Note-By-Note Cooking: The Future of Food

acetic acid: esters containing, 164; molecular structure, 18, 19; natural and synthetic identical, 10; as principal compound of vinegar, 10, 17–18, 127; taste enhanced by, 126; uniqueness lost below the molecular level, 17; using without hesitation, 28

Achatz, Grant, 106t

acids, 28, 117, 121, 126–29, 164. See also amino acids; fatty acids; mineral salts; and specific acids

acrylamide, 213–14

acrylicterpenes, 165

ADI. See acceptable daily intake

adulteration: of foods, 219; of wine, 6–8, 14, 124

Aethusacynapium, 206–7

Aframomumangustifolium, 207

Aframomummelegueta, 207

agar-agar, 63, 93, 212; in note-by-note recipes, 229, 231, 234

Agastachegenus, 207

agriculture, 35, 215–16, 217–19

air, 66. See also foams; gases

alcohol (beverages): additives (accepted and not), 6–8, 21, 124, 125–26, 145, 162; ethanol in, 80, 138–39; taste and smell of food heightened by, 169. See also ethanol; wine

alcohols (compounds), 137–39, 159, 161–62. See also specific alcohols

algae, 62, 89, 91, 93, 136, 177. See also alginates

alginates, 62, 64, 91–93, 112. See also sodium alginate

alginic acid, 91, 92

aliphatic compounds, 161–64

Allais, Alphonse, 167

aluminum and aluminum salts, 124, 125, 180, 181

amino acids, 129–32; flavoring agents derived from, 144; glutamic acid, 80, 117, 131, 131, 144; Maillard reactions, 132, 135, 155; molecular structure, 129–30, 130; named, 131; recovered from milk, wheat, 27; in wine and bouillon, 80

amylopectin, 9, 26–27, 98, 136–37

amylose, 9, 26, 98, 136–37

Anacyclus pyrethrum, 208

Anadenantheragenus, 208

Angelica sinensis, 208

Annonasquamosa, 208

anthocyanins, 82, 180–81

antioxidants, 30, 90t, 183, 212

appearance of food, 55, 56–57, 172–74. See also color; shape and form

Apple Pearls, Opalines, and Lemon Granita (dish), 199, 228

apples: cracking and fractionation of, 215; odorant compounds in, 163; pectin content, 61, 96, 182; POP2 derived from, 182; sensations while eating, 59

aqueous solutions: defined, 68; egg white as, 78; formulae for, 77–78; juice and wine as, 80 (see also juices; wine); in mayonnaise, 74; in note-by-note cooking, 83, 86–87, 228, 229, 235–36; potassium hydroxide (lye), 121; saliva as, 68

aroma and aromatic, as terms, 13, 157, 158, 162, 166

aromatic compounds. See odorant compounds

aromatic plants, 145, 150, 166

Artemisia umbelliformis, 209

artificial. See natural vs. artificial

artificial fish product. See surimi

artificial meat. See fibré

artificial vegetable tissue. See conglomèle

artistic choice, 185–93

ascorbic acid (Vitamin C), 126, 129, 183

aspartame, 117, 120, 141–42

astringency, 180–81. See also tannins

atoms, defined, 18–19. See also molecules

authenticity and labeling, 8, 89, 221

baking soda. See sodium bicarbonate

beef, 9, 80, 108t, 167

beer, 46, 47, 118–19, 145

Beetroot Red (betanin), 180

beets, 83, 180, 230–31

benzaldehyde, 152, 157, 166

benzylmercaptan, 21–22

Berchoux, Joseph, 20

Bernardé, Nicolas, 191

beta-carotene, 19, 36, 179

Biffi, Jean-Pierre, 32

bitterness: of beer, 46, 47, 118–19, 145; bitterants, 145–46; extracting bitter compounds, 144–45

