Index

• Acadiana Neuf, 203
• Accommodationism, 51–52, 180–81, 218 (n. 2), 231 (n. 28)
• Acheson, Meldon, 189, 265 (n. 28)
• Adams, Henry, 13
• Adams, Kenneth, 114
• Affirmative action, 204
• Agricultural Adjustment Administration (AAA), 87, 93, 96–97, 103–5, 110, 111, 112, 152, 199–200
• Agricultural Extension Service: origins, 76;
  • discrimination in, 76, 77, 80–81, 108, 113, 199, 237 (n. 28);
  • and African Americans, 76–80, 123, 151–52, 184, 202, 206, 236–37 (n. 28);
  • and plantation owners, 77, 81, 108, 113, 114, 133–35;
  • black agents of, 77–81, 123
• Agricultural Soil Conservation Service (ASCS), 152, 199–200. See also Agricultural Adjustment Administration
• Agricultural workers: conditions for in Jim Crow era, 5, 18, 22–28, 36–37, 42–43, 52–53, 223 (n. 28), 229–30 (nn. 10, 14);
  • as activists, 8–9, 15–16, 17, 42, 45–47, 52–53, 57, 78–80, 152–53, 165–66, 184, 261 (n. 28);
  • violence against, 13, 15, 17, 19, 31, 33–34, 49, 57, 86, 110–11, 165–66, 224 (n. 28);
  • exploitation of, 13, 15, 19–20, 23–24, 26–28, 29–31, 32, 42, 46, 104, 221 (n. 28);

  • and federal agricultural agencies, 76–81, 93, 96–97, 102–5, 106–10, 113, 122–24, 133–35, 151–52, 199–200, 236–37 (n. 28), 239–40 (n. 28), 245 (n. 28), 246–47 (nn. 69, 70, 75);
  • and mechanization, 135, 136–37, 145, 146, 211–12. See also Landowners, black; Louisiana Farmers’ Union; Plantations
• Alabama, 43, 97–98, 100, 106, 143, 155, 172, 173, 174, 190, 192, 248 (n. 28)
• Alexander, Tom, 19–20, 221 (n. 28)
• Alexandria, La., 58–59, 66, 67, 84, 128, 134, 138, 144, 165, 251 (n. 28)
• Algiers, La., 131
• American Farm Bureau Federation (AFBF), 81, 113, 132–33, 166, 262 (n. 28)
• American Federation of Labor (AFL), 83, 100, 243 (n. 28)
• Anna T. Jeanes Fund, 50
• Anticommunism, 99, 167–68, 174, 176, 210, 263 (n. 28), 268 (n. 28)
• Antilynching bills, 39, 56
• Antipoverty programs. See New Deal; War on Poverty
• Arkansas, 11, 46, 164, 222 (n. 28), 248 (n. 28)
• Armed self-defense, 16–17, 57–62, 111–12, 139–40, 170–71, 176, 183, 188–95, 232 (n. 28), 270 (n. 28), 271–72 (n. 28)
• Ascension Parish, La., 135, 136, 148, 162
• Assumption Parish, La., 70
• Aswell, James B., 69
• Avoyelles Parish, La., 95, 98, 101
• Badeaux, R. J., 136
• Bagnall, Robert, 68
• Baltimore Afro-American, 61, 139–40
• Baton Rouge, La., 42, 55, 67, 84, 105, 118, 119, 125, 128, 129, 148, 171, 177, 178, 251 (n. 28)
• Beaumont, Tex., 139
• Beauregard Parish, La., 76, 138
• Beecher, John, 130
• Bell, James, 195
• Benevolent societies, 52, 55–56, 153. See also Community institutions, black
• Bentley Lumber Mill, 165
• Beraud, Joe, 111
• Bernhardt, Joshua, 104
• Berry, Louis, 204
• Bethel Baptist Church, 56
• Betz, R. L., 140
• Bibens, David, 49
• Biddle, Francis, 142
• Bienville Parish, La., 76, 236 (n. 28)
• Birmingham, Ala., 173, 174
• Black Ace (B. K. Turner), 44–45
• Blackman, William, 58
• Black Power, 204, 205
• Blanchard, Newton, 86
• Blues music, 6, 7, 42–45
• Bogalusa, La., 1, 37–38, 82, 83, 146, 149, 191–92, 194
• Bogalusa Self-Preservation and Loyalty League, 83
• Bogalusa Voters’ League, 1, 191–92, 194
• Boll weevil, 59, 65, 76
• Bond, Horace Mann, 60
• Borah, Wayne G., 157, 159
• Bossier Parish, La., 16, 45, 76
• Bouma, Ronnie Sigal, 177, 182
• Bowden, W. George, 134
• Bowman, Sarah, 23
• Boyd, Mary, 182, 189
• Brannon, John, 188
• Branton, Wiley, 177
• Bray, Dorothy, 128
• Brian, L. E., 203
• Brown, Bill, 178, 179, 191
• Brown, Earnestine, 9, 153, 198
• Brown, Harrison, 27, 36–37, 40, 45, 49, 78, 90, 97, 145–46, 151, 152, 153, 208
• Brown, W. C., 45
• Brown v. Board of Education (1954), 166, 169, 198
• Bullis, G. P., 138–39
• Burgaires Sugar, 245 (n. 28)
• Burger, Sharon, 179
• Business owners
• —black: as activists, 9, 67, 117, 153, 179;
  • in Jim Crow era, 38, 49, 74, 75
• —white: influence over communities, 13, 18, 21, 36–38, 86, 92–93, 185–86;
  • and black civil rights, 16, 126, 137–38, 172, 176, 185–86, 198, 202–4, 212, 276 (n. 28);
  • exploitation of black labor, 23–24, 29–30;
  • complicity in violence, 35–36;
  • and labor unions, 83, 166
• Byrd, Daniel, 160, 162, 168, 170
• Caddo Parish, La., 2, 30–31, 34–35, 57, 58, 67, 68, 75, 76, 77, 95, 236 (n. 28)
• Caillouet, Adrian, 159
• Calcasieu Parish, La., 135
• Campbell, Guy, 94
• Camp Claiborne, La., 127, 128, 138, 141, 251 (n. 28)
• Camp Livingston, La., 128
• Camp Polk, La., 127, 138
• Carolina Slim, 44
• Carter, Joseph, 1, 183, 184, 189, 266 (n. 28)
• Carville, La., 155
• Castor, La., 165
• Catholics, 10–11, 12, 53–54, 55, 220 (n. 28). See also Churches
• Caulfield, Siegent, 190, 258 (n. 28)
• Caulfield, Thelma, 190
• Chaney, Roy, 203
• Chapmon, J. H., 90
• Cherry, Ruth, 53
• Chicago, Ill., 67, 118, 176, 183
• Chicago Defender, 67, 118
• Chicago Mill and Lumber Company, 90, 165, 197
• Churches, 41, 43, 50, 52, 53–55, 77, 79, 80, 98, 150, 153, 162, 181, 182, 183, 212, 232 (n. 28). See also Catholics; Protestants
• Civilian Conservation Corps (CCC), 87, 88–89, 94, 152
• Civil Rights Act (1964), 9, 195, 197, 204
• Civil rights movement: as part of broader freedom struggle, 1–2, 4, 6, 8–9, 62, 80, 206, 218–19 (n. 28), 259 (n. 28);
  • studies of, 5, 116;
  • media coverage of, 145, 172–73, 174, 189;
  • emergence after World War II, 145–55;
  • in 1950s, 153–74;
  • in 1960s, 173–74, 175–206;
  • limits of, 207, 209–12, 263 (n. 28);
  • achievements of, 207–9
• Civil War, 21, 88
• Claiborne Parish, La., 2, 29–30, 236 (n. 28)
• Clarence, La., 68
• Clark, Clinton, 98, 112, 114
• Clayton, La., 165
