[Routledge Handbooks in Applied Linguistics 01] • The Routledge Handbook of Corpus Linguistics by O'Keeffe, Anne -- Read -- Imperial Library of Trantor

Index

Routledge Handbooks in Applied Linguistics Contents Illustrations

Figures Tables

Contributors Acknowledgements Section I Introduction

1 Historical perspective

1. The historical origins 2. What drove the creation of modern corpora? 3. The influence of technology: from mainframe to modem to multi-modality 4. Corpus developments: from mega-corpus to mini-corpus and from mono- to multi-modal 5. The many applications of corpus linguistics

Language teaching and learning Discourse analysis Literary studies and translation studies Forensic linguistics Pragmatics Sociolinguistics, media discourse and political discourse

References

2 Theoretical overview of the evolution of corpus linguistics

1. The origins of corpora 2. The influence of technology in the development of corpora 3. A quantitative and a qualitative revolution 4. The theoretical shift from text-linguistics to corpus linguistics 5. Corpus typology

Sample corpora Corpora for comparison

Geographical Historical Topic Contrastive

Special corpora Corpora along the time dimension Bilingual and multilingual corpora

The multilingual comparable corpus The contrastive corpus

Normativeness Non-native speaker corpora Spoken corpora

Further reading References

10 What are the basics of analysing a corpus?

1. Analysing a corpus: the basics

Manipulating corpus data: frequency and concordancing Considering the issues

2. Exploring word frequency lists

Displaying frequency data Exploiting frequency data Comparing frequency lists Normalisation

3. Exploring key-word lists

Keyness Positive key words Negative key words

4. Exploring concordance lines

Online concordancing Searching and sorting

5. Exploring discourse

Corpora and discourse Exploiting basic corpus techniques Combining corpus techniques with other approaches: the case of turn-taking

Further reading References

11 What can corpus software do?

1. General constraints

Things computers do really well Things computers cannot do at all Things computers can do, with difficulty

Comparing strings Recognising a pattern Learning Graphics and speech Giving useful feedback on what is happening inside it

Things computers are sometimes expected or believed to be able to do

2. Sorting out your data

Re-formatting and re-organising to match up better with what computers can manage

3. Concordances 4. Word lists 5. Key word lists Further reading References

12 How can a corpus be used to explore patterns?

1. What is a pattern? 2. Why are patterns difficult to spot? 3. Concordances and how to read them

Appositive clause Relative clause

4. Short cuts and how to find them 5. A note on frequency Further reading References

13 What are concordances and how are they used?

1. What is a concordance? 2. Concordances before the computer age 3. Computer generated concordances: approaches, tools and resources

Simple concordances Word-forms and lemmas Phrases

4. Working with corpus data

Sorting Sampling Restricted searches Reading concordances Step 1 Initiate Step 2 Interpret Step 3 Consolidate Step 4 Report Step 5 Recycle Step 6 Result Step 7 Repeat

5. Why concordances are not enough Further reading References

14 What can corpus software reveal about language development?

1. What is language development? 2. How do we measure language development? 3. How can we use a corpus to find out more about first language development? 4. How can we use a corpus to find out more about second language development? 5. Looking to the future Disclaimer Further reading References

Section IV Using a corpus for language research

15 What can a corpus tell us about lexis?

1. Lexis and the lexicon

The general lexicon Word formation

2. Phraseology and phrases

Collocation and patterning Fixed expressions and idioms

3. Meaning

Context and meaning Polysemy Metaphor, connotation and ideology

4. Sets and synonyms

Lexical sets Synonyms Antonyms and opposites

5. Lexis in spoken language

Phraseology Meaning and usage

Further reading References

16 What can a corpus tell us about multi-word units?

1. Background

What is a multi-word unit?