blue coloring agents, 177

borage (Borago officinalis), 209

bouillon, 21–22, 80, 91

brain: adaptability of, 202; and contrast recognition, 39; golden brain fable, 49–52; and hardness/softness perception, 104; and imperfection, 45; and music, 189; and taste and odor perception, 68, 119, 120, 172–73; visual perception by, 39, 54, 173–74

bread, 8, 64, 132, 167, 213–14

Brillat-Savarin, Jean-Anthelme, 20, 63, 64

brown coloring agents, 178–79. See also caramel

calcium lactate, 112, 228

Camaroon cardamom, 207

cancer, 30. See also carcinogens

capsaicin, 28, 151, 170. See also peppers, hot

caramel, 135–36, 144, 178–79, 228, 233

Caramel and Péligots, 228

carbohydrates, 132–33, 203. See also sugars

carboxylic acids, 164

carcinogens: in plants, 207, 208; in smoked products, 14, 24, 25, 31; in various spices and aromatic plants, 31, 158–59. See also toxicity

Carême, Marie-Antoine, 64, 65, 191–92, 196

carmine and carminic acid, 175

carmoisine (red dye), 175, 176, 177

carotenes, 179. See also beta-carotene; carotenoids

carotenoids, 221. See also beta-carotene; carotenes

carrageenans, 62, 91, 93–94; availability of, 64, 212; classification of, 100t; in note-by-note recipes, 231, 234

carrots: color of, 12, 19, 179; cooking with, 39, 89, 104t; cultivated vs. wild, 12; shape and preparation of, 39; sugars in, 12, 92, 133, 134

cellulose and cellulose derivatives, 97–98, 136, 203–4, 219, 235

chamomile, Spanish, 208

Chantilly Chocolate, 224

cheese, 46, 104t, 127, 164

chemistry: and the analysis of sugars, 133; benefits of, 134–35, 219; “chemical” compounds as misnomer, 9–10, 21; chemical reactions defined, 8, 11; chemist’s world view, 69; childhood experiments in, 127–28; cooking compared to, 1–2, 10–11, 214; cooking informed by, 169; extraction and processing methods, 153–55; fractionation and cracking, 27, 214–15 (see also fractions and fractionation); history of, 121–22, 132–33, 138, 141–43, 152–53, 166, 218 (see also specific individuals); lab safety, 213; language (formulae) for describing reactions, 76–77; molecular gastronomy as, 20; need for, 134–35; note-by-note cooking not chemistry, 8, 11, 21; popular opposition to, 34, 181–82, 219; of sugar molecules, 69–71; synthesizing compounds (see synthetic compounds); and the term “carbohydrate,” 133; vocabulary of, 19. See also fractions and fractionation; molecules; synthetic compounds; and specific compounds and types of compounds

“Chemistry and Physics in the Kitchen” (Kurti and This-Benckhard), 5–7, 20–21

chewing: duration of, 59, 69; and flavor, 59, 68–69; food heated by, 150; hardness/softness perceived by, 71–72, 104t; liquid released by, 63; noise of, 57; odorant compounds released by, 69, 150; of solids, 67–69

chlorophylls, 19, 175, 177–78

chocolate, 24, 72, 79, 115, 160, 224

cinnamaldehyde, 152, 166–67, 191

cinnamon, 152, 160, 166–67, 209

cinnamon apple (plant), 208

citric acid, 127–28; in foams, 82; recipes using, 228, 229; taste enhanced by, 126; uniqueness lost below molecular level, 17; using without hesitation, 28

Citric Vauquelin, 229

citrus, 4, 145, 160, 163, 166. See also citral; limonene; and specific citrus fruits

cochineal, 175, 176

collagen and collagenic tissue, 26, 60, 80, 89, 130–31

colloids, 66, 75–76. See also gels; specific colloids

color, 172–84; beta-carotene and, 36; coloring agents, 90t, 172, 174–82, 212 (see also specific colors); of mirabelle plums, 47; and taste perception, 55, 172–74; unpredictability when mixing pigments, 28

