian prophets like John (1:1), or (3) believers (synonymous with “your people”) who fear and serve God (19:5; 22:3) and prophesy (v. 3; cf. Num 11:29; Joel 2:28; Acts 2:17).

11:19 God’s temple in heaven. Where God’s glorious presence is (v. 1; 3:12; 7:15; 21:22); served as a pattern for Israel’s tabernacle and temple (Exod 25:40; see Heb 8:5 and note). ark. See note on Exod 25:10–22. Located in the temple’s inner sanctuary (1 Kgs 6:19), the place of atonement (Lev 16:2); represents God’s holy presence and covenant of mercy. lightning . . . earthquake. See note on 8:5 (cf. 4:5). hailstorm. Recalls the first trumpet (8:7; cf. Exod 9:22–25) and parallels the seventh bowl (16:18, 21).

12:1—14:20 The Cosmic Conflict Between the Dragon and the Lamb. Between the cycles of trumpet and bowl judgments, a dramatic sequence of visions presents the fundamental contest between the forces of God and Satan (the “dragon,” 12:3) for the nations’ allegiance and worship. The dragon, beast, and false prophet persecute God’s people, but God promises to spiritually protect and gloriously vindicate them. So God exhorts them to steadfastly endure.

12:1–17 The Woman and the Dragon. Many interpreters view the dramatic conflict between God and Satan in ch. 12 as the heart of Revelation. Verses 1–6 establish the conflict between two heavenly “signs”: the woman (God’s people, vv. 1, 4, 6) and her Messianic child (vv. 4–5) versus the dragon, representing Satan (v. 3). Then vv. 7–12 describe the war in heaven, which results in the dragon being hurled to earth (v. 9). Finally, vv. 13–17 describe the war on earth between the dragon and God’s people, whom God protects.

12:1 great sign. Contrasts with v. 3 (“another sign”); these signs introduce the key conflict between the woman and the dragon, which recalls Gen 3:15. woman. The faithful people of God, from whom the Messianic son comes (v. 5). sun . . . moon . . . twelve stars. Recalls Joseph’s dream in Gen 37:9.

12:3 another sign. See note on v. 1. dragon. Recalls OT descriptions of the sea monster Leviathan, representing chaos and God’s enemies (Ps 74:13–14; Isa 27:1; Ezek 29:3); identified as Satan in v. 9 (see note there; cf. 20:2). seven heads and ten horns and seven crowns. Represents the dragon’s great power and claim to sovereignty; copies the depiction of Christ (5:6; 19:12). John describes the “beast” using similar imagery (13:1; 17:3, 9–10, 12).

12:4 stars. May designate angels aligned with Satan in the original war in heaven (cf. v. 9) or diabolical persecution of God’s people (cf. Dan 8:10). devour her child. Recalls the rivalry between the serpent and Eve’s child in Gen 3:15.

12:5 male child . . . iron scepter. Jesus is Israel’s promised royal Messiah in David’s line; cites Ps 2:9; cf. Rev 2:27; 19:15.

12:6 wilderness. A place of divine protection and provision (v. 14). May recall Israel’s exodus (Exod 16:32) and promised restoration after exile (Isa 40:3; Matt 3:3). 1,260 days. The period of persecution (see 11:2 and note [“42 months”]; 13:5–7), proclamation (11:3), and protection (here) for God’s people.

12:7 war . . . in heaven. Expands on vv. 3–4. Michael. The archangel (Jude 9), the heavenly prince who protects God’s people (Dan 12:1), frequently mentioned in Jewish apocalyptic literature.

12:8 not strong enough. In Dan 7:21, the “horn was waging war against the holy people and defeating them” (cf. Rev 11:7); here the dragon is overpowered.

12:9 hurled down. Likely refers to Satan’s defeat through Jesus’ death and resurrection (John 12:31; Col 2:15). Alternatively, this may designate Satan’s primordial fall or the heavenly events accompanying the end-time tribulation on earth. ancient serpent . . . devil . . . Satan. Alludes to Gen 3:1–15, which describes the serpent’s deception of Eve (cf. 2 Cor 11:3). False teachers (2:20) and the false prophet (13:14; 19:20) are agents of Satan’s deception. Cf. 20:3, 8.

12:10 voice in heaven. Interprets John’s vision in vv. 7–9. salvation . . . power . . . kingdom. Recalls earlier hymns to God and the Lamb (4:11; 5:12–13; 7:10; 11:15). For the accuser . . . hurled down. Satan’s fall motivates praise; he can no longer accuse or condemn believers (cf. Rom 8:33–34).

12:11 triumphed. Recalls earlier promises to the victorious (see note on 2:7; cf. 21:7). The beast’s triumph over God’s people will be short-lived (11:7; 13:7). blood . . . word. Believers’ ultimate victory comes through Jesus’ death (1:5) and their witness, which motivates patient endurance and hope for suffering Christians (see note on 1:9; see also Introduction: Purpose). they did not love their lives. Cf. 2:10, 13; 6:9; Luke 14:26.

