Observers and Navigators by Jefford, Wg Cdr C.G. -- Read -- Imperial Library of Trantor

Index

Cover Title Page Copyright Contents Foreword Preface Abbreviations Chapter 1

Genesis. 1913. Early indications of a possible need for professional Observers. 1913-14. The need for professional Observers is recognised.

Chapter 2

1914. The RFC goes to War. Late 1914. The characteristics of aerial warfare begin to crystallise. Late 1914. The shortage of professional Observers obliges the RFC to use pilots to fill the gap. Late 1914. Early efforts to provide additional Observers from home. 1914-15. Intimations of the need to grant Observers a degree of formal recognition. Early 1915. The RFC begins to recruit and train Observers in the field. 1915. The nature of Observer training in the field. 1915. The beginnings of an Observer training system at home. 1915. Men Only.

Chapter 3

Summer 1915. The RFC’s provisional ‘War Manual’ is revised and republished. Summer 1915. The skills required by an Observer are identified. 1915. Early attitudes towards Observers. 1915. The RFC introduces a distinguishing badge for Observers. 1915-16. The RFC joins the side-show campaigns. 1915-16. The introduction of the two-seat fighter. 1916. The emergence of role specialisation.

Chapter 4

1914-1915. Slow progress in the RNAS. Late 1915. The beginnings of a training system for naval Observers. Early 1916. The shortage of naval Observers persists and pressure increases for their status to be recognised. 1916-17. The RNAS revises its Observer training sequence and sets up dedicated schools at Eastchurch.

Chapter 5

Late 1915. The Observer is granted a degree of formal status within the RFC. 1916. The Bailhache Report. 1916. The RFC introduces formal training courses for its Observers at Reading, Oxford, Brooklands and Hythe. Late 1916. HQ RFC begins to accept the limitations of its field training system.

Chapter 6

Late 1916. The RFC introduces non-commissioned Aerial Gunners. 1917. Squadron-trained non-commissioned gunners. 1917. Social problems arising from the introduction of Aerial Gunners and crews of mixed status.

Chapter 7

1914-17. Pilot Training in the RFC. 1918. Pilot training in the RAF. 1916-18. Wireless training for pilots. 1916-18. Gunnery training for pilots.

Chapter 8

1916. The RFC’s Observer training system begins to mature. Late 1916. The status of the RFC’s Observers is further enhanced. 1917. Complications arising from the ‘improved’ terms of service for Observers. Early 1917. A formal case for Observers to be granted virtual equality with pilots is fought and lost. Early 1917. The beginning of the end of the RFC’s squadron-based observer training system. Mid-1917. Trenchard insists that all Observers complete their qualification. 1917. A bid for Observers to be granted a greater degree of equality with respect to pilots leads to a dispute over the award of ‘wings’.

Chapter 9

1917. The RFC refines its Brooklands/Hythe training sequence. 1917. Role specialisation is formally acknowledged within the RFC. 1917. Aerial Gunners are granted their ‘wings’. 1917. Night bombing focuses attention on the practical problems of weapons delivery and air navigation. 1917-18. The state of the art of air navigation. 1917. The RFC quantifies the scale of its Observer training task and introduces, but fails to realise, the concept of the twenty-four-aircraft corps reconnaissance squadron. 1917. Changes in the regulations governing the employment of Observers. 1917. Flying pay and its significance in the case of Observers who had become Prisoners of War.

Chapter 10

Balloon Observers in the RFC. 1916-17. Another dispute over ‘wings’ and status. Balloon Observers in the RNAS. Ballooning in the RAF. Airships.

Chapter 11

1917. The Navy finally recognises its Observers and introduces a distinctive badge for them. 1917-18. The RNAS refines its Observer training system. 1917-18. Persistent problems with both quality and quantity in the RNAS.

Chapter 12

1917-18. Smith-Barry’s instructional methods begin to influence attitudes towards all aircrew training. 1916-18. The contribution of the RFC’s overseas training organisations. 1918. Role-specific establishments are introduced and the twenty-four-aircraft corps reconnaissance squadron concept begins to be realised. 1918. The impact of the capabilities of second-generation aeroplanes on the functions of the Corps Observer. 1918. The increasing importance of the rear gun. 1918. Changes in the employment of non-commissioned back-seaters. 1918. The RFC reconsiders its policy towards NCO pilots. The ratio of casualties between Pilots and Observers.

Chapter 13

1918. The creation of the RAF – complications arising from differences between RNAS and RFC grading policies and ranks. 1918. The various categories of RFC and RNAS Observer inherited by the RAF are rationalised. 1918. The disputes over the significance of the observers badge are finally resolved. 1918. Confusion over the effective date of an Observer’s seniority. 1918. The inappropriate use of the term ‘probationer’. 1918. Real and perceived problems over seniority. 1918. The resolution of unusual cases. 1918. The RAF grants its Observers status (apparently) equal to that of its pilots. The status of the Observer in the German Air Service.