complexity, introducing, 46. See also dimension; shape and form

compositions, 23, 162, 168–69, 216–17, 221, 235–36

compounds: availability of (selection and supply), 210–17; certifying authenticity of, 221; “chemical” compounds as misnomer, 9–10, 21; colors of, in pure form, 19; defined, 9; determining safety of, 176–77 (see also safety; toxicity); erasing the distinction between traditional foods and, 99–101; learning to cook with, 4–5, 35–36 (see also recipes and suggestions); mirror-image compounds, 128–29; molecules and, 16–19 (see also molecules); natural vs. synthetic compounds, 10–11, 15–16, 21, 34, 156–57 (see also the natural vs. the artificial); nature and purity of, 26–27; number of possible combinations, 29; results unpredictable when combined, 28; storage of, 221. See also regulation; and specific compounds and types of compounds

concavity, and convexity, 43–44. See also convex polyhedrons

concrete essences, 154. See also odorant compounds

conglomèle, 83–84, 85–86, 104t, 235

consistency, 54–112; additives and, 89–101 (see also gelling agents; thickening agents); contrasting consistencies, 55, 71–72, 101–12, 102–11t; defined, 56; dimension and, 84–87, 101–12, 102–11t; and flavor, 59–63; food additives and, 89–101; friability (crumbliness), 69; importance of, 54–59; lightness, 30, 62; research and recreation of, 28–29; softness vs. hardness, 63–64, 70–72, 104t; studies involving, 56–59; vs. texture, 56, 59–60; types and dimensions of, 65–79. See also colloids; dispersed systems; emulsions; gases; gels; liquids; solids

constructivism, culinary, 190–93

contrast: contrasting consistencies, 55, 71–72, 101–12, 102–11t (see also consistency); in cooking generally, 190; of heat vs. cold, 107t; perception of, 39, 54–55; of sweet vs. sour/tangy, 126–27

convex polyhedrons, 40–44, 41

cooking. See cooking as art; molecular cooking; note-by-note cooking; traditional cooking

cooking as art, 2, 22; architectural nature of cooking, 64; compared to other arts (see music; painting); constructing flavors, 190–93; cook’s intent, 1, 2–3, 32, 39, 49, 191; exploiting mathematical properties, 42–43; giving voice to one’s spirit, 52–53; joy of creating new dishes, 63; limiting novelty, 46; naming dishes, 193–98; search for novelty, 186–90, 204; shape and structure (see shape and form); substance and form (old vs. new), 186–90, 187–88t. See also molecular cooking; note-by-note cooking; traditional cooking

copper pans, 60–61, 178

copper sulfate, 93–94, 124, 178, 219

Le Cordon Bleu. See École Le Cordon Bleu

corn starch, 74–75, 98, 232

costs of note-by-note cooking, 33–34. See also energy consumption

cracking (chemical process), 215

crystalline solids, 69–70, 70, 71

cubes, 42, 84, 102t, 104t, 108t. See also polyhedrons

cucumber salad, 197–98

curcumin, 174, 175

“Current Problems of Musical Composition” (Xenakis lecture), 189

cyclamic acid, 142, 144

cyclicterpenes, 165–66

cylinders, 44–45, 103t

cysteine, 130, 131, 132, 213. See also amino acids

dairy products, 61–62, 127, 144, 163; in note-by-note recipes, 231, 234. See also cheese; milk

Dali, Salvador, 187t

Daudet, Alphonse, 49

Dead Leaf (recipe), 229

Decoret, Jacques, 125

Descartes, René, 76

dilution(s), 159, 211

dimension, 84–87, 101–12, 102–11t

dispersed systems, 75–80, 77t, 79. See also colloids; emulsions

dispersion of objects, 101, 102–5t. See also dimension

distillations (of odorant compounds), 152, 154, 159

Dumas, Jean-Baptiste, 152

dyes. See color: coloring agents

eating. See chewing; flavor; food; neophobia; odor; taste

École Le Cordon Bleu, 32, 107t, 199, 200

Effervescence (recipe), 229

eggs: chocolate mousse without, 224; coloration, 179; cysteine in, 132, 213; and emulsions, 89; molecular cooking and, 224; in note-by-note recipes, 83, 229–30, 232, 234–35; riboflavin derived from, 174; seasoning with salt, 124–25; whites, 9, 64, 78, 82–83, 87; yolks, 47, 62, 64, 75, 81, 89