• Clinton, La., 183, 186, 191
• Cold War, 142, 145
• Cole, Reuben, 98–99
• Colfax, La., 17
• Collins, Corrie, 187
• Commonwealth College, 98
• Communist Party, 97, 101, 114, 167, 242 (n. 28)
• Communists, 8, 86, 97–98, 99, 101, 105–6, 114, 167, 176, 210, 242 (n. 28). See also Louisiana Farmers’ Union; Share Croppers’ Union
• Community Action Programs (CAPs), 201–4
• Community Development Incorporated, 203
• Community institutions, black, 50, 52–57, 98, 100, 144, 150, 153, 162, 181, 183, 212. See also Churches
• Concordia Parish, La., 2, 3;
  • black education in, 32, 51, 209–10;
  • economic and political conditions in, 49, 92, 94, 114, 138;
  • black activism in, 62, 125, 171, 181, 182, 189, 192, 197
• Congress of Industrial Organizations (CIO), 100, 164–65, 166–67, 243 (n. 28)
• Congress of Racial Equality (CORE): in Louisiana, 1, 2–4, 174, 175–206;
  • and local activists, 4, 6, 9, 62, 175–76, 177, 178, 179–84, 187, 192–93, 196–97, 205–6;
  • role in freedom struggle, 5, 205–6, 212;
  • and desegregation, 172, 175, 176, 178, 196, 197, 206;
  • founding of, 172, 176, 264–65 (n. 28);
  • and nonviolence, 172–73, 175–76, 177, 178–79, 188–89, 192–93, 206;
  • activists’ backgrounds, 174, 177–78, 265 (n. 28);
  • and voter registration, 175–89, 195–96;
  • modifies approach to freedom struggle, 176, 197–98, 206;
  • finances of, 176, 205, 274 (n. 28);
  • and armed self-defense, 192–93;
  • and War on Poverty, 201–4
• Conservatives, 17–18, 21, 86, 87, 113, 126, 145, 164, 166–67, 204, 207, 211, 274 (n. 28)
• CORE Freedom News, 196
• Course of Study for Negro High Schools and Training Schools, 50
• Courts: state and local, 24, 30, 34–35, 68, 167, 168, 185, 209, 228 (n. 28), 268–69 (n. 28);
  • federal, 39, 157, 159, 160, 169, 179, 183, 184, 185, 194, 198, 209, 228 (n. 28), 268–69 (n. 28). See also U.S. Supreme Court
• Crain, Willie, 52
• Crisis, 61, 68–69
• Crop lien system, 21, 26–27, 29, 109, 153. See also Peonage
• Crowder, Enoch, 71
• Crown-Zellerbach Corporation, 148, 149
• Crutcher, J. H., 95, 119
• Curet, A. B., 123
• Cyprian, Nelson, 151
• Dace, V. R., 140
• Dacus, Sol, 83
• Dallet, Peggy, 98, 104, 114
• D’Amico, Sam J., 35
• Daniel, Ester Lee, 186
• Davenport, H. George, 75
• Davis, Dora B., 55
• Davis, Jetson, 266 (n. 28)
• Davis, Morton Hobbs, 165
• Davis, Rudolph, 183
• Deacons for Defense and Justice, 192, 193, 194, 258 (n. 28), 271 (n. 28)
• De Jean, Albert, 102
• Delta Shipbuilding Company, 126, 138
• Democratic Party, 16–18, 39, 87, 88, 142, 143, 145, 163, 208, 264 (n. 28)
• Dennis, Dave, 193
• DePriest, Oscar, 67, 183
• Desegregation: of schools, 166–67, 169–70, 171, 180, 194, 198, 209–10, 271–72 (n. 28);
  • of public accommodations, 172–73, 175, 176, 177, 178, 181, 182, 195, 196–97
• De Soto Parish, La., 90
• Dillard University, 150
• Disfranchisement, 7, 42, 116, 125, 138, 144, 146, 204, 231 (n. 28);
  • mechanisms for, 18, 20, 161–64, 168–69, 178, 183, 184, 185, 186, 187–88, 208;
  • and black powerlessness, 34, 57. See also Political activism, black: for political participation; Voter registration
• Dishman, Leola, 90
• Domestic workers, 5, 22, 38, 47–48, 93, 101, 117, 129, 135, 152–53
• Donnells, William L., 243 (n. 28)
• Double V campaign, 116, 124–25
• Doucet, D. J., 103, 110, 163
• Dougherty, Malcolm, 166
• Dow Chemical Company, 148
• Du Bois, W. E. B., 61, 68–69, 81
• East Baton Rouge Parish, La., 148, 162, 236 (n. 28)
• East Bay, Calif., 126
• East Carroll Parish, La., 38, 76, 140, 153, 162, 164
• East Feliciana Parish, La., 2, 3, 236 (n. 28);
  • black activism in, 52, 55, 180, 182–83, 187, 195–96, 201, 266 (n. 28);
  • opposition to freedom struggle in, 168, 185–86, 188, 191, 202–3, 268–69 (n. 28)
• Education, black: white northerners and, 15, 50–51;
  • white opposition to, 31–33, 50, 137–38;
  • quality of, 66, 80, 90, 125, 197, 198–99, 209–10, 226 (n. 28);
  • improvements in, 76, 86–87, 88, 90–91, 151, 159, 160–61, 201, 203, 204. See also Desegregation: of schools; Political activism, black: for education
• Elected officials, black, 15, 207–9, 211–12
• Elie, Lolis, 58, 60, 62, 211
• Elks. See Improved Benevolent Order of Elks of the World
• Ellender, Allen J., 39, 94
• Elliott, Tom, 19
• Elloise, Leroy, 152
• Erath, La., 119
• Eunice, La., 165
• Evans, Mercer G., 103
• Ewan, Peggy. See Redden, Meg
• Executive Order 8802, 126, 141
• Exodusters, 17
• Extension agents. See Agricultural Extension Service
• Family labor system, 25–26, 226 (n. 28)
• Farmer, James, 205, 206, 264–65 (n. 28)
• Farmer-Labor Party, 243 (n. 28)
• Farmers’ Educational and Cooperative Union of America. See National Farmers’ Union
• Farmers’ Home Administration (FaHA), 113, 200, 246–47 (n. 28)
• Farm Labor Program, 133–35
• Farm Security Administration, 87–88, 102, 103, 105, 106–7, 108–10, 113, 239–40 (n. 28), 247 (nn. 70, 75). See also Farmers’ Home Administration
• Favrot, Leo, 32, 50
• Federal Bureau of Investigation (FBI), 112, 118, 125, 163, 184, 191–92, 194, 249 (nn. 85, 88)
• Federal Emergency Relief Administration (FERA), 87
• Federal government: civil rights measures of, 15, 30, 38, 56, 88, 112, 116, 118, 126–27, 130, 132, 141–43, 144, 145, 148, 161, 163, 166, 169, 173, 177, 184, 194, 195, 198, 205, 207, 208, 249 (n. 28);
  • failure to prevent violence, 17, 19–20, 34, 38–39, 82–83, 139, 163, 191–92, 228 (n. 28), 271 (n. 28);
  • complicity in Jim Crow, 17, 19–20, 38–39, 71, 74–75, 81–82, 117;
  • southern Democrats in, 39, 81, 134, 141, 145;
