Page numbers in italics refer to illustrations.
1-octen-3-ol, 104
2, 3,5-trimethyl-3-thiazoline, 100
2-isobutyl-3-methoxypyrazine, 104
2-phenylethanol, 100
A1 (primary auditory cortex)
in developing brain, 165
development of, in hospitalized infants, 140
distributed codes and, 95
fetal brain development and, 133
in hospitalized human infants, 140
imagination of sounds and, 178
local processing in, 77
mind reading and, 226
in mustache bats, 81
of rats, 135
rat vocalizations and, 80
sound frequencies represented in, 75–76
visual space prompted to develop in, 247
words related to sound and, 202–3
A1 sound-frequency map. See A1 (primary auditory cortex)
action, maps for, 107–30
M1 movement map, 110–25
parietal cortex maps, 125–30
seizure patients and, 107–15
action and perception, 190
adults
approximate number maps in, 192–93
crystallized organization of brains in, 247–48
world of infants and children compared to that of, 248–49
albatrosses, 96
alien hand syndrome, 125–26, 129–30
Alphabet (Google’s parent company), 239
Alzheimer’s disease, 240
amplitude of vibrations/sounds, 72–73
animals. See also specific animal names
A1 sound-frequency maps in, 80
brain implants in, 235–36
number sense in, 192
parietal cortex stimulation in, 129
animate vs. inanimate objects, 155, 162–63
appendages of star-nosed mole, 65, 65–66
approximate number maps, 192–93
artificial intelligence, 210–11, 223–28, 239
aspartame, 89
attention, 185–90, 194, 218–19, 250
auditory cortex. See A1 (primary auditory cortex)
auditory maps, 2, 72, 133, 178, 180, 253. See also A1 (primary auditory cortex); echo-delay maps
auditory perception, 73, 76, 249–50
Aymara people, 199
BCIs. See brain-computer interfaces (BCIs)
bell peppers, scent of, 104
benzaldehyde, 97
beta-glucopyranosides, 89
biological embedding, 252, 253
bitter-taste receptors, 88–89
blindness, 141–42, 169–70, 232–35, 247
blind patches (scotomas), 7–9, 15–16, 23, 47, 51, 52
blind spots, 35, 36–40, 37, 38, 51
bobcat urine scent, 100
body and body-part recognition, 160, 163, 168
body odors, 105–6
body surfaces that interact with the world, 10
Boston subway system, 45–47, 46, 48, 52
brain
abilities supported by, 27–28
evolutionary tradeoffs, 187
inventory of regions, 1–2
uniqueness of each, 223
brain activity synchronization, 205, 206–7
brain-computer interfaces (BCIs), 5, 213–14. See also technology development
brain damage
brain implants and, 239
complex system of maps and, 201–2
detecting consciousness and, 215–18
finger awareness and, 195–96
in infants and children, 246–47
mental imagery and, 182–83
spatial attention and, 194–95
taste and, 89–91
brain development
fetal, 131–34
in human infants, 139–42
in newborn rats, 135–38
brain maps
for action, 107–30
comprehending and communicating with, 191–212
development and adaptation of, 131–49
for hearing, 71–83
imagining, remembering, and paying attention with, 171–90
introduction to, 1–6
mind reading and mind writing with, 213–42
for recognition, 151–70
for taste and smell, 85–106
for vision and touch, 45–70
what they are, 7–23
why they exist, 25–43
brain probing
of FFA, 157–58
individual neuron activity and, 223
memory and, 171–73
mind reading and, 228
of parietal cortex, 129
of PPA, 159
brainscapes
dreams, memories, imagination and, 181
early life experiences and molding of, 251
perceptual sweet spots and, 66–67
significance of, 255
brain surgery, 111–12
bullets, brain damage, and blindness, 7–9, 15, 15–16, 23, 47, 51
C. (patient with seizures), 107, 109
calculation and finger awareness, 195–97, 250
carbohydrates, 87
Carol (car accident victim), 215–18, 219
cataracts in newborns, 140, 167
cats, 63
cell phones, 26
cerebral cortex, 33, 54, 58, 67, 75, 91, 134
channel catfish, 98–100, 99, 161
characterization of individuals, 236–42
children. See infants and children
chimpanzees, 28
Chun, Marvin, 155–56
Clark’s nutcracker, 27–28
cloves, scent of, 104