12:12 Cf. 18:20. The heavens and earth “rejoice” together when God’s kingdom is established (Ps 96:10–11; Isa 44:23), but here the devil’s expulsion from heaven brings “woe to the earth and the sea.” See 13:1. his time is short. Satan is “filled with fury” because his demise is sure and imminent.

12:13 Expands on v. 6.

12:14 eagle. Symbolizes divine protection and deliverance at the exodus (Exod 19:4) and the second exodus from exile (Isa 40:31). time, times and half a time. Alludes to Dan 7:25; 12:7; equivalent to 1,260 days (v. 6), or 42 months (11:2; see note there).

12:15 from his mouth . . . water. Symbolizes persecution and deceit (cf. Ps 144:7–8).

12:16 earth . . . swallowing. May recall the judgments on Egypt (Exod 15:12) and on Korah’s followers (Num 16:30–33).

12:17 her offspring. Believers, in contrast with the male child (vv. 5, 13). those who keep God’s commands. Cf. 14:12; 1 John 3:24. testimony. Cf. 1:2, 9; 19:10; 20:4.

13:1–10 The Beast out of the Sea. John describes a powerful, proud beast that carries out the dragon’s will and is permitted for a limited time to oppose God, persecute God’s people, and receive the nations’ worship. John’s vision recalls Daniel’s prophecy of four beasts representing four great kings or kingdoms (see note on Dan 7:17). Interpreters have identified the beast with various past or future antichrist individuals or empires. John’s readers may have associated the beast with the false worship and oppression authorized by Rome and its emperors (cf. 17:7–10; see Introduction: Interpreting Symbolism).

13:1 beast coming out of the sea. Alludes to Dan 7:2–3; recalls the Abyss in Rev 11:7. sea. Symbolizes the realm of evil and chaos (12:12; 20:13; 21:1; see note on Dan 7:2–3). ten horns. Represents political and military power or “kings” (17:12; cf. Dan 7:24). Recalls the description of the dragon in 12:3 and the fourth beast in Dan 7:7. seven heads. The sum of the four beasts’ heads in Dan 7:2–7; represents the completeness of the beast’s oppressive power. Interpreted as “seven hills” in 17:9 (see note there). The beast takes on the dragon’s image (12:3), a satanic imitation of the Messianic child (12:5). blasphemous name. Cf. 17:3. May reflect the divine titles that Emperor Domitian assumed (see notes on 2:13; 9:11; see also Introduction: Date).

13:2 leopard . . . bear . . . lion. Combines the attributes of the four beasts from Dan 7:3–8, the ultimate kingdom opposed to God and his people. dragon gave . . . power . . . throne . . . authority. Satan usurps the sovereign right of God and Jesus to “give authority” (2:26; see 6:8; 9:3; cf. John 17:2). For Satan’s throne, cf. 2:13; 16:10.

13:3 fatal wound . . . healed. Counterfeit imitation of Jesus’ death and resurrection (1:18; 5:6).

13:4 worshiped the dragon . . . and . . . the beast. Likely refers to idolatrous emperor worship, which John holds to be satanic (see notes on 2:12, 13). Who is like the beast? Parodies OT confessions of the Lord’s incomparability (Exod 15:11; Ps 113:5). Who can wage war against it? Ironically recalls 12:7–8, where Michael and the angels overpower the dragon.

13:5 utter proud words and blasphemies . . . forty-two months. Recalls Daniel’s prophecy of the king who “will speak against the Most High and oppress his holy people” for “a time, times and half a time” (Dan 7:25), equivalent to 42 months (see note on 11:2).

13:6 dwelling place. Likely refers not to a physical temple but to God’s people “who live in heaven” (11:1; 21:3).

13:7 given power. Implies that the beast’s ultimate opposition to God’s people is under God’s sovereign control. wage war . . . conquer. Alludes to Dan 7:21; see note on 11:7. every tribe, people, language and nation. Recalls the universal idolatrous worship directed toward Nebuchadnezzar’s golden image (Dan 3:7) and contrasts with the multiethnic heavenly worship of God and the Lamb (5:9; 7:9; cf. Dan 7:14).

13:8 book of life. See note on 3:5. slain from the creation of the world. Jesus’ redemptive death is God’s original plan (1 Pet 1:19–20). See NIV text note for an alternative reading.

13:9 hear. See note on 2:7.

13:10 captivity . . . sword. OT punishments on unfaithful Israel (Jer 15:2; 43:11; cf. Lev 26:25; Deut 28:41), here suffered by faithful believers who are called to “patient endurance and faithfulness.” See note on 1:9; cf. 14:12.