  • agricultural policies of, 76–81, 85–86, 87–88, 92–93, 96–97, 102, 103–5, 106–7, 108–11, 112–13, 114, 123–24, 133–35, 136, 146, 151–52, 199–200, 202, 236–37 (nn. 45, 50), 239–40 (n. 28), 245 (nn. 55, 57), 246–47 (nn. 69, 70, 75);
  • and Louisiana Farmers’ Union, 102–3, 105, 106–7, 112–13;
  • and African Americans after World War II, 150–53. See also New Deal; War on Poverty
• Feingold, Miriam, 1, 2, 178, 179, 180, 181, 191, 193, 196, 205, 265 (n. 28)
• Fellowship of Reconciliation, 172, 265 (n. 28)
• Fenton, Charles, 192
• Ferriday, La., 62, 90, 138–39, 160, 171, 181, 182, 189, 191, 192, 197, 205
• Ferriday Freedom Movement (FFM), 182, 189, 192, 197
• Fisher, Bernice, 264–65 (n. 28)
• Folklore, black, 7, 41, 42, 44, 54
• Fontenot, Louis, 103
• Food for Freedom campaign, 123
• France, 69
• Franklinton, La., 57
• Fraternal orders, 50, 52, 55, 144, 153, 162, 181, 183, 212
• Freedmen's Bureau, 15
• Freedom Ride, 178
• Furnish system, 26, 28, 29, 153
• Gaines, Ernest, 82
• Gandhi, Mohondas, 172, 192
• Gangsta rap, 6
• Garrett, T. G., 69
• Garris, Ben, 209
• Gathering of Old Men, A (Gaines), 82
• General Education Board, 50
• Georgia, 142, 155
• Germany, 114, 117, 140
• GI Bill, 150–51, 266 (n. 28)
• Glover, John S., 57
• Godchaux Sugars, 244–45 (n. 28)
• Gordon, Lena Mae, 127
• Gordon, Spiver, 177, 209
• Grambling, La., 192
• Grambling College, 50
• Grand Marie Vegetable Producers’ Cooperative (GMVPC), 200–201
• Grant, George, 127
• Great Depression, 4, 44, 84, 85, 89, 97. See also Louisiana Farmers’ Union; New Deal
• Great Migration, 64–67, 70–71, 75–77, 233 (n. 28)
• Great Society. See War on Poverty
• Great Southern Lumber Company, 37, 83
• Green, Edward, 138
• Green, S. L., 124–25
• Greensburg, La., 212
• Greenup, Charlotte, 183
• Guilbeau, Clayton, 163
• Guillory, Wilbert, 212
• Guinn, Jack, 264–65 (n. 28)
• Hall, Clifton, 212, 213
• Hall, Eual, 48–49, 212
• Hall, John Henry, 170
• Hall, Lawrence, 170
• Hall, Lorin, 48–49
• Hall, Luther E., 68
• Hanes, Frank, 19–20
• Harding Field, La., 129
• Hardwood, La., 179
• Hardy, J. Leo, 35
• Hardy, Joe, 57, 58
• Harleaux, W. W., 156, 160, 177, 266 (n. 28)
• Harris, Cora Mae, 140
• Harris, Eunice Hall, 210, 271–72 (n. 28)
• Harris, Oliver W., 140
• Harrison-Fletcher Bill, 107
• Harvey, Fletcher, 183, 184, 187
• Haynes, George E., 75
• Haynes, J. K., 125, 170–71
• Hazelwood Plantation, 47
• Head Start, 201, 203, 204
• Hebert, F. Edward, 169
• Hicks, Otis, 42–43
• Hobgood, J. H., 92–93
• Holmes, Josephine, 182–83
• Holt, Edgar, 127
• Home Demonstration Program, 202
• Home Mission Baptist Association, 55
• Homer, La., 192
• Hoover, J. Edgar, 118
• Hopkins, Harold, 90–91
• Houma Courier, 70
• Houser, George, 264–65 (n. 2)
• Houston, Tex., 69
• Hudson, H. C., 84
• Hymel, La., 162
• Iberia Parish, La., 135
• Iberville Parish, La., 2, 3;
  • political and economic conditions in, 23, 35, 46, 57, 92, 93, 136, 148, 165;
  • black activism in, 55, 57, 125, 155, 156–60, 162, 165, 177, 180, 181, 266 (n. 28)
• Iberville Parish Improvement Committee, 125
• Improved Benevolent Order of Elks of the World, 56, 153
• Infrapolitics. See Political activism, black: informal
• International Union of Timber Workers, 83
• International Woodworkers of America (IWA), 164–65
• Israel, Louis, 92
• Jack, Homer, 264–65 (n. 28)
• Jackson, Lillie Pearl, 92
• Jackson Parish, La., 2, 149
• Jeanes Fund, 50
• Jefferson Davis Parish, La., 135
• Jefferson Parish, La., 156
• Jenkins, Gayle, 191–92
• Jim Crow era: limits of protest in, 4, 5–6, 11, 19–40, 218–19 (n. 28);
  • black activism in, 4, 7–8, 41–63, 218–19 (n. 28), 231 (n. 28)
• Johns, Major, 265 (n. 28)
• Johnson, Charles S., 65, 233 (n. 28)
• Johnson, Clyde, 98, 99, 100, 101, 106, 107, 241–42 (nn. 31, 35)
• Johnson, Joel F., 33–34, 228 (n. 28)
• Johnson, Kenny, 181–82, 194
• Johnson, Lucille Overton, 170
• Johnson, Lyndon B., 201
• Jones, Alvin, 163
• Jones, Johnnie, 33, 36, 38, 58, 60
• Jones, Sam, 95, 125, 132
• Jonesboro, La., 192, 193
• Jordan, Thomas J., 77, 78
• Juke joints, 43, 229 (n. 28)
• Julius Rosenwald Fund, 50
• Kennon, C. L., 93
• Kennon, Robert, 166
• Kilbourne, Charles S., 168, 185
• Kilbourne, Richard, 185, 186
• Kinchen, Benjamin, 71
• King, Martin Luther, Jr., 5, 172, 194, 206, 272 (n. 28)
• King Lumber Company, 179
• Kleyman, Paul, 200
• Knights and Ladies of Peter Claver, 55, 153
• Knights of Labor, 17
• Knights of Pythias, 183
• Knights of the White Camellia, 16
• Korean War, 171
• Ku Klux Klan (KKK), 16, 82, 83, 94, 167, 168, 170, 185, 188, 190, 192, 193, 194, 205, 209, 210
• Labor agents, 65, 66, 70–71
• Labor laws: state, 13, 18, 29–30, 71, 74–75, 83, 166, 225 (nn. 30, 32);
  • federal, 71, 87, 90, 92, 103–5, 133–35, 149, 166, 173–74
• Labor shortages, 66, 70–71, 75, 95–96, 119, 129–30, 132–36, 241 (n. 24)
• Labor unions, 8, 17, 83, 100, 144, 148, 150, 161, 162, 164–67, 173–74, 195, 197, 206, 220 (n. 6), 262 (n. 68). See also Louisiana Farmers’ Union
• Lacey, Fred, 180
• Lafayette, Leon, 258 (n. 28)
• Lafayette, La., 203, 212
• Lake Charles, La., 119, 165
• Landowners, black: as activists, 9, 48–49, 57–58, 59–60, 68, 153, 170, 179, 181, 183–84, 199–201;
  • numbers of, 24, 109, 136–37, 146, 236 (n. 28), 247–48 (n. 28), 266 (n. 28);
  • in Jim Crow era, 38, 228 (n. 28);
  • and federal agricultural agencies, 77–81, 93, 108, 151–52, 236 (n. 28), 246 (n. 28)
• Law enforcement: serves elite interests, 5, 18, 30–31, 71, 74–75, 110, 178, 183, 185–86, 227 (n. 28), 228 (n. 28);
  • failure to protect black Louisianans, 20, 34–35, 56, 83, 191, 193, 194;