cochlear implants, 232
codes, distributed, 93–95, 97, 97–98, 169, 181, 201
codes and communication, 209
communication between brain maps, 201–2, 237
comprehending and communicating with brain maps, 191–212
deciphering meaning, 200–212
numbers and time, 192–200
computers integrated with the human brain. See brain-computer interfaces (BCIs)
consciousness, detecting, 215–18
consonant sounds, 78
cows, 28
darning of the blind spot. See filling-in of the blind spot
daydreaming, 179
decoders, 224–26, 228, 229, 230–31, 234
Degray, Dennis, 230
depression and memories, 179
desert ants, 27–28
development and adaptation of brain maps, 131–49
fetal brain development, 131–34
learning about the world, 134–44
learning to move, 144–49
dimensions for categorization of objects, 161–63
dimensions represented with maps, 83, 219–21, 220
distance, association of numbers with, 193
distress calls in rats, 135–37
distributed codes, 93–95, 97, 97–98, 169, 181, 201
Dobelle, William, 232–34
Dutch famine (1944−45), 251
early life experiences, 130, 136, 139–40, 144, 243–49, 245, 246, 251–54
eavesdropping on the brain, 5, 123, 215. See also mind reading
echolocation, 235
electroencephalography (EEG), 217, 238, 239, 253
elephants, 28
Elizabeth F. (patient with seizures), 107, 109
energy consumption, 29
Enigma encryption system, 208–9
environment. See also early life experiences
vs. genetics, 243–46
error corrections and brain maps, 34–42, 35
eugenics, 175
eugenol, 104
evolution, 27, 64, 141, 187, 243–46
extrastriate body area, 160
face, defense of, 127
face recognition, 153, 155–59, 163, 164, 165–67, 182–83
face reconstruction by mind reading, 228, 229
faces and heads in touch maps, 55, 62–63, 64, 68–69
face zones, 156, 168, 228, 229. See also fusiform face area (FFA)
fear, scent of, 105–6
ferrets, 247
fetal brain development, 131–34, 165
FFA. See fusiform face area (FFA)
filling-in of the blind spot, 40, 51. See also perceptual filling-in
fingernails compared to whiskers, 69–70
fingers
sniffing of, 106
flavor, 86. See also taste
forebrain of channel catfish, 99
foveas and foveal vision, 12, 35, 38, 38, 47–50, 60, 66, 187–88
fox secretion scent, 100
fox urine scent, 97
Fred (patient with seizures), 113–15, 114
frequency of vibrations/sounds, 71–80, 78
frillfin goby, 96
frontal cortex, 108, 110–11, 124, 201, 202
frontal eye fields, 189
functional MRI
attention and, 218–19
communication between brain areas and, 237
detecting consciousness and, 215–18
infant brains and, 249
lie detection and, 227–28
limitations of, 91
mind reading and, 225–28
neuron activity and, 223
S1 touch map studied using, 59
taste map studied using, 93
fusiform body area, 160
fusiform face area (FFA)
damage to, 182–83
face recognition and, 155–59
infant brain development and, 166
object animacy regions and, 163
written-language processing zone and, 168
Galton, Francis, 175–77, 182, 183, 184
genetics vs. environment, 243–46
geosmin, 104
Gerstmann, Josef, 195–96
goats, 63
Goode homolosine projection, 58
grasping, 116, 118, 121, 122, 127
gravitational force and touch map development, 244–46, 245, 246
Graziano, Michael, 116–20
great apes, 28
hair compared to whiskers, 69
handheld tool recognition, 161, 169
hands, 55, 63, 67, 115–18, 119, 121–22, 125–26, 129–30
heads and faces in touch maps, 55, 62–63, 64, 68–69
hearing, 71–83. See also auditory maps
imagination of, 180
hearing impairments, 71–72, 76, 232
hemispatial neglect, 194–95, 200
hemispheres of the brain, 39, 109, 246–47
Henschen, Salomon, 14–15
hospitalization of newborn infants, 139–40
human tears, scent of, 106
hunter-gatherer societies, 104–5
identity and body odor, 106
imagination, 173, 175, 177–79, 181
immune system and early life experiences, 251, 252
inanimate vs. animate objects, 155, 162–63
infants and children
early life experiences and brain map development in, 243–54
face recognition and processing in, 165–66
learning to move, 144–48