13:11–18 The Beast out of the Earth. A second beast, called the false prophet in 16:13, joins with the first beast and the dragon to form an idolatrous counterfeit of the divine Trinity (cf. 1:4–5). Some futurists identify this beast as a future religious leader who complements an antichrist political leader. Some preterists associate the false prophet with the priests who promoted emperor worship in the seven cities of Asia Minor to which John writes (chs. 2–3).

13:11 second beast. Recalls the beast from the sea (v. 1; Dan 7:2–3), though it is “coming out of the earth” like the “four kings” in Dan 7:17. Later the second beast is called “the false prophet,” joining the dragon and beast to form a false trinity (16:13; 20:10). lamb . . . dragon. Diabolical imitation of Jesus the Lamb (5:6); recalls the evil ruler (“ram”) in Dan 8:3 and Jesus’ warning against false prophets in Matt 7:15.

13:12 authority. From the first beast, who receives authority from the dragon (v. 2). worship the first beast. Cf. v. 4. Likely reflects the public displays of worship and loyalty to the Roman emperor expected in Asian Minor (see Introduction: Date).

13:13 great signs. Deceptive works typical of false teachers and prophets (Exod 7:11; Deut 13:1–3; Matt 24:24; 2 Cor 11:13–15; 2 Thess 2:9). fire. Recalls Elijah (1 Kgs 18:38; 2 Kgs 1:10); ironically anticipates God’s judgment on Satan’s army (20:9).

13:14 image. Recalls the massive gold image that Nebuchadnezzar erected in Babylon (Dan 3:1) and the numerous shrines honoring Roman emperors in John’s day. A prominent temple at Ephesus featured a statue of the emperor probably 16–23 feet (5–7 meters) high.

13:15 refused to worship . . . killed. Recalls Nebuchadnezzar’s decree (Dan 3:4–6) and persecution of Jews under Antiochus IV Epiphanes (167–164 BC). Pliny the Younger wrote to the emperor Trajan (AD 98–117) that people charged with being Christians were summoned under threat of execution to pray to Roman gods, make offerings to the emperor’s statue, and revile Christ’s name.

13:16 mark. Demonstrates absolute loyalty and perhaps ownership. There is no neutrality: one has either the beast’s mark or God’s seal (7:3–4; 14:1). It may reflect the ancient practice of branding or tattooing disobedient slaves, soldiers, and loyal adherents to certain pagan cults.

13:17 not buy or sell. Economics and religion were closely intertwined in first-century Asia Minor (Acts 19:23–27), and Christians faced economic pressure to show loyalty to Rome and participate in local trade guilds (see 2:9 and note). mark . . . name of the beast. Contrasts with believers who have God’s name written on their foreheads (14:1; 22:4).

13:18 wisdom. True spiritual understanding allows one to understand the beast’s falsehood and resist its deception. Cf. 17:9. 666. Throughout church history, this enigmatic number has generated countless interpretations and speculations. The number 666 may signify the deficiency of creatures or the false trinity of the devil, beast, and false prophet in contrast to divine completeness symbolized by sevens (see Introduction: Sevens in Revelation). Alternatively, many interpreters appeal to the ancient practice of gematria, a system which assigns letters numerical values. The reference could be to “Nero Caesar,” whose name if written in Hebrew characters adds up to 666.

14:1–5 The Lamb and the 144,000. This vision highlights the moral purity and spiritual protection of believers redeemed by the Lamb (cf. 7:1–14) and contrasts with the previous vision of the suffering and struggle of God’s people (13:1–18).

14:1 Lamb. Jesus. Mount Zion. Heavenly Jerusalem (cf. 21:22–26; Ps 2:6; Heb 12:22). 144,000. Recalls 7:4 (see note there). It may refer to (1) martyrs, (2) believers in the final tribulation, or, more likely, (3) the totality of God’s redeemed people (cf. Jer 2:3; Jas 1:18), whom Jesus separates from the unredeemed in the last harvest (vv. 14–20; Matt 13:36–43). his name . . . on their foreheads. Believers are marked as God’s possession and given a new identity and security in Christ (cf. 3:12; 7:3; 22:4); contrasts with the mark of the beast (13:16–17).

14:2 rushing waters . . . thunder. Deafening, joyful praise by the heavenly multitude (19:6). harpists. See note on 5:8; cf. 15:2.

14:3 new song. See note on 5:9. living creatures. See notes on 4:6–8. elders. See note on 4:4. redeemed. Translated “purchased” in v. 4; 5:9.

14:4 those who did not defile themselves . . . virgins. Signifies spiritual, ritual, and moral purity of faithful believers (cf. 3:4). Combines two images: Israel’s holy and chaste warriors (1 Sam 21:5; cf. 19:14) and the church as Christ’s pure bride (19:7–8; 2 Cor 11:2; Eph 5:27). follow the Lamb. Recalls Jesus’ teaching that disciples must adhere to his teaching and example, which entails endurance of suffering and hostility (Mark 8:34–36; John 10:3–4; 1 Pet 2:21). firstfruits. Initial crops that were offered to God in anticipation of the full harvest (Exod 23:19; Lev 23:9–14). Firstfruits language is applied metaphorically to initial converts in a region (the Greek word for “firstfruits” is translated “first convert” in Rom 16:5 and “first converts” in 1 Cor 16:15), to Jesus’ resurrection (1 Cor 15:20, 23), and to believers’ present experience of the Spirit (Rom 8:23).