  • violence in, 36, 69, 127, 138, 160, 163, 166, 171, 189, 190, 191, 192, 197, 227 (n. 28);
  • changes after civil rights movement, 209
• Laws, J. Bradford, 53
• LeBlanc, A. P., 35
• LeBlanc, Fred, 168, 170
• Leche, Richard W., 91
• Lemann, Arthur, 136
• Lesser, Mike, 178, 184, 185, 188, 193
• Lewis, George, 68
• Lewis, Prince, 203
• Lewis, Robert, 49, 51, 62, 160, 171, 180–81, 182, 189–90, 197, 205
• Liberals, 18, 34, 83, 86, 97, 113–14, 141, 143, 150, 161, 167, 176, 242 (n. 35), 264 (n. 87)
• Lightnin’ Slim (Otis Hicks), 42–43
• Lincoln Parish, La., 76, 236 (n. 28)
• Literacy, 49, 90–91, 97, 101. See also Education, black; Political activism, black: for education
• Livingston Parish, La., 148
• Lloyd, J. A. M., 109
• Local activists: perceptions of struggle, 1–2, 7, 101–2, 164, 174, 175–76, 196–97, 201–2, 206, 219 (n. 28);
  • political tradition of, 2, 6–8, 9, 18, 41–42, 63, 101–2, 140, 162, 164, 171, 206;
  • and Congress of Racial Equality, 4, 6, 9, 62, 175–76, 177, 178, 179–84, 187, 192–93, 196–97, 205–6;
  • role in freedom struggle, 5, 6–8, 9, 206;
  • economic independence of, 9, 151, 152–55, 179, 182–83, 266 (n. 16);
  • and nonviolence, 172, 188–89, 192–93;
  • and national civil rights movement, 173, 174, 187, 192–93, 205–6. See also Louisiana Farmers’ Union; Political activism, black
• Lombard, Rudy, 62, 212
• Long, Earl, 163–64
• Long, Huey, 86–87, 163, 238 (nn. 2–3)
• Long Leaf, La., 165
• Louisiana: geography and regions of, 2–4, 10–13;
  • French influences in, 10–11, 12, 13;
  • economic development of, 10–13, 20–24, 89–90, 115, 119, 122, 130–32, 135–37, 146–49, 185–86, 198, 221–22 (nn. 5, 7, 12), 224 (n. 28), 236 (n. 28), 251 (n. 28);
  • state government of, 13, 15, 18, 21, 50, 143, 146, 169–70, 180, 204, 276 (n. 17);
  • local government in, 13, 15, 33, 34–36, 38–39, 50, 71, 74–75, 77, 81, 86–87, 94, 141, 163–64, 165, 185–86, 198, 199–200, 202–4, 228 (n. 64), 276 (n. 17);
  • politics in, 13, 15–18, 86–87, 143, 163–64, 167, 168–70, 198, 202–4, 207–12. See also Law enforcement; Social context
• Louisiana Civil Liberties Union, 194
• Louisiana Civil Service Commission, 187
• Louisiana Colored Teachers’ Association (LCTA), 125, 155, 170
• Louisiana Constitution of 1868, 18
• Louisiana Delta Council, 148
• Louisiana Farm Bureau, 114, 166, 262 (n. 28)
• Louisiana Farmers’ Union (LFU), 2, 4, 56, 86;
  • communists in, 97–99, 105–6, 242 (n. 28);
  • organization of, 97–101;
  • black responses to, 98, 99, 101–2, 105–6;
  • membership growth of, 98, 99, 105, 113–14, 249 (n. 88);
  • staff of, 98–99, 241–42 (nn. 31, 35), 248 (n. 78);
  • cooperation with other
    groups, 99–100, 242 (n. 35), 243 (n. 40);
  • and tenant farmers, 100, 102–3, 106–7, 108–9, 242 (n. 35), 247 (n. 70);
  • and sugar workers, 100, 103–5, 245 (nn. 57, 59);
  • finances of, 100–101, 105, 113–14, 243 (n. 40), 248 (n. 78);
  • women in, 100–101, 107, 243 (n. 44);
  • white responses to, 101, 102–3, 105–6, 110–11, 112, 114, 248 (n. 78);
  • interracialism in, 101, 244 (nn. 46, 48);
  • and federal officials, 102, 103, 105, 106–7, 112–13;
  • demise of, 113–15;
  • links to civil rights movement, 155, 199, 258 (n. 28)
• Louisiana Freedom Task Force. See Congress of Racial Equality
• Louisiana Joint Legislative Committee on Segregation, 169, 170
• Louisiana Right to Work Council, 166
• Louisiana State Board of Agriculture and Immigration, 21
• Louisiana State Board of Education, 156, 159
• Louisiana State Council of Defense, 74
• Louisiana State Department of Education, 32, 50–51
• Louisiana State Federation of Labor, 243 (n. 40)
• Louisiana State Guard, 138–39
• Louisiana State University, 103–4
• Louisiana Sugar Planters’ Association, 22
• Louisiana Twentieth Judicial District, 185–86
• Louisiana Weekly, 61, 80, 87, 92, 150, 162, 183, 192
• Lowndes County, Ala., 98
• Lumber industry, 21, 22–23, 28–29, 37–38, 43, 90, 148–49, 164–65, 224 (n. 25), 228 (n. 57), 239 (n. 8)
• Lynching, 20, 128, 139, 232 (n. 44);
  • as labor control, 33, 97, 112;
  • in Louisiana, 34–36, 39, 58–59, 66, 68, 82, 83, 112;
  • attempts to combat, 39, 61, 68, 76, 82, 141–42, 171. See also Political activism, black: against violence; Violence
• McCain, Jim, 193
• McCarty, Lucius, 82
• McDonald, Max, 135
• McIntire, Gordon, 98–115 passim, 244 (n. 48), 245 (n. 57), 249 (n. 85)
• McKeithen, John, 204
• McKenzie, Charles, 134
• McKissick, Floyd, 205
• McKnight, Albert, 203
• McMillon, Wiley B., 156–57, 158, 159
• Maddux, N. Watts, 95
• Madison Journal, 23, 71, 118, 119
• Madison Parish, La., 3;
  • black activism in, 1, 2, 78, 88, 118, 119, 125, 153, 161, 162, 171, 179, 205–6, 211–12, 230 (n. 23);
  • political and economic conditions in, 21, 29, 33–34, 36, 71, 135, 162, 164, 211–12, 227 (n. 48), 239 (n. 8)
• Magee, Joe, 57
• Magee, Myrtis, 79–80
• Manufacturing: growth of, 9, 22, 89–90, 116, 119, 146, 148–49, 212, 221–22 (n. 5), 251 (n. 13);
  • African Americans in, 9, 116, 119, 130–32, 137, 141, 149, 153, 257 (n. 14)
• March on Washington Movement (MOWM), 125, 126, 141
• Marshall, Thurgood, 158
• Martin, T. H., 35, 92
• Marx, Karl, 106
• Maryland, 155
• Mason, Lucy Randolph, 164
• Massive resistance, 169–70
• Matthews, Hazel, 266 (n. 16)
• Matthews, Mose, 79
• Mechanization, 9, 96, 135–36, 145
• Middle-class black people: as activists, 5, 77, 152–53, 190, 236 (n. 38);
  • as accommodationists, 5, 77, 155, 181, 201, 210–11, 218–19 (n. 38), 236 (n. 38);
  • after World War II, 150, 152–53, 190
• Migration, black, 2, 9, 115, 116, 118–19, 250 (n. 92);