object map development in, 165–68
information processing, 28
infrared light, 235–36
Inouye Tatsuji, 8–9, 15, 15–16, 23, 33, 47, 51, 52
insula, 91
integrated circuits, 26
intention, maps of, 125–30, 189
intentions, 121
invisible ink, George Washington’s, 19–20
Jackson, John Hughlings, 108–11, 117
Jacksonian seizures, 109, 112. See also seizures
Jahai people, 104
James, William, 185–86
James R. (patient with seizures), 107–8, 110, 111
jaw, 55, 113, 121, 122, 123, 124
John (stroke patient), 151–54, 152
joyful calls in rats, 135–37
Juan (vegetative patient), 217–18
Kanwisher, Nancy, 155–56, 159, 160
Kilby, Jack, 26
killer whales, 27–28
Kinsbourne, Marcel, 196
Kochevar, Bill, 230–31
language. See speech and language
larynx, 77, 121, 122, 123, 124
learning
to move, 144–49
letters, reading and writing, 207–8
lie detection technologies, 227–28
light receptors, 12–14, 13, 47–48
lips
lithium salts, 88
local processing, 31–33, 76–77
M1 (primary motor cortex)
attention and, 189
defense of face and, 127
imagination of movement and, 178–79
Jackson’s observations and, 110–11
MacEwen’s surgeries and, 111–12
mapping action space, 115–25
mind reading and, 230
parietal cortex and, 129–30
Penfield’s brain probing and, 114
speech articulator map in, 124
words related to movement and, 202
M1 movement map. See M1 (primary motor cortex)
macaque monkeys, 20, 20–21, 21, 115–20, 119, 166–67. See also monkeys
MacEwen, William, 111–12
machine learning, 223–28, 237–38, 240–41, 242
magnification and warping of brain maps
brain development and, 137–39
brain evolution and, 187
echo-delay map in bats and, 82–83
recognition and, 163–64
mammals, 60, 96. See also specific mammal names
Mandarin speakers, 199
mathematics, 192–98
mating and scent, 96, 101, 105–6
McDermott, Josh, 155–56
meaning, 200–212
artificial intelligence and, 210–11
interdependence of maps and, 201–2
representation of, 202–4
memories and remembering, 171–73, 174, 176, 179–82
menstrual cycle synchronization, 106
mental imagery, 171–85
brain damage and, 182–83
detecting consciousness and, 215–18
dreaming, 181
incapacity for, 182–85
mind reading and, 230
variations in brain maps and, 181–82
mental number line, 193–95
mental time line, 199–200, 201
metabolism, early life experiences and, 251
mice, 89, 91–93, 92, 100–101, 102–3, 103
Michael (aphantasia patient), 183
microstructure of brain maps, 221–23
mind reading
attention and, 218–19
brain-computer interfaces (BCIs) and, 213–14
characterization of individuals and, 236–42
detecting consciousness and, 215–18
dimensions represented with maps and, 219–21
lie detection and, 227–28
machine learning and, 223–26
microstructure of brain maps and, 221–23
Miriam (seizure patient), 171–73
Mona Lisa, 52–54
monkeys
defense of face in, 127
object map development in, 166–67
Moore, Tirin, 116–20
Mosin-Nagant Model 91, 7–8, 47
motor cortex. See M1 (primary motor cortex)
mouse urine scent, 97
mouth
movement maps. See also M1 (primary motor cortex)
dreaming and, 181
mental imagery and, 216
movie-watching and, 205–6
parietal cortex and, 128
time estimation and, 201
working memory and, 180
movie watching and shared meaning, 205–6
multisensory maps, 128, 201, 205–6
mushrooms, scent of, 104
Musk, Elon, 239
Naumann, Jens, 233–34
necessity of brain maps, 3–4
neural reuse, 184
neurons
columns of, 219
dimension preferences of, 219–21
distributed codes and, 94
local processing and, 31–34
microstructure of brain maps and, 221–23
number in olfactory bulbs, 103
parietal, 127–28
size and density in brains, 28–29
space required by, 29–31
sugar uptake by, 20
neuroprosthetics, 5
neurosurgery, targeted, 5
neurotransmitters, 143
Newton, Isaac, Principia, 34
nostrils and touch perception, 62–63, 63, 65, 65–67
Noyce, Robert, 26
object integration, 161–63
object recognition zones, 163–65, 164, 187, 188–89. See also recognition; specific zone names
occipital cortex, 159, 163, 205