Einstein, Albert, 81

emotion, evoked by cooking, 191

emulsifiers, 90t, 93–98; polyols as, 139–40; proteins and lecithins as, 89 (see also eggs: yolks; lecithins; proteins); uses, 61–62, 91, 212

emulsions: as dispersed systems, 77t, 78, 80–81; emulsification defined, 27; gelling agents and, 60 (see also gelling agents); gibbs and liebig, 83, 85, 86, 235; satiety after eating, 58–59. See also sauces

energy consumption, 33–34, 222–23

enfleurage, 151–52, 154

environmental concerns, 218–19. See also energy consumption

enzymes, 31, 131, 136, 140, 155, 183

Escoffier, Georges-Auguste, 124–25, 196

essential oils, 152, 154; odorant compounds in, 162, 163, 165, 166, 167; safety and toxicity of, 207–8. See also odorant compounds

estragole, 31, 158–59, 207

ethanol, 28, 138–39; dissolving odorant compounds in, 159; in note-by-note recipes, 229; uniqueness lost below the molecular level, 17; used in making tinctures/infusions, 154; in wine, 80

eugenol, 28, 151, 167, 170

extractions, 154. See also essential oils

“The Fable of the Man with the Golden Brain” (Daudet), 49–52

Fahlberg, Constantin, 142

Faraday, Michael, 166

farmers. See agriculture

fats, 80–81; milk fats, 214; nutritive value of, 24; taste of, 148–49. See also fatty acids; oils

fatty acids, 28, 81, 148, 203, 205

fennel, 151, 166, 167, 207

fertilizers, 217, 218

fibers, 104t, 106t, 107t. See also fibré

fibré (note-by-note dish), 86, 86–87, 229–30, 235

firming agents, 90t, 91

first impressions, 55, 172–74

fish, 124, 179. See also surimi

flavor: chewing and, 59, 68–69; consistency and, 59–63; constructing flavors, 190–93; duration of, 192–93; importance studied, 56–59; perception of, 23, 57, 68–69, 114, 117–18, 145; visual perception and, 55, 172–74 (see also color)

flavoring agents, 143–44. See also monosodium glutamate

floral scents, 160, 162

flour: and acrylamide, 213; anticaking agents in, 26; in sauces, 62, 91, 98; starches in, 136–37, 229.See also wheat

foams: as dispersed systems, 77t; emulsified foams, 78; foaming agents, 90t, 91; properties of, 82–83, 169; in a vauquelin, 229–30, 235–36

food: appearance of, 55, 56–57, 172–74 (see also color; shape and form); artificially reproducing existing foods, 29, 186; colloidal nature of all foods, 66; fear of new foods, 24–25; fresh vs. preserved or frozen, 3; “natural” foods not possible, 11–16; safety of (see safety; toxicity); sensory receptors stimulated by, 27–28; surface hardness/softness, 71–72; and trigeminal sensations, 170; water content of, 27. See also consistency; flavor; food additives; food industry; taste; and specific foods and types of food

food additives: acids, 126–29 (see also acids); antioxidants, 90t, 212 (see also antioxidants); approved categories, 90t; coloring agents, 90t, 172, 174–82, 212; and consistency, 89–101, 90t; problems posed by note-by-note cooking for, 211–12; flavoring agents, 90t, 143–44, 145 (see also monosodium glutamate); gelling agents, 60–64, 90t, 100t, 212 (see also gelatin; pectins); health risks feared, 99; legal definitions, 212; mineral salts, 125–26 (see also mineral salts); organic and mineral acids, 126–29; preservatives, 90t, 125, 126, 127, 212; rarely used by cooks, 81; regulation of, 26, 79, 89, 90t, 126, 211 (see also regulation); sweeteners, 30, 90t, 133–37, 139–43 (see also saccharides; sugars; sweeteners); thickening agents, 62–63, 90t, 94–99, 139–40, 212, 214. See also emulsifiers; food industry; odorant compounds; and specific additives