  • as protest, 4, 17, 45–46, 64–67, 206, 229–30 (n. 14), 233 (n. 4);
  • frequency of, 23, 229 (n. 10);
  • planter responses to, 29, 70–71, 75–77, 132, 133–34, 135–36, 225 (n. 30)
• Miller, J. D., 42–43
• Minden, La., 192
• Ministers, black, 38, 54, 68, 79, 134, 155, 180–81, 182–83, 266 (n. 16)
• Minor, Raymond, 184
• Minor, William, 152, 184
• Mississippi, 27, 75, 151;
  • similarities to Louisiana, 2, 11, 19, 20, 143, 148, 190, 191;
  • freedom struggle in, 5, 83, 97, 164, 170, 190, 191, 192
• Mississippi Delta, 4, 11, 25, 96
• Mississippi Delta Council, 148, 257 (n. 9)
• Missouri, 97, 142
• Mitchell, H. L., 39, 99, 167, 242 (n. 35)
• Monroe, La., 67, 94, 134
• Montgomery, Ala., bus boycott, 172, 174
• Montgomery County, Md., 155
• Moore, John, 101
• Moore, Ronnie, 177, 181, 183, 184, 186, 197, 205, 211
• Morehouse Parish, La., 76, 82
• Morning Star Society, 55
• Movable School, 76
• Natchitoches Parish, La., 56, 68, 76, 110, 112
• National Agricultural Workers’ Union (NAWU). See Southern Tenant Farmers’ Union
• National Association for the Advancement of Colored People (NAACP): and local activists, 5, 7, 9, 61, 64, 67–69, 75, 125, 140, 143, 144, 150, 171, 206, 258 (n. 28);
  • in Jim Crow era, 38, 48, 57;
  • white responses to, 55, 83–84, 167–69;
  • composition of branches, 67–68, 126, 153, 155;
  • antilynching campaigns of, 68;
  • education campaigns of, 76, 82, 125, 155–61, 169–70, 180, 198, 226 (n. 36);
  • voter registration campaigns of, 142, 161–64, 177;
  • cooperation with labor organizations, 164, 166–67, 173–74
• National Farmers’ Union (NFU), 97, 99–100, 114, 244 (n. 48), 248 (n. 78)
• National Negro Congress, 94, 164
• National Recovery Administration (NRA), 87, 90, 92
• Nazism, 117, 140, 145, 172
• Nelson, Annette, 90
• New Deal, 4;
  • impact on African Americans, 8, 85, 88–91, 92–94, 96–97, 109–10, 115;
  • relief programs of, 87–88;
  • limits of, 91–92, 95–97, 108;
  • discrimination in, 92–94, 96–97, 102, 108, 110–11, 247 (n. 70), 248 (n. 80);
  • conservative attacks on, 112–13, 199
• New Iberia, La., 138
• New Negro, 70
• New Orleans, La., 10, 15, 66;
  • black activism in, 4, 61–62, 67, 69, 75, 84, 98, 102, 117, 125, 126, 127, 153, 161, 192;
  • political and economic conditions in, 44, 127, 132, 138
• New South, 20–23, 221–22 (nn. 5, 7)
• Newspapers, black: support armed self-defense, 61–62, 139–40, 232 (n. 44);
  • and World War I, 67, 68–69;
  • and World War II, 116, 117–18, 124–25
• Noflin, Bernice, 201
• Nonviolence, 58, 172–73, 175–76, 177, 178–79, 188–89, 192–93, 194–95, 206
• Norman, Frank, 190
• North Louisiana Cotton Association, 22
• Office of Economic Opportunity (OEO), 200, 201, 202, 203–4
• Office of War Information (OWI), 117, 137
• Oklahoma, 61, 97
• Opelousas, La., 13, 101, 103, 110, 163, 185
• Opelousas Daily World, 171
• Opportunity, 106
• Orleans Parish, La., 16, 156, 162, 163
• Ouachita Parish, La., 2, 66, 75, 90, 135, 149, 162
• Overton, Fred, 170
• Paddio-Johnson, Eunice, 266 (n. 16)
• Palmer, Henry E., 168
• Parker, John, 86
• Patterson, Catherine, 193
• Peay, L. D., 203
• Peery, Nelson, 128, 139
• Peonage, 20, 29–31, 34, 36, 37, 45, 74, 78, 106, 225 (nn. 30–32), 228 (nn. 57, 64), 229–30 (n. 14), 231 (n. 28)
• Peterson, Roald, 114
• Phillips, Abraham, 101, 103, 108, 258 (n. 28)
• Pickering, John, 45
• Pierce, Edith, 127, 132
• Plantation owners: domination of communities by, 5, 13, 18, 21, 32, 36–38, 81, 86, 92–93, 111, 145, 146, 227 (n. 48);
  • and violence, 11, 13, 15, 17, 19–20, 30–31, 33–34, 35–36, 49, 57, 70–71, 86, 110–11, 165–66, 224 (n. 25), 227 (n. 52);
  • and restrictions on black mobility, 13, 15, 18, 29–30, 33–34, 36, 45–46, 70–71, 106, 132–35, 225 (n. 30), 229–30 (n. 14);
  • exploitation of black labor by, 13, 15, 19–20, 23–24, 27–28, 29–31, 32, 42–45, 46, 104, 225 (n. 30), 229–30 (n. 14), 241 (n. 24), 245 (n. 57);
  • class interests of, 16, 17–18, 21, 23, 221–22 (nn. 5, 7);
  • and black civil rights, 16, 167, 176, 185–86, 202–4, 212, 276 (n. 17);
  • and labor unions, 17, 102–3, 110–11, 114, 148, 165–66, 220 (n. 6), 224 (n. 25), 248 (n. 78);
  • and federal agricultural policies, 80–81, 86, 92–93, 96–97, 102, 108, 112–13, 114, 133–34, 135, 199–200, 245 (n. 57), 246–47 (n. 69);
  • and New Deal, 87, 92–93, 94, 95–97, 103–5, 112–13, 245 (n. 55)
• Plantations: rice, 4, 11–13;
  • mechanization of, 9, 96, 135–36, 145;
  • sugar, 10–11, 17, 23, 27–28, 29, 39, 42, 46, 52–53, 57, 70–71, 95, 103–5, 122–24, 165–66, 224 (n. 25), 236 (n. 45), 244–45 (nn. 55, 57, 59);
  • cotton, 11, 19, 23, 24–27, 29, 45, 46, 59, 78–79, 95, 122–24, 136–37, 148, 221 (n. 1), 236 (n. 45);
  • as businesses, 21–22, 23, 24–25, 86, 133, 148, 222 (n. 12), 223 (n. 18), 224 (n. 20);
  • labor shortages on, 66, 70–71, 75, 95–96, 119, 129–30, 132–36, 241 (n. 24). See also Agricultural workers; Plantation owners; Plantation system
• Plantation system: limits of protest within, 2, 5–6, 19–40, 152, 179–80;
  • disintegration after World War II, 9, 145, 146–53, 185–86, 211–12, 276 (n. 17). See also Plantation owners
• Plaquemine, La., 177, 178, 181–82, 190, 194
• Pleasant, Ruffin G., 35
• Pointe Coupee Parish, La., 2, 3;
  • political
    and economic conditions in, 23, 29, 33, 49, 52, 82, 88, 93, 106, 109, 110, 123, 132, 135, 148, 152, 163;
  • black activism in, 52, 55, 58, 78, 88, 155, 163, 171, 177, 180, 189, 190, 200;
  • Louisiana Farmers’ Union in, 98, 103, 105, 106, 108, 109, 247 (n. 70), 258 (n. 28)
• Police. See Law enforcement
• Police brutality. See Law enforcement: violence in