14:5 No lie. Ethical blamelessness; alludes to Zeph 3:13; cf. Isa 53:9.

14:6–13 The Three Angels. Three angels proclaim the hour of divine judgment, Babylon’s fall, and the unceasing torment of the beast’s worshipers, which contrast with the blessing and glorious rest that awaits those who remain faithful to Jesus.

14:6 eternal gospel. Proclamation of God’s eternal purpose concerning judgment and salvation; explained in v. 7. every nation, tribe, language and people. See notes on 5:9; 13:7.

14:7 Fear God and give him glory. Cf. 15:4. Worship. True praise to the sovereign Creator, who executes righteous judgment; contrasts with false worship of the beast (v. 11; 13:8, 12, 15).

14:8 Fallen! Fallen is Babylon the Great. Initial announcement of Babylon’s divine judgment (cf. 16:19; 17:5; 18:2); alludes to Isa 21:9. Babylon was the arch-oppressor of God’s people, destroying Solomon’s temple and taking Israel into exile (2 Kgs 25:1–28; Dan 1:1–2). Babylon, or “Babel” (see NIV text note on Gen 11:9), was the site of ancient humanity’s proud idolatry that led to confusing languages and scattering peoples (Gen 11:1–9). For John’s first readers, “Babylon the Great” likely represented Rome, which like ancient Babylon, destroyed the Jerusalem temple, persecuted God’s people (17:6), and engaged in flagrant idolatry and immorality (17:4–5). Some interpreters argue that Babylon refers to the state-sponsored, economic-religious system in the final generation. But Babylon may more generally symbolize the world’s idolatrous, seductive, political economy, the archetypal pagan city, which Rome embodied in the first century. See Introduction: Interpreting Symbolism. maddening wine. Symbolizes Babylon’s deceptive economic, political, and religious influence over the nations (cf. 17:2; 18:3; Jer 51:7).

14:9 worships the beast . . . receives its mark. See 13:12, 16 and notes.

14:10 wine of God’s fury. The final unleashing of divine wrath on Babylon and the wicked (cf. 16:19; Ps 75:8; Jer 25:15; 51:7). tormented with burning sulfur. The wicked share the eternal destiny of the devil, beast, and false prophet (20:10; cf. Ps 11:6); recalls Sodom’s destruction (Gen 19:24; Luke 17:29).

14:11 smoke . . . for ever. Alludes to Isa 34:10 (of Edom); cf. 19:3 (of Babylon). no rest. Idolaters’ unending anguish contrasts with the ceaseless praise in heaven (4:8).

14:12 patient endurance. See note on 1:9; cf. 13:10.

14:13 Write. See note on 1:11. Blessed. Revelation’s second promise of blessing to faithful believers (see note on 1:3). die in the Lord. Cf. 1 Thess 4:16. says the Spirit. The one who addresses the churches (2:7) and inspires prophecy (19:10) here speaks directly (22:17), confirming the exhortation and promise in vv. 12–13. they will rest. The martyrs “wait a little longer” (6:11) before entering the eternal “Sabbath-rest” for God’s people (Heb 4:9–10).

14:14–20 Harvesting the Earth and Trampling the Winepress. John sees Jesus, the exalted Son of Man, and an angel from God’s temple holding sharp sickles for the end-time harvest (cf. Joel 3:11–13). Verses 14–16 probably depict the gathering of God’s people by Jesus (cf. v. 4), while vv. 17–20 describe the terrible judgment of the wicked.

14:14 cloud . . . son of man. Alludes to Dan 7:13; Matt 24:30; 26:64; see notes on 1:7, 13. The risen Jesus sits enthroned as heavenly king and judge. crown of gold. Symbolizes Jesus’ end-time victory and regal authority (cf. 19:11–16; see notes on 2:10; 4:4). sickle. Represents God’s judgment in the last harvest (cf. Joel 3:11–13; Mark 4:26–29).

14:15 the harvest of the earth is ripe. Many scholars interpret this harvest as divine judgment on the wicked as in vv. 18–19 and Joel 3:13, though this harvest may refer to the gathering of God’s people, called “firstfruits” in v. 4 (see note there) and “the wheat” in Matt 13:30.

14:17 The second harvest (cf. vv. 14–16), to gather and crush grapes in the winepress (v. 18).

14:18 fire . . . altar. Recalls 8:3, 5.

14:19 winepress. In the ancient world, grapes were placed in troughs and trampled before collecting juice for fermentation, a vivid OT image for God’s crushing the wicked nations in furious “wrath” (cf. 19:15; Isa 63:1–6).