octanal, 97
odor maps, 96–97, 98–101, 99, 105, 106
olfaction. See smell
olfactory bulbs, 96–97, 98–100, 99, 102, 103, 103, 106
olfactory cortex. See piriform cortex
opportunistic neural cohabitation, 184
optical illusions, 40–42
optic disc and Mariotte’s experiment, 35–37
Owen, Adrian, 215–18
parahippocampal place area (PPA), 159, 163, 177, 188–89, 216, 218–19
parenting and bonding, 96, 106, 165–66
parietal cortex
action observation and, 202
approximate number maps in, 192–93
finger awareness and calculation and, 196–97
hemispatial neglect and, 194
object recognition zones and, 163
synchronized brain activity and, 205
time and, 201
Parkinson’s disease, 240
Parvizi, Josef, 157–58
peanut oil scent, 100
Penfield, Wilder, 54–56, 58–59, 112–15, 114, 116, 117, 171–73
perception. See also sensory perception
action and, 190
integration of information and, 14
perceptual filling-in, 40–42, 51, 76
perceptual sweet spots, 60, 63, 65, 66–67
peripheral vision, 38, 47–50, 54, 188
phosphenes, 51, 52, 232, 233–34
photons, 12
piriform cortex, 97, 97–98, 100, 169, 203
place zones. See parahippocampal place area (PPA)
posttraumatic stress disorder and memories, 179
PPA. See parahippocampal place area (PPA)
predator-scent zone in mice, 100–101
predictions, brain-based, 236–42
prefrontal cortex, 201
primary auditory cortex (A1). See A1 (primary auditory cortex)
primary motor cortex (M1). See M1 (primary motor cortex)
primary somatosensory cortex (S1). See S1 (primary somatosensory cortex)
primary taste cortex, 90, 91–93, 92, 95, 189, 203
primary visual cortex (V1). See V1 (primary visual cortex)
Principia (Newton), 34
privacy and brain-based data, 239–42
prosopagnosia, 156
prosthetic devices, 229–30, 232–35
proteins, 87
rats
early life and stress response in, 251–52
reaching, 66, 116, 118, 119, 120, 122, 127
reading
associations between numbers and space and, 193
associations between time and space and, 199–200
auditory perception and, 249–50
brain-based predictions and, 238–39
brain map activation and, 202–4
eye movements and, 49
infant brain signals and, 253
prosthetic devices and, 232
receptive fields, 11, 13, 14, 31–33, 76, 128, 138
recognition, 151–70
remembering. See memories and remembering
representational embedding, 252, 253
representation of meaning, 203–4
representation of sensory information, 11–14, 13, 32, 83, 94–95. See also under specific senses
reproduction and scent, 96, 101, 105–6
retinas
defense of the face and, 127
fetal brain development and, 132–33
nonfunctioning, 141–42
robotics, 229–30
rodents, 70, 93, 97, 97–98. See also mice; rats
rose oil scent, 100
rotting food, scents of, 104
Royal Society, 241
S1 (primary somatosensory cortex), 54–70
A1 sound-frequency map compared to, 76
attention and, 187–88
defined, 33
dimensions of tactile information and, 221
discontinuities in, 57–58
imagination and, 178
magnification and warping of, 58–70
schematic illustration of, 55
speech articulator map in, 124
touch receptors and, 33
S1 touch brainscape, 62–63, 63, 64, 64, 66, 67, 68–69, 69, 246
S1 touch map. See S1 (primary somatosensory cortex)
salty-taste receptors, 87–88
scents and odors. See smell
scotomas (blind patches), 8–9, 15–16, 23, 47, 51, 52
seizures, 54–56, 107–15, 157, 159, 171–73, 234
self-driving cars, 235
self-feeding, 121–22
semantic dementia, 204
Semaq Beri people, 104
Semelai people, 104
Sensorimotor cortex, 133
sensory augmentation, 235–36
sensory maps. See also specific sensory map names
attention and, 189
dimensions of sensory information and, 221
dreaming and, 181
interdependence of maps and, 201
movie watching and, 205–6
in newborns, 134
object maps compared to, 165
perception and, 120
sensory perception, 28, 34, 42–43. See also auditory perception; touch perception; visual perception
sensory receptors
in the cochlea, 74
defined, 10
fetal brain development and, 132
on tongue and mouth surfaces, 86–89