• Political activism, black. See also Local activists;
  • Social context—for economic independence, 4, 7, 8, 206, 219 (n. 12);
  • during Reconstruction, 15–16;
  • in Jim Crow era, 43–49, 55–56, 230 (n. 19);
  • during World War I, 66, 78–80;
  • in New Deal era, 88–90, 102–7, 108–10;
  • during World War II, 118–19, 124, 126–27, 129–30, 136–37;
  • in 1950s, 144, 149–53, 155, 164–66, 173–74;
  • in 1960s, 175, 176, 182, 196–98, 199–204;
  • after 1965, 212
• —for education, 4, 8, 206, 230 (n. 23);
  • during Reconstruction, 15;
  • in Jim Crow era, 49–52;
  • during World War I, 66, 80;
  • in New Deal era, 88–89, 90–91, 107;
  • during World War II, 119, 125;
  • in 1950s, 144, 153, 155–61, 169–70;
  • in 1960s, 197, 198–99, 201;
  • after 1965, 209–10, 212–13
• —informal: in Jim Crow era, 2, 4, 6–8, 41–63, 206, 218–19 (n. 2);
  • during World War I, 65–67, 77–80;
  • in New Deal era, 88–91, 93–94;
  • during World War II, 118–19, 128–29, 140;
  • after 1965, 212–13
• —organized, 4–6, 8;
  • in Jim Crow era, 7, 38, 48, 55, 61, 83–84, 218–19 (n. 2);
  • during World War I, 64, 67–69;
  • in New Deal era, 86, 97–115;
  • during World War II, 124–27;
  • in 1950s, 144–45, 146, 150, 153–65, 170–71;
  • in 1960s, 172–74, 175–95, 205–6;
  • after 1965, 195–206, 208–13
• —for political participation, 4, 8, 206;
  • during Reconstruction, 15;
  • in Jim Crow era, 56;
  • during World War I, 67;
  • in New Deal era, 107–8;
  • during World War II, 124–25, 126;
  • in 1950s, 144, 153, 161–64;
  • in 1960s, 175, 176–88, 195–96, 199–200;
  • after 1965, 207–9, 210–12, 213
• —against segregation, 7;
  • in Jim Crow era, 62, 231 (n. 28);
  • during World War II, 128–29, 138;
  • in 1950s, 166–67, 169–70, 176;
  • in 1960s, 172, 175, 182, 196–97
• —studies of, 2–8, 218–19 (nn. 2, 11), 220 (n. 13)
• —themes in, 4, 8, 18, 41–42, 86, 102, 155, 206, 212–13, 218–19 (n. 2)
• —against violence, 4, 8, 206;
  • during Reconstruction, 16–17;
  • in Jim Crow era, 57–62, 232 (n. 44);
  • during World War I, 66, 68;
  • in New Deal era, 111–12;
  • during World War II, 126, 139–40;
  • in 1950s, 155, 170–71;
  • in 1960s, 176, 183, 188–95, 270 (n. 44), 271–72 (n. 57);
  • after 1965, 209
• Political economy. See Social context
• Poll tax, 18, 86, 161, 211
• Poor white people, 16, 18, 35, 81, 86, 87, 91–92, 100, 101, 126, 130–32, 137, 164, 173–74, 197, 200, 204, 210, 262 (n. 68)
• Populism, 17
• Port of Embarkation, New Orleans, 127, 132
• Poverty, black: in Jim Crow era, 5, 20, 22–30, 32, 39–40, 42, 45, 48, 50–51, 66, 78, 106;
  • during Reconstruction, 15;
  • during Great Depression, 85, 104, 106;
  • and World War II, 149–
    53;
  • in 1960s, 177, 196, 198, 206, 226 (n. 36);
  • after civil rights movement, 207, 210–12, 276 (n. 17)
• President's Committee on Civil Rights, 142
• President's Committee on Fair Employment Practice (FEPC), 126–27, 130, 131, 142, 145
• President's Committee on Farm Tenancy, 108
• Price, O. G., 80
• Princeville Canning Company, 148, 149, 186–87
• Pringle, Hizzie, 71
• Prisoner-of-war camps, 135
• Progressive Funeral Home, 55
• Progressive Voters’ League (PVL), 161–62, 163
• Protestants, 10, 11, 54. See also Churches
• Provost, Joseph, 132
• Race-baiting, 166–67, 174
• Race riots, 16, 61, 69–70, 82, 94, 138–39
• Railroads, 21, 22, 28, 70
• Rapides Parish, La., 35, 75, 111, 127, 144, 149, 204, 251 (n. 13)
• Rarick, John R., 185, 268–69 (n. 31)
• Reconstruction, 13–18, 42, 48, 50, 88, 168, 212
• Redden, Meg, 182–83, 190
• Red River Delta, 3, 11, 25, 67
• Red River Parish, La., 88
• Red Scare, 83
• Religion. See Churches
• Republican Party, 15, 16, 50, 67, 88, 142, 145, 231 (n. 28)
• Resettlement Administration. See Farm Security Administration
• Resistance. See Political activism, black: informal
• Richard, John B., 101
• Right-to-work legislation, 166, 167, 262 (n. 65)
• Ringgold, J. E., 79, 80
• Ritchie, Ewan, 35
• Roberts, Farrell, 202
• Robinson, James, 172, 264–65 (n. 2)
• Rogge, O. John, 19–20
• Roman Catholic Church. See Catholics
• Roosevelt, Eleanor, 88
• Roosevelt, Franklin D., 85, 87, 88, 90, 112, 117, 126, 133, 141–42
• Rose, Harry Jack, 109
• Rosenwald, Julius, 50
• Rosenwald Fund, 50
• Rubin, Steven, 194
• Rural poor black people: as activists, 5–9, 17, 18, 41–49, 97–115, 155, 181, 199–202, 206, 219 (nn. 2, 7);
  • living and working conditions of, 22–31, 32, 196, 209, 211–12. See also Agricultural workers
• Russian Revolution, 83
• Rustin, Bayard, 172
• Sabine Parish, La., 128
• St. Bernard Parish, La., 16, 95
• St. Charles Parish, La., 68, 135
• St. Francisville, La., 35, 148, 149, 181, 184, 188, 192
• St. Francisville Democrat, 209
• St. Helena Parish, La., 2, 3;
  • black landowners in, 48–49, 179, 266 (n. 12);
  • black activism in, 50, 80, 160, 162, 169–70, 177, 179, 180, 194, 198–99, 266 (n. 16), 271–72 (n. 57);
  • political and economic conditions in, 160, 162, 169–70, 210, 212
• St. John the Baptist Parish, La., 162
• St. Landry Farm, 102–3, 107, 109, 111
• St. Landry Parish, La., 2, 3;
  • black activism in, 16, 98, 102–3, 107, 109, 111, 125, 160, 163, 165, 179, 200–202, 203–4;

  • political and economic conditions in, 33, 36, 94, 110, 117, 135, 160, 163, 165, 212, 236–37 (n. 45), 266 (n. 12)
• St. Mary Parish, La., 53, 75, 76, 92, 131, 135, 204
• St. Mary Parish Benevolent Society, 56
• St. Rose, La., 68
• St. Tammany Parish, La., 2, 3
• Satyagraha, 172, 179, 192. See also Nonviolence
• Savant, J. P., 36
• Scholarship, Education, and Defense Fund for Racial Equality (SED-FRE), 200, 208