14:20 outside the city. Probably Jerusalem, the site of the final end-time battle (Zech 14:1–4; cf. 20:9); recalls Jesus’ suffering “outside the city gate” (Heb 13:12). Cf. “the holy city” (11:2) and “the great city” (11:8). Everything impure, shameful, and deceitful is kept “outside” the new Jerusalem (21:27; 22:15). 1,600 stadia. See NIV text note; approximately the length of the Holy Land from north to south and the square of 40, symbolizing complete, worldwide judgment.

15:1—16:21 The Seven Bowls. Seven angels pour out a final series of judgments on the earth’s inhabitants, which recall and consummate the earlier seals (6:1–17) and trumpets (8:6—11:19). The “seven last plagues” (15:1) or “bowls of God’s wrath” (16:1) demonstrate God’s justice in punishing unrepentant humanity (16:9–11, 21) and vindicating his persecuted people (16:6).

15:1–8 Seven Angels With Seven Plagues. Verses 2–4 conclude ch. 14’s focus on God’s vindicating his people; vv. 1, 5–8 introduce the angels authorized to carry out the final series of judgments in ch. 16.

15:1 another . . . sign. Recalls 12:1, 3. seven angels. Responsible for carrying out the bowl judgments (v. 6; 16:1; cf. 8:6). seven last plagues. Introduces the bowl judgments in 16:1–21; cf. 21:9). God’s wrath is completed. See notes on 6:16, 17; cf. 14:10; 16:1.

15:2–3 held harps . . . sang. Recalls the 144,000 (14:2–3) and the 24 elders (5:8–9).

15:2 sea of glass. From God’s throne room (4:6). those who had been victorious. See note on 12:11.

15:3–4 Alludes to Jer 10:7 (cf. Exod 15:14, 18), which celebrates God’s uniqueness as powerful Creator and eternal King (Jer 10:10, 12) in contrast to the nations’ worthless idols (Jer 10:8–9, 11).

15:3 song of . . . Moses and of the Lamb. Celebrates God’s salvation of Israel at the exodus (Exod 15:1–18; cf. Deut 31:30—32:43) and the new-exodus redemption of people from all nations accomplished by the blood of the Lamb (5:9). deeds. God’s glorious acts of salvation and judgment, reflected particularly in the exodus (Exod 15:11; cf. Ps 111:2–4). Just and true are your ways. Recalls Moses’ song in Deut 32:4.

15:4 holy. Cf. 4:8. All nations will come and worship. Alludes to Ps 86:9. The Almighty, not the beast, is the true sovereign who will duly receive worldwide worship (cf. 7:9–10; contrast 13:8, 14).

15:5 temple . . . opened. See note on 11:19.

15:6 seven angels. Introduced in v. 1; they pour out God’s wrath on the earth in ch. 16. clean, shining linen. Suggests priestly duties (cf. Lev 16:4; Dan 10:5). golden sashes. Resemble the Son of Man’s attire (1:13; cf. Dan 10:5).

15:7 living creatures. See notes on 4:6–8. golden bowls . . . wrath of God. Recalls the bowls that hold the prayers of God’s people who cry out for vindication (see note on 5:8; cf. 6:9–10; 8:3–5).

15:8 smoke. Symbolizes God’s glorious presence in his sanctuary (Exod 40:34–35; 1 Kgs 8:10–11; Isa 6:1, 4).

16:1–21 The Seven Bowls of God’s Wrath. The bowl judgments parallel the seven trumpets (8:6—11:19) and may recall the plagues on Egypt at the exodus (see “Parallels Between Bowls, Trumpets, and Exodus Plagues”). This final series of judgments totally destroys those who conspire against God with the dragon, beast, and false prophet.

16:1 seven angels. See note on 15:1. bowls. See note on 15:7.

16:2 on the land. Parallels v. 1; 8:5 (“on the earth”). sores. May recall the sixth Egyptian plague (Exod 9:8–12) and covenant curses against Israel (Deut 28:27, 35). mark. See note on 13:16.

16:3 on the sea. Cf. 8:8. blood. Parallels the second trumpet (8:8–9); may recall the first plague (Exod 7:20–21). every living thing . . . died. Total destruction contrasts with 8:9 (“a third . . . died”).

16:4 rivers . . . springs. Recalls the third trumpet (8:10). blood. Cf. vv. 3, 6.

16:5 judgments. Demonstrate God’s justice and holiness and motivate heavenly worship (cf. 15:3–4; 19:1–2). you who are . . . were. See note on 11:17.

16:6 for. Introduces the reason God’s judgments are just (vv. 5, 7) and recalls the martyrs’ appeals for God to judge persecutors and avenge their blood (6:10; cf. 18:20; 19:2; Deut 32:43; 2 Kgs 9:7; Ps 79:10, 12; Isa 49:26).

16:7 true and just. Cf. 15:3; 19:2.