Chapter 14

1918. The Observer’s involvement in bomb-aiming grows as the air weapon matures. 1918. The introduction of a comprehensive system of air armament training. 1918. Navigation training is placed on a firm footing. 1918. The establishment of a comprehensive training sequence for Observers. 1918. The effectiveness of Observer training during the final months of the war. ‘1919’. The Observers who might have been. 1919. Peace and the balance sheet.

Chapter 15

1919-21. Early indications that the post-war RAF would continue to employ Observers prove to be illusory. 1921-24. The RAF dispenses with its commissioned Observers in favour of part-time, non-commissioned Aerial Gunners. 1923-26. Despite some reservations, and an ineffective attempt to create a reserve, the remaining first-generation Observers are allowed to fade away. 1926-29. The inadequacy of Air Gunners as a substitute for Observers becomes increasingly apparent. 1927-33. The cracks, in the pilots-only edifice which had been erected in 1919, begin to widen. 1932-34. Increased attention begins to be paid to the neglected art of air navigation. Note on terminology.

Chapter 16

1933-36. Re-inventing the wheel – the reintroduction of Observers. 1936. Increasing awareness of the inadequacies of the new Observers Scheme. 1936. Early modifications to the Observers Scheme and increasing demand for further improvement. 1935-38. The scarcity of Observers prolongs the trade of the Air Gunner and aggravates the training problem at squadron level. 1935. A new approach to the training of pilots. 1936. The Waghorn Paper. 1937. Pilots begin to lose their exclusive authority over aircraft navigation. 1937. The flying ‘O’ is reinstated.

Chapter 17

1920-39. The provision of commissioned Observers for the Fleet Air Arm. 1923-39. The provision of Air Gunners for the Fleet Air Arm. 1935-39. The provision of Observers Mates. 1936. The attitudes of the RAF and RN towards non-pilot aircrew – compare and contrast. 1936. The capabilities of the RAF and the FAA – compare and contrast. 1935-39. The status of non-commissioned naval aircrew is recognised. 1938-39. The status of commissioned naval observers is recognised.

Chapter 18

1938. The demand for additional aircrew obliges the RAF to resort to the direct recruiting of Observers. 1938-39. The introduction of non-pilot volunteer reserve aircrew. 1938-39. The Observer is given exclusive responsibility for navigation. 1938. The part-time aircrew concept is finally abandoned. Note on terminology.

Chapter 19

1939. The ultimate pre-war scheme for the provision of non-pilot air crew. 1938-39. Air Gunner training during the last year of peace. 1938-39. Observer training during the last year of peace.

Chapter 20

1939-40. Early changes in wartime recruiting policy. 1939-40. The wartime RAF begins to afford Observers a greater degree of recognition. 1939-40. Early wartime improvements in the status of Gunners. 1939-41. The introduction of commissions for Air Gunners and the creation of the Administrative and Special Duties Branch. 1939-40. The reinstatement of commissions for Observers and for officers of the reconstituted specialist ground branches. 1941. Further improvements in conditions of service, particularly for Observers. 1941. The introduction of the Observer (Radio), née Radio Operator (Air). 1941. The introduction of the Observer (W/T). 1941-42. The introduction of the Flight Engineer. 1941-42. Evolutionary changes to the category of the Wireless Operator.

Chapter 21

1939. The RAF’s conduct of early bomber operations – a naval view. 1939-40. The capabilities of early wartime Observers. 1939-42. The state of the art of air navigation. 1942-43. The introduction of practical navigational aids. 1940-45. Wartime post-graduate navigation training.

Chapter 22

1941. The ‘New Deal’. 1942. Flight Engineers are formally recognised as being air crew. 1940-45. Changes in policy affecting the employment of Air Gunners in heavy bombers. 1942. The composition of heavy bomber crews is revised – pilots and gunners. 1942. The composition of heavy bomber crews is revised – observers/navigators. 1942. The composition of heavy bomber crews is revised – the pilot’s assistant. 1942. The Ottawa Air Training Conference – the introduction of the Air Bomber and the replacement of the Observer by the Navigator. 1942. The Ottawa Air Training Conference – air crew and commissioning policy. 1942. The rationalisation of air crew categories. 1942. New air crew categories – new badges. 1942. Controversy over the design of air crew badges. 1942. The new air crew categories – were they ‘new’ and were they necessary?

Chapter 23

The wartime evolution of non-pilot air crew training. Selection and Initial Training. The Wartime University Air Squadrons Later Developments in Pre-Entry and Initial Training Rank and status while under training prior to the award of an air crew badge.

Chapter 24

UK-based Observer training to 1942. The introduction of synthetic training devices. The creation of the Empire Air Training Scheme. Observer, Navigator and Air Bomber training under Commonwealth arrangements. Observer training in the USA. Changes in the role of UK-based observer training units and the publication of a definitive syllabus. The Balance Sheet.

Chapter 25

Air Gunner training. Wireless Operator training Flight Engineer training. Operational and conversion training. The length of air crew training and the run-down of the BCATP.