sexual attraction, 106
Shetland ponies, 62–63, 63, 66–67
sight. See vision
size-estimation errors, 54, 59
skin
body odors and, 105
topography of, 10
smell, 96–106
body odors and, 105–6
human capacity for, 102–5
receptors for, 96
social interactions, 162–63
sodium salts, 87–88
soil microorganisms, scent of, 104
somatosensory cortex. See S1 (primary somatosensory cortex)
sound receptors, 14, 74–75, 77, 133
sounds, 71–80, 202–3. See also A1 (primary auditory cortex)
sour-taste receptor, 88
space
sound frequency representation and, 74–75
spatial acuity, 49–50, 58–59, 60
spatial maps and processing, 72, 83, 128–29, 189, 194, 250
speech and language
auditory perception and, 249–50
brain areas reappropriated for, 142
infant brain and, 253
M1 movement map and, 122–24
mind reading and, 226
speech articulator map, 123, 124
speech synthesis and recognition, 235
spotted hyena, 96
story comprehension, 179
stress reaction and early life experiences, 251–52
subway maps, 45–47, 46, 48, 52
tactile spatial acuity, 58–59, 60. See also touch
taste, 85–95
taste cortex, 90, 91–93, 92, 95, 189, 203
taste receptors, 86–89
Taylor, Charlotte, 116–20
tears, scent of, 106
technology development
mind writing and, 231–36
temporal cortex
FFA in, 156
fusiform body area in, 160
mind reading and, 226
multisensory representations of meaning and, 204
object recognition zones and, 163
stimulation of, 172
synchronized brain activity and, 205
termites, 96
Terrance (seizure patient), 157–59
tetrahydropyridine, 104
thalamus, 132–33
TMT from fox urine, 97
tongue
M1 movement map and, 113
seizures and, 110
touch, 54–70
brain probing and, 54–56
finger awareness and, 196
touch cortex. See S1 (primary somatosensory cortex)
touch maps, 2, 33, 127, 133, 178, 202. See also S1 (primary somatosensory cortex)
touch perception, 59, 60, 62–63, 63, 64, 64, 65, 65–67
touch receptors, 10–14, 30–31, 33, 60, 64, 133
transcranial magnetic stimulation, 51, 160, 183, 196
trimethylamine, 104
Turing, Alan, 207–10
two-dimensional maps and discontinuities, 57, 57–58
tyranny of numbers and need for brain maps, 25–43
brain abilities and, 27–29
space and energy required by neurons, 29–31
talk-to-your-neighbors principle, 31–34
technological devices comparison, 25–27
umami (savory-taste) receptors, 87
uniqueness a universality of brain maps, 3
V1 (primary visual cortex)
A1 sound-frequency map compared to, 76
attention and, 187–88
birth defects and, 246–47
brainscape and, 52–54
cataracts in newborns and, 140
compared to other maps, 18–20
damage to, 182
imagining and, 177
Inouye’s discoveries about, 16
interdependence of maps and, 201
mind reading and, 226
mind-reading dreams and, 225–26
reading and, 187
recognition and, 151
S1 touch map compared to, 58–59
space limitations in, 48
visual acuity and size of, 182
V1 visual brainscape, 52–54, 53, 66
V1 visual map. See V1 (primary visual cortex)
V2 visual map, 177
vanillin, 104
vision, 47–54. See also recognition; visual maps
cataracts in newborns and, 140
dimensions of, 219–20
mental imagery compared to, 177
spatial acuity and, 49–50
visual agnosia, 151–54, 152, 156
visual cortex. See V1 (primary visual cortex)
visual cortical prosthetics, 232–35
visual maps. See also V1 (primary visual cortex)
compared to other maps, 16–20
frontal eye fields and, 189
prompted to develop in auditory cortex, 247
role of, 2
time and, 201
visual perception
perceptual filling-in and, 40–41
visual working memory and, 249
visual periphery, 9. See also peripheral vision
visual scene processing, 33, 159, 163, 164
visual spatial acuity, 49–50
warping of brain maps, 21, 22. See also magnification and warping of brain maps
Warrington, Elizabeth, 196
Washington, George, and invisible ink, 19–20
whales, 27–28
whiskers, 63, 67–70, 68, 69, 221, 235–36
wine soaked in oak barrels, scent of, 104
working memory, 180–81, 182, 249–50
written symbol recognition, 161, 168, 187
Zuckerberg, Mark, 239