16:8 sun. Recalls the fourth trumpet (8:12). allowed to scorch. Contrast 7:16, where God promises to protect the redeemed from the sun’s “scorching heat” (cf. Ps 121:6; Isa 49:10). fire. Recalls 9:17–18; the same judgment that befalls Babylon (17:16; 18:8).

16:9 cursed. Cf. vv. 11, 21; translated “blaspheme” in 13:6. The unredeemed respond to divine judgment by participating in the beast’s blasphemy and slander, while the angels and redeemed praise God for his justice (vv. 5–7; 15:3–4). control over these plagues. God is completely sovereign in judgment and salvation (cf. 12:10). refused to repent. Cf. v. 11. See note on 9:20.

16:10 poured out his bowl on the throne of the beast. Directly judges the beast’s sovereignty. Recalls 13:2 (“the dragon gave the beast . . . his throne”) and parallels 2:13 (Satan’s throne). darkness. Recalls the fifth trumpet (9:2) and the ninth plague (Exod 10:21–23). Darkness accompanies the day of the Lord (Joel 2:1–2; Amos 5:20; Matt 24:29; see note on Amos 2:16) and characterizes the eternal judgment of the wicked (Matt 8:12; 25:30; 2 Pet 2:17). agony. Cf. Luke 16:24.

16:11 cursed the God of heaven. Divine judgments further harden the beast’s followers in their hostility toward God (cf. v. 9).

16:12 sixth angel poured out his bowl. A summary statement explained in vv. 13–14, 16. Euphrates. See note on 9:14. water . . . dried up. Recalls God’s promises to judge Babylon and restore his people (Isa 11:15; 44:27–28; Jer 50:38; 51:36). kings from the East. May symbolize Israel’s ancient enemies from the north and east (Assyria and Babylon) or refer to the feared Parthians east of the Roman Empire (cf. Acts 2:9).

16:13 impure . . . frogs. Frogs are unclean creatures (Lev 11:9–11), always associated in Scripture with the destructive judgment on Egypt (Exod 8:2–13; Pss 78:45; 105:30). dragon . . . beast . . . false prophet. The false trinity, the great opponents of God’s people and the Lamb (see note on 13:11). “False prophet” specifies the identity and activity of the “second beast” of 13:11–17. God’s people are repeatedly warned of prophets who are not authorized by God yet promote false teaching and deceptive prophecies among the covenant community (Deut 13:1–2; Jer 14:14; Lam 2:14; Matt 7:15; 2 Pet 2:1; 1 John 4:1–3). Jesus rebukes the churches in Pergamum and Thyatira for tolerating false teachers and prophets (2:14–15, 20).

16:14 demonic spirits . . . signs. Cf. 13:13–14; 19:20. Recalls the counterfeit signs by Pharaoh’s magicians (Exod 8:7), as well as Jesus’ warning concerning the “great signs and wonders” by false messiahs and prophets (Matt 24:24). kings of the whole world. Includes “the kings from the East” (v. 12) and all earthly political authorities (cf. 19:18–19) who participate in false worship, immorality, and persecution of God’s people (v. 6; 17:2; 18:3). Those who do not acknowledge Jesus as the preeminent ruler (cf. 1:5; 17:14) will incur his wrath (vv. 15–17; cf. Ps 2:10–12). gather them for the battle. The purpose of the false trinity’s deception: assemble an army to war against God’s forces (cf. v. 16; 19:19; 20:8) as in the earlier war in heaven (12:7–9). great day. See note on 6:17.

16:15 Look, I come like a thief! Christ interjects to urge believers to remain spiritually vigilant in view of his second coming (cf. 3:3). Blessed. Third promise of blessing to faithful believers (see note on 1:3). awake . . . clothed. Recalls Jesus’ rebukes of Sardis (3:2–3) and Laodicea (3:17–18) for their spiritual complacency and danger.

16:16 they gathered. Resumes the narration from v. 14; recalls Ps 2:2. Armageddon. “Mount Megiddo” in Hebrew. Megiddo, also called the Plain of Megiddo (2 Chr 35:22; Zech 12:11), was an ancient city that Solomon fortified (1 Kgs 9:15). Megiddo was strategically located along the main highway from Egypt to Syria in the Jezreel Valley and was the site of key battles (Judg 5:19–21; 2 Kgs 23:29). Some read this as a literal reference to the site of the final battle, while others interpret Armageddon as a symbol of the final conflict between God and the forces of evil.

16:17 It is done! Repeated in 21:6. God has accomplished his plan (10:7), established his kingdom (11:15), and completed his wrath (15:1, 8).

16:18 lightning . . . thunder. See note on 8:5 (cf. 11:19). No earthquake like it. Unprecedented catastrophe; recalls 6:12–14.

16:19 great city. “Babylon the Great” symbolizes proud, idolatrous human civilization opposed to God, which Rome embodied for Revelation’s first readers (17:18; 18:21; see note on 14:8). split into three parts. Explains the effects of the earthquake in v. 18. cities . . . collapsed. The final judgment levels all the political, economic, and social centers that Babylon’s idolatry corrupted. cup . . . wrath. See note on 14:10.