• Schuler, Edgar, 117, 129, 130, 139
• Schuyler, George, 125
• Scott, Emmett J., 82
• Scott, Irene, 101, 111, 112
• Scott, John Henry, 140, 153
• Scott, Willie, 101, 111, 112
• Segregation, 7, 42, 81, 116, 126, 138;
  • legislation, 18;
  • and modernization, 20, 149;
  • of schools, 31, 166–67, 182, 197, 209–10;
  • in U.S. armed forces, 69, 127–28, 141, 143;
  • of public facilities, 172, 175–76, 182;
  • abolition of, 204. See also Desegregation; Political activism, black: against segregation
• Selective Service and Training Act (1940), 118
• Seligmann, Herbert, 82
• Sepia Socialite, 124
• Servicemen's Readjustment Act (1944), 150–51, 266 (n. 16)
• Sevier, Andrew, 227 (n. 48)
• Sharecroppers. See Agricultural workers
• Share Croppers’ Union (SCU), 8, 86, 97–100, 242 (n. 35), 243 (n. 40). See also Louisiana Farmers’ Union
• Sharecropping. See Agricultural workers; Tenancy
• Shongaloo, La., 34
• Shreveport, La., 35, 44, 48, 67, 68, 69, 83, 84, 119, 251 (n. 13)
• Simmesport, La., 101
• Sims, Charles, 194, 271 (n. 52)
• Singleton, N. H., 170
• Sit-ins, 172–73, 177, 181, 182
• Slater Fund, 50
• Slavery, 11, 13, 15, 16, 49, 65, 196, 212, 222 (n. 5), 230 (n. 19)
• Smith, James, 35
• Smith, Jerome, 62, 193
• Smith, Nathaniel, 183
• Smith, Sonny, 33
• Smith-Lever Act (1914), 77, 81
• Smith v. Allwright (1944), 142, 144, 161
• Social context, 4, 63;
  • in Jim Crow era, 5, 19–40;
  • impact of New Deal, 8, 85–86, 88–90, 92–94, 106, 112, 115;
  • impact of World War II, 8–9, 116–17, 118–24, 126, 129–30, 135–37, 141–43;
  • during World War I, 64–65;
  • after World War II, 144–53, 198, 219 (n. 2)
• Socialists, 83, 97
• South Carolina, 143, 155–56
• Southern Christian Leadership Conference (SCLC), 5, 172
• Southern Consumers’ Cooperative (SCC), 203, 204
• Southern Farm, Leader, 99, 101, 106, 107, 108
• Southern Gentlemen, 167, 170
• Southern Regional Council, 150, 173
• Southern Tenant Farmers’ Union (STFU), 8, 97, 99, 108, 165–66, 261 (n. 63)
• Southern University, 151, 177, 265 (n. 10)
• Soviet Union, 114, 142, 167, 242 (n. 35)
• Spears, Laura, 195
• Spillman, Howard, 92
• Spillman, Thomas E., 186, 211
• Stallworth, Lola, 266 (n. 16)
• State rights, 39, 143, 169
• States’ Rights Party, 143, 208
• Stevenson, Aldero, 152
• Stewart, Henry, 23, 30, 46, 59
• Stirling, Robert, 46
• Strikes, 17, 98, 126, 130, 131, 165–66, 182, 224 (n. 25)
• Student Nonviolent Coordinating Committee (SNCC), 2, 5
• Students, 9, 153, 172–73, 177–78, 180, 181–82, 189, 190, 194, 198–99, 264–65 (n. 2), 271–72 (n. 57). See also Education, black
• Students’ Association for Freedom and Equality (SAFE), 198–99
• Suddeth, Willa, 49
• Sugar Act (1937), 103, 122
• Sugar workers, 17, 27–28, 29, 42, 46, 52–53, 57, 70–71, 100, 103–5, 165–66, 224 (n. 25), 245 (nn. 57, 59)
• Sullivan, William Henry, 37–38
• Sweet potato industry, 148, 149, 184, 186–87, 200–201
• Sylvester, Armas, 34
• Taft-Hartley Act (1947), 155, 166
• Tallulah, La.: political and economic conditions in, 36, 58, 89, 90, 119, 140, 164–65, 191, 197–98, 208, 212, 239 (n. 10);
  • black activism in, 51–52, 140, 151, 152, 153, 162, 164–65, 190, 192, 197–98, 208
• Tangipahoa Parish, La., 2, 76, 129, 151, 177
• Taylor, Mildred, 94
• Teachers: black, 38, 49, 50–51, 68, 79, 80, 107, 125, 144, 155–59, 170, 180, 201, 231 (n. 28), 266 (n. 16);
  • white, 155, 157, 210
• Tenancy, 16, 24–27, 137, 146, 223 (n. 18), 224 (n. 20), 229–30 (nn. 10, 14), 236–37 (n. 45), 239–40 (n. 13). See also Agricultural workers; Plantations
• Tensas Parish, La., 2, 3, 27, 59, 109, 146, 151, 162, 164
• Terrebonne, Linus, 157, 158
• Terrebonne Parish, La., 32, 70–71, 76
• Texas, 31, 43, 45, 69–70, 97, 139, 155
• Thames, Norvel, 146
• Theft, 6, 46–48, 230 (n. 19)
• Thibodaux, La., 17
• Thierry, Louis, 160
• Thomas, Earnest, 192, 271 (n. 52)
• Thomas, Willie, 43
• Todd-Johnson shipyard, 131
• To Secure These Rights, 142
• Total Community Action, 204
• Trottie, Forest, 68
• Truman, Harry S., 142–43, 145
• Tubman, Harriet, 51
• Tulsa, Okla., 61
• Tureaud, A. P., 92, 153, 156, 157, 158, 159, 160, 161, 170
• Turner, B. K., 44–45
• Turner, Nat, 51
• Tuskegee Institute, 76–77
• Unemployment, 9, 13, 16, 29, 53, 55, 87, 89, 91–92, 153, 181, 182, 201, 202, 211–12
• Union Parish, La., 94
• United Brotherhood of Carpenters and Joiners, 83
• United Cannery, Agricultural, Packing and Allied Workers of America (UCAPAWA), 100, 243 (n. 42)
• Urban League, 106, 125, 164
• U.S. armed forces: treatment of African Americans in, 69, 82, 118–19, 127–28, 138, 139, 141, 145–46, 150–51;
  • black activism in, 116, 128–29,
    139;
  • desegregation of, 141, 143. See also War veterans, black U.S. census, 24, 223–24 (n. 19)
• U.S. Civil Service Commission, 143
• U.S. Commission on Civil Rights, 208
• U.S. Constitution, 39, 141–42, 167, 191
• U.S. Department of Agriculture. See Federal government: agricultural policies of
• U.S. Department of Justice, 19–20, 30, 38–39, 88, 94, 141–42, 163, 177, 184, 187, 191–92, 194, 208. See also Federal Bureau of Investigation
• U.S. Equal Employment Opportunity Commission, 195
• U.S. Selective Service, 71, 118
• U.S. Supreme Court, 38, 142, 144, 161, 166, 169, 198, 208
• U.S. War Department, 70, 128, 139
• U.S. War Food Administration, 123
• U.S. War Labor Policy Board, 74
• Vance, S. W., 78
• Vickery, Ed, 180
• Violence: in maintenance of white supremacy, 1, 5, 9, 16, 40, 59, 66, 94, 126, 135, 138–39, 141, 145, 205;
  • by plantation owners, 2, 11, 13, 15, 17, 19–20, 30–31, 33–34, 35–36, 49, 57, 70–71, 86, 110–11, 165–66, 224 (n. 19);