food industry: problems posed by note-by-note cooking for, 211–13; fractionation and cracking by, 27, 214–15; nomenclature used by, 222; odorant compounds used by, 161–69 (see also odorant compounds); OECs as shortcuts for, 23, 216–17; range of compounds manufactured by, 26.See also food additives; regulation; and specific foods and compounds

form. See shape and form; substance and form

fractions and fractionation, 27, 146, 210, 214–16, 218, 221

fresh sensations. See menthol; mint; trigeminal sensations

friability (crumbliness), 69

fructose, 28, 92, 134–35, 136, 139

fruit: browning of, 182–83; colors of, 179–80; cracking and fractionation of, 215; and the evolution of taste perception, 118; fractions more lucrative than, 35; as gel, 63; intense sweeteners in, 143; odorant compounds in and of, 160, 162–64; pectins in, 60, 96, 182; sugars in, 133, 134, 139–40. See also citrus; and specific fruits

Gagnaire, Pierre: Note-by-Note No. 1, 13, 32, 193, 199; other note-by-note dishes by, 85, 101, 108t, 199, 228, 233; publications, 46; traditional cooking by, 188t, 198

galactose, 93–96, 136

gases: in dispersed systems, 77–78, 77t (see also foams); hydrogen sulfide, 132, 213.See also air

gastronomy, 4, 20; molecular gastronomy, 5, 20

gauss, 232–33, 235

Gauss, Carl Friedrich, 235

gelatin: amino acids from, 80; and dispersal of objects, 104t; energy costs of, 223; gelatin gels as non-Hookean solids, 68; meat and bones as source of, 60, 62, 89, 223; in note-by-note cooking, 86–87, 107t, 111t, 147, 232, 235, 236, 340; note-by-note cooking not limited to, 88; properties of, 61, 98, 131; purity and molecular content, 26; as S x W liquid, 84; in traditional cooking, 60, 62, 223. See also gels

gelling agents, 60–64, 90t, 100t, 212. See also gelatin; pectins; thickening agents

gels: carrageenans and, 94; coagulation of physical vs. chemical gels, 87–88; defined, 63; as dispersed systems, 77, 77t, 78, 83–87; as non-Hookean solids, 68; objects embedded within, 106t; salt-water gel, 147; starches and, 98; used in molecular cooking, 63–64

genuineness. See authenticity and labeling

gibbs, 83, 85, 86, 235

Gibbs, Josiah Willard, 235

Gilbert, Philéas, 124

ginseng, female, 208

glucose, 92, 133–34; as additive, 134; and amino acids, 132; as anticrystallant, 70; in bouillon, 80; and caramel, 136; and human energy metabolism, 92, 203; molecular structure, 120; in note-by-note recipes, 33, 228, 229, 232–33; polyols derived from, 139–40; solubility of, 98; taste of, 117; using without hesitation, 28; in various additives, 95, 96

glutamic acid, 80, 117, 131, 131, 144

glycerides, 27, 81. See also triglycerides

glycerol (glycerine), 133

glycine, 130, 131. See also amino acids

glycyrrhizic acid, 117, 120

grapefruit, 145–46, 158, 164

grapes, 27, 129, 180–81, 214, 229. See also wine

green coloring agents, 172, 182

Gringoire, Thomas, 197

guar gum, 62, 94–95

gumarabic (acacia gum), 62, 95, 100t

gums, 169. See also specific gums

hardness, 70–72. See also solids

heat: and aspertame, 141–42; compounds created by, 9, 11; contrasting with cold, 107t; and density and viscosity, 73–74, 73t; energy costs of, 33–34, 222–23; and foams, 83; food heated by chewing, 150; and fruit, 60; and gels, 87, 100t; and meat, 9; over- and under-cooking, 55; and the production of POP2, 183; and storage issues, 221; and sugars, 64, 70, 134, 135–36; toxins released by, 213–14; used in note-by-note cooking, 64 (see also recipes and suggestions); and various compounds, 100t, 154, 169