Chapter 26

1942. Naval Observers and TAGs. 1942-45. The introduction of Meteorological Air Observers. 1943-44. Changes within the fraternity of Wireless Operators and Air Gunners. 1944. The Flight Engineer replaces the Air Bomber in the role of pilot’s assistant. 1944-45. The Employment of Pilots as Flight Engineers. 1942-44. The abolition of the Nav(BW) and the evolution of the Nav(R). 1943. Improved promotion prospects for airmen air crew. 1943. The abolition of the ‘VR’ badge. Non-pilots in relation to captaincy and other executive functions.

Chapter 27

Planning for the last lap – and after. The desirability of twin-winged air crew badges is reconsidered. The wearing of RAF badges by personnel of other Services. Further problems with the wearing of badges.

Chapter 28

Planning for peace. The nature of the problem. Devising the solution to the problem. Note on terminology. The 1946 Aircrew Scheme. The 1946 Scheme in perspective. The flaws within the 1946 Scheme. The demise of the 1946 Scheme. Note on terminology.

Chapter 29

1945-48. The attempt to reinstate a pre-war-style ‘pilots only’ officer corps. 1945-48. The evolution of early post-war commissioning policy for aircrew. 1948. The ‘comparable careers for navigators’ policy. 1950. The introduction of a 100% commissioning policy for pilots and navigators. 1951-58. Navigators at Cambridge UAS. 1954-56. Early dissatisfaction with the ‘comparable careers’ policy – and the Cranwell question.

Chapter 30

1950. The Korean War and problems with recruiting. 1950-57. The decline in the practical value of reservists. 1955-57. The introduction of longer term engagements and the end of conscription. 1956. Rates of flying pay are substantially increased. 1949-62. The politics of ‘twin-wings for Navs’ in the post-war era.

Chapter 31

1945-50. Navigator training during the early post-war years. 1950-56. The Korean War expansion and the reinstatement of training in Canada. The creation of the V-Force and its influence on the composition of crews.

Chapter 32

1947-64. The provision of flying personnel for meteorological duties. 1947-55. The provision of Air Signallers in the early post-war years. 1956 onwards. The Air Signaller is supplanted by the Air Electronics Officer and the Air Electronics Operator. 1969. The Air Signaller is reinstated for the exclusive benefit of No 51 Sqn.

Chapter 33

1947-57. The demise of the Air Gunner. 1945-2005. The fluctuating fortunes of the post-war Air Engineer.

Chapter 34

1951-57. The case for dedicated ‘Nav Rads’ to act as AI operators and the reinstatement of the Radio Observer. 1961-64. A final flirtation with NCO Pilots and Navigators. 1962 onwards. The introduction of the Air Loadmaster, née Air Quartermaster. The Airmen Aircrew Initial Training School. Navigators and helicopters. 1983 onwards. The introduction of Fighter Controllers and Airborne Technicians as ‘aircrew’.

Chapter 35

1950-70. The background to aircrew commissioning policy. 1953-60. Changes in attitude towards the relationship between flying pay and flying currency. 1956 onward. The ‘comparable careers’ policy and the Cranwell issue. 1956-70. Changes in commissioning policy. 1960-70. The end of the traditional Cranwell cadetship. The demise of the traditional Promotion Exams. 1969. The Hodgkinson Report. 1956-86. A common gradation list for Air Officers. 2003. A late refinement to commissioning policy and problems with retention.

Chapter 36

Navigator training since 1957. Post-war post-graduate navigation training.

Chapter 37

The art of air navigation becomes a science. 2000. A rose by any other name – the introduction of the WSO and WSOp. 2003 onwards. The Weapons Systems Operator. 2003. The last new aircrew badge? The distaff side. 2011. The end of an era – the termination of Navigator training. Postscript – a straw in the wind?

Epilogue

Had there really been an anti-observer bias within the RFC and, if so, why? Why did the peacetime RAF dispense with Observers in 1919? Was the RAF justified in dispensing with its Observers and with officers of other key trades? Did the lack of Observers have any effect on the development of air navigation? Did the RAF’s ‘pilots only’ policy of the inter-war era distort its perceptions and limit its effectiveness? What were the long term effects of the RAF’s ‘pilots only’ philosophy on officers of other trades, and Navigators in particular? Conclusion.

Annexes

Annex A: Photography, 1914-18. Annex B: Communications, 1914-18. Annex C: Gun Armament, 1914-18. Annex D: Navigation, 1914-18. Annex E: Hydrophones, 1918. Annex F: Wireless Direction Finding, 1914-18. Annex G: Bomb Sights, 1914-18. Annex H: Meteorology, 1914-18. Annex I: Knots v mph. Annex J: The relationship between the RAF’s Air Navigation Certificates and Warrants and civil Air Navigation Licences. Annex K: The flying badges sponsored by the RCAF and other Commonwealth air forces during WW II. Annex L: The process of approving a new aircrew badge.

Sources and Bibliography Acknowledgments

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