  • elite complicity in, 35–36, 227 (n. 52);
  • by police, 36, 69, 127, 138, 160, 163, 166, 171, 189, 190, 191, 192, 197;
  • in lumber industry, 37–38, 83;
  • in response to civil rights movement, 160, 162–63, 170, 188, 189, 191, 192, 203, 210;
  • subsides after 1960s, 209. See also Armed self-defense
• Voter Education Project (VEP), 173, 195, 264 (n. 87). See also Congress of Racial Equality: and voter registration
• Voter registration: in 1960s, 1, 5, 62, 173, 175, 176–88, 189, 193–94;
  • in Jim Crow era, 7, 67;
  • during Reconstruction, 15;
  • after World War II, 56, 142, 144, 146, 153, 161–64, 168–69;
  • after Voting Rights Act of 1965, 195–96, 197, 199, 207–9, 210–11, 213. See also Disfranchisement
• Voters’ leagues, 1, 9, 144, 153, 155, 162, 177, 179, 191–92, 194, 196, 197–98
• Voting Rights Act (1965), 9, 195–96, 204, 208
• Wage rates: on cotton plantations, 19, 23, 24, 26–27, 29, 45, 78–79, 95, 122;
  • in lumber industry, 22, 23, 29, 90, 149, 165, 239 (n. 9);
  • for agricultural workers, 22, 23–24, 29, 76, 95–96, 115, 119, 122, 132, 136–37, 148, 239 (n. 9), 251 (n. 14);
  • on sugar plantations, 23, 27–28, 29, 39, 95, 103–5, 122, 136, 224 (n. 25), 245 (nn. 57, 59);
  • on New Deal relief projects, 45, 88–89, 92, 94, 95;
  • for domestic workers, 48, 93;
  • in defense industries, 115, 119, 125
• Walker, Lee, 34
• Walker, Tommy, 34
• Ward, Mary, 162, 179
• War on Poverty, 176, 201–4, 211, 274 (n. 84)
• War veterans, black, 82, 145–46, 150–51, 153, 171, 192, 266 (n. 16)
• Washington, Booker T., 51, 76–77, 231 (n. 28)
• Washington Parish, La., 2, 3, 32, 37, 52, 57, 59–60, 151, 228 (n. 61), 236–37 (n. 45)
• Watson, T. J., 78
• Webster Parish, La., 2, 34, 93
• Wells-Barnett, Ida B., 61
• West, E. Gordon, 198
• West Baton Rouge Parish, La., 53, 135, 148
• West Feliciana Parish, La., 2, 3;
  • black activism in, 1, 23, 46, 47, 55, 59, 79, 80, 107, 111–12, 164, 165, 177, 182, 183–85, 186–87, 189, 193, 195, 198, 199–200, 201, 266 (n. 16);
  • political and economic conditions in, 23, 30, 33, 35, 36, 38, 92, 93, 111, 148, 152, 164, 165, 179–80, 185, 186–88, 208, 209, 211, 236 (n. 45)
• Whatley, Alberta, 182, 191
• Whatley, David, 182, 191
• Whatley, Mary. See Boyd, Mary
• White, Marion Overton, 203
• White, Walter, 75
• White Citizens’ Councils, 167, 168–69, 173, 185, 203
• White Louisianans: and economic reprisals, 5, 9, 16, 38, 86, 102, 105, 111, 152, 153, 158, 179–81, 182, 186–87, 265 (n. 10);
  • economic and political dominance of, 5–6, 11, 19–40, 52, 59, 94, 162–63, 176, 210–12;
  • opposition to black civil rights, 9, 16, 68, 81–82, 83–84, 130–32, 137–39, 143, 156–57, 158, 159–60, 161, 162–63, 167–70, 181, 182, 183, 184–88, 189–91, 192, 194, 199–200, 202–4, 208–10, 268–69 (n. 31);
  • racial ideologies of, 23–24, 45, 54, 65, 69, 77, 80–81, 82, 93–94, 101, 104, 127–28, 129–30, 132, 137–38, 145, 165, 166–67, 169–70, 249 (n. 85), 268 (n. 31);
  • support for freedom struggle, 31–32, 34, 162, 163–64. See also Plantation owners; Poor white people
• White northerners: and black civil rights, 15, 17, 143, 145, 173–74, 176, 177–78, 187, 204, 207, 211;
  • and black education, 15, 50–51;
  • and economic development of Louisiana, 16, 20–22, 28, 148–49, 221–22 (nn. 5, 7), 257 (n. 14)
• White primary, 142, 161
• White supremacy, 5–6, 7, 9, 11, 13, 143, 144, 145, 174, 207, 210, 221 (n. 5), 257 (n. 14). See also Political activism, black; White Louisianans
• Wilkins, Roy, 206
• Wilkinson, A. A., 211
• Williams, Aubrey, 92
• Williams, Martin, 34, 36, 51–52, 88, 89, 90, 152, 153, 161, 173, 190, 206, 212, 230 (n. 23)
• Williams, Moses, 33, 40, 85, 153, 205, 206
• Williams, Robert, 171
• Willis, James, 46
• Wilson, Isom, 60
• Wilson, Jerome, 57–58, 59–60
• Wilson, John, 57
• Wilson, Ophelia, 60
• Wilson, W. W., 180, 203
• Wilson, William, 45
• Wilson, Woodrow, 82
• Wims, Bernice, 19–20
• Windon, Nora, 144
• Winnfield, La., 165
• Winn Parish, La., 76, 86, 149
• Women, black: as activists, 9, 15, 100–101, 107, 127, 128, 129, 153, 162, 182–83, 189, 190, 201–2;
  • in labor force, 26, 27, 93, 94, 134, 153;
  • literacy of, 101, 243–44 (n. 44);
  • in U.S. armed forces, 119, 127, 128, 251 (n. 11). See also Domestic workers
• Women's Army Corp (WAC), 119, 128, 251 (n. 11)
• Women's Auxiliary Army Corp (WAAC). See Women's Army Corp
• Woods, Delos C., 57, 58
• Woods, Thomas, 92
• Woodside, La., 110, 111
• Work, 90
• Working-class black people: as activists, 5–9, 17, 18, 41–45, 86, 87, 97, 116, 126–27, 129, 153, 155, 164–65, 167, 173–74, 181, 182, 190, 197–98, 211, 219 (nn. 2, 7);
  • living and working conditions of, 22–24, 38, 130–32, 149, 150, 196, 211–12. See also Agricultural workers
• Work-or-fight orders, 71, 74–75, 83, 135
• Works Progress Administration (WPA), 87, 90–91, 92, 93–94, 95–96, 119, 130
• World War I, 4, 64–77, 117, 146, 236 (n. 43)
• World War II: and postwar freedom struggle, 4, 9, 143, 144, 145–51, 155, 171;
  • economic impact of, 8–9, 20, 114–15, 118–19, 122–24, 130–32, 135–37, 245 (n. 59), 251 (n. 13);
  • black activism during, 116–17, 118–19, 124–29, 139–41, 206
• Wright, J. Skelly, 169
• Wyche, Zelma, 1, 2, 153, 179, 205, 208
• Yerger, Andrew, 36
• Young, A. Z., 1, 146
• Young, Charlie, 92
• Youth, black: as activists, 9, 55, 100, 153, 172–73, 177–78, 180, 181–82, 189, 190, 194, 198–99, 264–65 (n. 2), 271–72 (n. 57);
  • in labor force, 26, 134, 153, 226 (n. 36). See also Education, black
• Zimmerman, La., 165
• Zippert, John, 179, 200