2. Why study multi-word units of meaning? 3. From n-grams to phraseological variation 4. What has corpus research into multi-word units told us about phraseology that we did not know before? 5. Implications and future research Acknowledgements Further reading References

17 What can a corpus tell us about grammar?

1. Understanding grammar through patterns and contexts: moving from correct/incorrect to likely/unlikely

Methodological principles in corpus-based grammar analysis

2. Types of grammatical patterns

Grammar–vocabulary associations (lexico-grammar) Grammatical co-text Discourse-level factors Context of the situation

3. Investigating multiple features/conditions simultaneously

4. The grammar of speech

5. New challenges for judging acceptability Further reading References

18 What can a corpus tell us about registers and genres?

1. The register perspective and the genre perspective 2. Corpus studies of linguistic variation that use register as a predictor: when the focus is on a particular linguistic feature 3. Corpus studies of register variation: when the focus is on describing registers 4. Multi-dimensional studies of register variation 5. Corpus-based genre studies Further reading References

19 What can a corpus tell us about specialist genres?

1. Corpora, specialised corpora and mega-corpora

Corpus and the study of genres: an introduction Specialist corpora and mega-corpora Specialist genres The rationale for a genre approach

2. What are the methodological advantages of specialised corpora in analysing genres? 3. What can a corpus tell us about academic genres? 4. What does a corpus tell us about professional genres? 5. What can a corpus tell us about non-institutional genres? Further reading References

20 What can a corpus tell us about discourse?

1. What is discourse? 2. What can a corpus tell us about discourse? 3. What are the limitations of using a corpus in the study of discourse and how might we overcome them? 4. How does a corpus-based approach work in practice? 5. What kind of data do you need to study discourse? Further reading References

21 What can a corpus tell us about pragmatics?

1. What is pragmatics? 2. How does a corpus restrict the study of pragmatics? 3. Evaluation: the case of semantic prosody 4. What pragmatic phenomena have been studied using general corpora?

Conversational organisation: the case of turn-taking Discourse markers Speech act expressions

5. Looking to the future

Multi-modal and cross-modal communication Multi-modal corpora

Further reading References

22 What can a corpus tell us about creativity?

1. Concept of ‘creativity’ in linguistics 2. Corpora and creativity – contradiction or continuity? 3. What can corpora reveal about creativity in discourse?

Creativity through departure from patterns

Novel word formation Creative collocations Creative idiomaticity Punning

Creativity through patterning

4. Spoken and written creativity 5. What else is needed of a corpus to facilitate creativity studies?

Humour, creativity and corpora Semantic annotation and creative idiomaticity Punning and corpora Creative structures and corpora

Further reading References

Section V Using a corpus for language pedagogy and methodology

23 What can a corpus tell us about language teaching?

1. Corpora and language learning 2. Corpus-driven form and function 3. Corpus evidence as teaching materials 4. Tasks for language learning 5. Bridging corpus linguistics and language teaching Acknowledgement Further reading References

24 What features of spoken and written corpora can be exploited in creating language teaching materials and syllabuses?

1. Integrating corpus-based approaches in a syllabus 2. Using corpus-based materials to teach speaking and listening

Features of spoken language

Spoken corpora and oral fluency Language chunks

3. Using corpus-based materials to teach reading and writing

Using corpus-based texts to develop reading skills

4. Using texts to develop writing skills

Signposting and linking Proof-reading and error correction Cohesive devices

5. Exploiting learner corpora

Why use a learner corpus? Investigating errors

Further reading References

25 What is data-driven learning?

1. The context of data-driven learning 2. A brief history of data-driven learning 3. DDL and actual language use 4. DDL and second language acquisition theory 5. DDL: changing language pedagogy Further reading References

26 How can data-driven learning be used in language teaching?

1. The pedagogical functions of DDL 2. Data-driven learning material 3. The operationalisation of data-driven learning 4. Assessing the effectiveness of data-driven learning 5. The problems and limitations of data-driven learning Further reading References

27 How can we prepare learners for using language corpora?

1. Getting started: finding out what students know and providing general information 2. Identifying task objectives and types of corpora

Learner as researcher/discovery learning Learners using a corpus for hypothesis testing Learners using a corpus for error correction Learner using a corpus for contrastive studies and translation Learners using the corpus learn about genre Learners using the corpus to generate targets for self-study in specialised areas

3. Preparing corpus data

Preparing learners to use available corpus data Preparing learners to build their own corpora Preparing learners to deal with a large amount of corpus data Preparing learners to query the data

4. Getting to know corpus analysis tools

Giving an introduction and technical support Getting to know a concordancer Getting to know different types of query Getting to know other tools

5. Interpreting corpus results

Training learners to read and interpret concordance lines Training learners to interpret quantitative results Caution in data interpretation

Further reading References

Section VI Designing corpus-based materials for the language classroom

28 What can a corpus tell us about vocabulary teaching materials?

1. What vocabulary is important for my learner? 2. Vocabulary materials and formulaic language 3. What type of corpus is suitable for academic vocabulary learning? 4. What vocabulary input do my teaching materials provide? 5. What approaches should be used for designing teaching materials?