16:20 Parallels 6:14; 20:11. Conclusively destroying the world prepares for the new heaven and new earth (21:1).

16:21 huge hailstones . . . fell on people. Recalls and intensifies the earlier trumpet judgments (8:7; 11:19; cf. Exod 9:22–25; Josh 10:11). cursed. See note on v. 9.

17:1—19:10 Destruction of Babylon, the Prostitute. John receives a vision of Babylon’s demise (cf. 14:8–10; 16:19), which prompts earthly lamentation (18:9–19) and heavenly rejoicing (18:20; 19:1–10). Babylon, the “great prostitute” (17:1) and “great city” (17:18), contrasts with the new Jerusalem, the bride of Christ (see “A Tale of Two Cities in Revelation”). Interpreters have variously identified Babylon as Rome, the Roman Catholic Church, or the dominant state-sponsored, economic-religious system throughout the ages or in the final generation. John’s first readers likely understood Babylon as representing Rome, though this interpretation may be combined with some amillennial or futurist readings (see Introduction: Interpreting Symbolism; see also note on 14:8).

17:1–18 Babylon, the Prostitute on the Beast. One of the angels involved in the previous bowl judgments now shows John a vision of Babylon’s punishment, which expands upon the seventh bowl (especially 16:19). After being transported “in the Spirit” (v. 3; cf. 1:10), John beholds the prostitute’s opulence and abominations (vv. 3–6), then he receives the heavenly interpretation of this symbolic vision (vv. 7–18). For an explanation of Babylon, see note on 14:8.

17:1 angels . . . bowls. The agents of God’s judgment in ch. 16; 21:9. Come, I will show you the punishment of the great prostitute. Introduces the theme of ch. 17 and contrasts with 21:9 (“Come, I will show you the bride”). Verse 18 interprets this prostitute as “the great city,” which likely denotes Rome (cf. 11:18; 16:19). many waters. Alludes to Babylon’s description in Jer 51:13; explained in v. 15 (see note there).

17:2 kings . . . committed adultery. Repeated in 18:3, 9. Signifies Babylon’s corrupting influence, seducing the nations into idolatry and immorality, likely through the empty promise of political power and especially economic gain (cf. 18:2–19). wine. See note on 14:8.

17:3 in the Spirit. Introduces a new prophetic vision (1:10; 4:2; 21:10; see Introduction: Structure). wilderness. Connotes divine protection and provision in 12:6, 14; here the wilderness is a solitary place of deprivation and hardship where John receives revelation about prosperous Babylon’s future desolation (cf. 18:2; Isa 21:9). woman. The “great prostitute” (v. 1) and “the great city” (v. 18). scarlet. Represents wealth (see note on v. 4) and recalls the dragon’s red color (12:3). beast. See note on 13:1. ten horns. See note on 13:1.

17:4 purple and scarlet . . . gold, precious stones and pearls. Lavish clothing and jewelry symbolizing great power and wealth, which typified Rome’s prosperous commerce (18:12, 16). golden cup. Recalls Jer 51:7.

17:5 mystery. Interpreted in v. 7; see note on 1:20.

17:6 blood of God’s holy people. Babylon persecutes those who oppose her idolatry, immorality, and luxury (cf. 6:9; 16:6; 18:24; 19:2). greatly astonished. Similar to Daniel’s response to the revelation concerning the king of Babylon’s humiliation (Dan 4:19).

17:7 The angel interprets John’s symbolic vision of the woman (v. 18), the beast (vv. 8, 11), and its heads and horns (vv. 9–10, 12–14).

17:8 The beast, which you saw. Interprets John’s vision of the scarlet beast (v. 3; cf. vv. 7, 11). was, now is not, and yet will come up. Ironically echoes the description of God (1:4, 8) and the Lamb (1:18; 2:8); recalls 13:3, 12 where the beast’s fatal wound is healed. out of the Abyss. Cf. 11:7; 13:1 (the sea). The beast’s coming culminates in defeat and eternal “destruction” (cf. v. 11; 20:10). book of life. See note on 3:5.

17:9 wisdom. See note on 13:18. seven heads. Interprets John’s vision in v. 3; see notes on 12:3; 13:1. seven hills. Explains “seven heads”; ancient writers like Pliny and Virgil commonly referred to Rome as the city on seven hills.

17:10 seven kings. May denote seven Roman emperors or world empires or the fullness of power that Rome or worldly kingdoms exercised. one is. The sixth king may refer to Nero (AD 54–68), Vespasian (AD 69–79), the Roman Empire, or the beast as the culmination of the world’s kingdoms.

17:11 eighth king. Variously identified as a Roman emperor such as Nero or Domitian, a future antichrist, or a fuller embodiment of Satanic power. destruction. The same fate as the beast from the Abyss (v. 8).