Sample task based on concordances of average

Further reading References

29 What a corpus tells us about grammar teaching materials

1. Grammar, corpora and language description frameworks: what roles do corpus studies play in wider debates in applied linguistics that surround grammar? 2.

Published classroom materials based on corpora Teacher-led developments and corpora in the grammar classroom

3. Constraints and limiting factors

Syllabus and target level Ownership of the language and teacher confidence Digital divide and classroom realities worldwide

4. State of the debate and future developments that may affect grammar teaching based on corpus findings 5. Summary of issues Further reading References

30 Corpus-informed course book design

1. Introduction 2. What kind of corpus is needed to write a course book?

Variety Genre Age Learner and non-native-speaker data Size of corpus

3. What areas of the course book can a corpus inform?

Information about the language syllabus

Vocabulary syllabus Grammar syllabus Lexico-grammatical patterns Requests Asking for permission Discourse management Contexts of use

Models for presentation and practice

4. How can corpus data be used in a course book?

Information about the language Using corpus texts for presentation

5. The future of corpus-informed course books

A more corpus-informed future? Print versus electronic delivery

Further reading References

31 Using corpora to write dictionaries

1. Why do lexicographers use corpora?

Corpora or native speaker intuition? How big does a corpus for lexicographers need to be? What should be in the corpus?

2. Corpus analysis tools for lexicography

Concordancing Other tools for lexicographers

3. Using a corpus to create dictionary text

Semantic division Collocation Identifying neologisms and new senses Differences between language genres Grammar and syntax Example sentences Frequency

4. Using learner corpora for lexicography

Identifying common errors Learner profiles Comparisons with native speaker use

5. Current limitations and future developments

Corpus make-up Spoken corpora Corpus query systems The role of the lexicographer

Further reading References

32 Using corpora for writing instruction

1. Introduction: an overview 2. Exploiting corpora for EGAP writing instruction

The corpus-based approach in EGAP The corpus-driven approach in EGAP

3. Exploiting corpora for ESAP writing instruction

The corpus-based approach in ESAP The corpus-driven approach in ESAP

4. Issues in the application of corpora to writing instruction

Corpora and tools Strategy training for learners and teachers Evaluation of corpora in writing performance

Expansion of corpora: into other varieties Extension of corpora: out of the classroom

Further reading References

33 What can corpora tell us about English for Academic Purposes?

1. What can corpora reveal about aspects of academic language in use? 2. How can corpora influence EAP pedagogy? 3. How can corpora be used in EAP materials? 4. What can a corpus tell us about EAP learner language? 5. What might the future be for corpora in EAP? Further reading References

34 How can teachers use a corpus for their own research?

1. Using a corpus for your own research: being professionally curious 2. Issues in using and building corpora 3. Building your own corpus 4. What can be done with corpora inside and outside the classroom? 5. What can a corpus tell us about the profession of language teaching?

The case of C-MELT

Further reading References

Section VII Using corpora to study literature and translation

35 What are parallel and comparable corpora and how can we use them?

1. What are parallel and comparable corpora? 2. Existing corpora and corpus compilation

Existing corpora Corpus compilation: some key issues

Corpus design Text collection

3. Preparing and analysing parallel and comparable corpora

Corpus preparation Corpus analysis

4. What are parallel and comparable corpora used for?

Contrastive linguistics Translation studies Language learning Machine translation