17:12 ten horns . . . ten kings. Interprets “the mystery” of the beast’s horns in v. 7; alludes to Dan 7:24. May designate the ten provincial governors of Rome, Rome’s client kings from conquered territories, or the symbolic power of “the kings of the earth” (v. 18; cf. 16:14). one hour. A very short time (Matt 20:12; 26:40); anticipates Babylon’s ruin “in one hour” (18:10, 17, 19).

17:13 one purpose. See note on v. 17.

17:14 wage war . . . the Lamb will triumph. Reverses 13:7 (cf. Dan 7:21–22). King of kings. A title sometimes used for earthly sovereigns (Ezra 7:12; Dan 2:37); applied ultimately to God and Jesus (cf. 19:16; Dan 2:47; 4:37; 1 Tim 6:15).

17:15 waters . . . peoples. Interprets the symbol in v. 1 (cf. Jer 51:13). Like the beast (13:7), Babylon exercises authority over unredeemed humanity (cf. v. 18).

17:16 Evil will turn against evil as the beast and its “ten horns” (cf. v. 3; see note on 13:1) will destroy “the prostitute” Babylon, the idolatrous economic system that supports them and whose demise they will mourn in 18:9–10. They despise, shamefully expose, and burn Babylon (cf. Isa 47:1–14), which also recalls the judgment against apostate Israel (cf. Ezek 16:35–42; 23:28–30).

17:17 his purpose. Ironically, by serving the beast, the kings carry out God’s sovereign design (cf. v. 13). fulfilled. Cf. 10:7.

17:18 woman . . . great city. The prostitute Babylon (v. 1) refers to the world’s idolatrous, immoral economic and cultural system, which Rome embodied for John’s first readers (see notes on 11:8; 14:8).

18:1–3 Lament Over Fallen Babylon. John’s vision in ch. 18 dramatically expands on earlier references to Babylon’s demise (14:8; 17:16) and draws repeatedly on OT prophecies against Tyre (Ezek 26–27) and Babylon (particularly Isa 13; 21; Jer 50–51). Here a glorious angel announces Babylon’s fall (reiterating 14:8) and the basis of her judgment.

18:1 another angel. Cf. 10:1; 20:1. splendor. Alludes to Ezek 43:2; cf. 21:23 (of God’s glory).

18:2 Fallen! See note on 14:8. What Babylon “has become” recalls prophecies of her absolute desolation (Isa 13:19–22; Jer 51:37).

18:3 maddening wine. See note on 14:8. kings . . . committed adultery. See note on 17:2. Kings lament Babylon’s fall in vv. 9–10. merchants . . . grew rich. Recalls the lament concerning Tyre (Ezek 27:12, 27). Merchants mourn Babylon in vv. 11–17.

18:4–8 Warning to Escape Babylon’s Judgment. Following the announcement of Babylon’s fall (vv. 1–3), a heavenly voice summons God’s people to “come out” of Babylon (v. 4) and stresses God’s certain and severe judgment on the world’s political and economic system for its immorality and hubris.

18:4 Come out of her, my people. Alludes to Jer 51:45 (cf. Isa 48:20; 52:11). God does not call believers to withdraw from pagan society but calls them to avoid moral compromise as his holy people (cf. 2 Cor 6:17; 1 Pet 2:9–12), an acute concern for several churches John addresses (see 2:20–21; 3:15–18).

18:5 for. Introduces the reason for the exhortation in v. 4; alludes to Jer 51:9.

18:6 Give back to her as she has given. Babylon’s punishment fits her crime (cf. Ps 137:8; Jer 50:29; 51:24). pay her back double. A just penalty highlighting the gravity of Babylon’s sin (cf. Isa 40:2; Jer 16:18).

18:7 queen . . . not a widow. Recalls Babylon’s boast in Isa 47:7–8 as well as Laodicea’s proud self-reliance (3:17).

18:8 in one day. Swift judgment; alludes to Isa 47:9. fire. Cf. 17:16. for mighty is the Lord God. God’s sovereign power is the ultimate basis for Babylon’s demise.

18:9–20 Threefold Woe Over Babylon’s Fall. The earth’s kings (vv. 9–10), merchants (vv. 11–17a), and sea captains (vv. 17–19) bitterly lament Babylon’s judgment, which signals their own economic demise. In contrast, God’s people rejoice at their vindication (v. 20; cf. 19:1–5). This section closely resembles the prophecy against Tyre in Ezek 26–27 (see “OT Allusions in Revelation 18”).

18:9 kings. See note on 17:2; cf. Ps 2:2; Ezek 27:33. mourn. Kings lament the fall of Babylon, the source of their power and luxury.

18:10 Terrified at her torment. Parallels v. 15; recalls v. 7; 14:11. In one hour. Swift judgment (cf. v. 17); recalls the kings’ brief reign (“one hour” in 17:12; see note there).