5. Parallel and comparable corpora as complementary resources Further reading References

36 Using corpora in translation

1. Translating: purposes and processes 2. How do corpora fit in? 3. What corpus?

Monolingual corpora

General reference corpora Specialised corpora Constructing specialised corpora

Multilingual corpora

Comparable corpora Parallel corpora Multiple translation corpora

4. Corpora in translator training 5. Future prospects Further reading References

37 How can corpora be used to explore the language of poetry and drama?

1. Poetry, drama and corpora 2. Background to Songs of Innocence and of Experience 3. A corpus-based case study of Songs of Innocence and of Experience 4. Blockbuster movie scripts as an object of study 5. A corpus-based case study of blockbuster movie scripts Acknowledgement Further reading References

38 How can corpora be used to explore literary speech representation?

1. Real and fictional speech: similarities and differences

Speech representation in literature

2. Using a corpus to compare real and represented speech 3. What can a corpus tell us about speech representation in literature? 4. Case study of corpus-based stylistic analysis 5. What a corpus cannot tell us about representation in literature Further reading References

Section VIII Applying corpus linguistics to other areas of research

39 How to use corpus linguistics in sociolinguistics

1. Sociolinguistics and the relevance of corpora 2. Sociolinguistic methods and the use of corpora

Why and how use spoken corpora? Problems and limitations of corpus-linguistic method

3. Dos and don’ts for the researcher

Listen to the data Browse and search Precision and recall Distinguish form from function Manual work is needed Comparability of datasets

4. Corpus-based sociolinguistics exemplified 5. Possible future developments Further reading References

40 How to use corpus linguistics in the study of media discourse

1. Introduction: corpus linguistics and critical discourse analysis 2. Critical Discourse Analysis 3. Corpus-based CDA

Orientation Keywords

Cultural keywords Corpus-based cultural keywords Corpus-comparative statistical keywords Relationship between corpus-comparative statistical keywords and cultural keywords

4. Case study

Orientation Concordancer collocation analysis and semantic significance

Collocation and frames Ideological reproduction and inferencing

CCSKs and text structure

CCSKs Keyword dispersion plot Keyword links

Semantic pattern types via ‘But’

The five semantic pattern types Summing up the corpus-based qualitative analysis

Ideological reproduction and the interrelatedness of the semantic patterns

5. Prosumer Critical Discourse Analysis Further reading References

41 How to use corpus linguistics in forensic linguistics

1. The notion of the forensic corpus and its potential use in authorship analysis 2. The use of pre-existing linguistic corpora in forensic linguistics 3. The use of specialised individual corpora to identify or eliminate candidate authors 4. Using the web as a reference corpus 5. Limitations of corpus linguists in forensic linguistic contexts and future challenges Further reading References

42 How to use corpus linguistics in the study of political discourse

1. What is political discourse?

Genres of political discourse

2. Political discourse and corpora

Political speeches Parliamentary debates Political press conferences Mediated political discourse: news reports

3. Corpus techniques for exploring political discourse

Analysing ‘how X is talked about’ Making corpus comparisons Analysing sets of linguistic features marking a particular style Analysing keywords

4. Examples of topics in corpus-based research on political discourse

(Un)favourable representation in political discourse Metaphor in political discourse Reported speech in political discourse

5. Corpus linguistics and political discourse: looking to the future

New genres to study New types of corpora to compile New topics to cover

Further reading References

43 How to use corpus linguistics in the study of health communication

1. What is healthcare communication and why study it? 2. Key corpus-based studies in healthcare communication 3. Building a corpus of adolescent health language 4. How can a corpus of health language be used to explore patterns?

Identifying themes and lexical items for analysis Adolescent sexual health and language – background Adolescent language and sexual health – corpus analysis

‘Sex’ and sexually transmitted infections Conflation and the metaphorisation of AIDS and HIV What is HIV/AIDS?

5. Conclusions and applications Further reading References

44 How can corpora be used in teacher education?

1. The language teacher education context 2. Current models of teacher education and the place of CL 3. Pedagogic applications: corpora of classroom language, learner corpora and pedagogic corpora 4. Corpora and language awareness 5. The discourses of teacher education: using specialised corpora for professional introspection and development Further reading References

45 How can corpora be used in language testing?

1. What is language testing? 2. The development of corpus use in language testing 3. How can we use a learner corpus to inform language testing? 4. How can we use a native speaker corpus to inform language testing? 5. Looking to the future of corpus-informed language testing Further reading References

Index

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