heterocycles, 167–68

Hildegard of Bingen, 208

Hladik, Claude Marcel, 118–19

honey, 8, 72, 117, 133, 134, 164

Hookean solids, 67, 67–68

Horowitz, Robert, 142

hydrochloric acid, 121, 127

hydrogen sulfide, 132, 213

hydrolysis, 131–32

hydroxymethylfurfural, 134

hydroxyproline, 17, 130, 131. See also amino acids

hyssop, Mexican, 207

imperfection, 45–46

inclusion of objects, 101, 106–7t. See also dimension

infusions (tinctures), 154

International Workshop on Molecular and Physical Gastronomy, 224

interpenetration of objects, 101, 110–11t, 112. See also dimension

ions, 123. See also mineral salts

isomalt, 139, 140, 231

jams and jellies: additives, 144; as interpenetration of phases, 78, 84; in note-by-note cooking, 88, 100t; pectin in, 60–61, 96, 142; tasting, 68

juices: from fruits and vegetables, 58, 80, 83, 182, 214; from meats, 60, 80 (see also bouillon)

Kurti, Nicholas, 5–7, 20–21

lactic acid, 126, 127

lactitol, 136, 139, 140

La Varenne, François Pierre de, 1, 195

Lavoisier, Antoine Laurent de, 76–77, 236

lecithins, 81, 89, 232

Leibniz, Gottfried Wilhelm, 76

lemonade, artificial, 127–28

Lemon Granita, 199, 228

lemon(s), 4, 163, 183. See also citral; citrus; limonene

Lessourd, Frédéric, 232

leucine, 130, 131. See also amino acids liebig, 85, 86, 235

Liebig, Justus von, 152, 235

limonene: cost of, 159; as cyclic compound, 156; in lemon granita, 228; odor of, 4, 46, 129, 156, 191; uniqueness lost below the molecular level, 17

liquid nitrogen, 31, 60, 112, 126, 220

liquids, 71–72; concavity and, 43; in dispersed systems, 75–78, 77t, 83; inside a pearl, 106t; liquid compounds, 4, 19; Newtonian vs. non-Newtonian liquids, 73–75; properties of, 37, 66, 72–75, 73; satiety after eating, 58–59; viscosity, 60, 72–75, 73; water- vs. oil-based liquids, 76, 77. See also aqueous solutions; bouillon; juices; oils; water

love, as aspect of cooking, 1, 2–3, 52

Maillard, Louis Camille, 132

Maillard reactions, 132, 135, 155

maltitol, 136, 139, 140

maltose, 136, 139, 140

mannose, 94, 95, 96, 136

mayonnaise: beating duration, 60, 81, 192; commercially prepared, 222; viscosity of, 56, 74–77, 81

measurement, 124–25, 234

meat: browning, 9; chewing’s effect on, 63; and contrasts, 55; dimensional formula for, 86, 104t; energy used in cooking, 34; as gel, 63; gelatin extracted from meat/bones, 60, 62, 89, 223; health risks, 24, 99; juices, 60, 80 (see also bouillon); as non-Hookean solid, 68; odors of, 150; proteins in, 87–88, 203; slow cooking, 131; terrines, 88, 89; trace elements in, 124. See also fibré

Mendeleev, Dmitri Ivanovich, 235

menthol: forms of, 166; freshening sensation of, 28, 166, 170; odor, 160, 221; preparation of, 155

metals, 181. See also aluminum and aluminum salts methanol, 97, 139, 139

metric conversions, 234

middle notes, 168–69

milk: challenges of cooking with, 63; flavor and odor masked by, 169; flavoring agents and, 144; in note-by-note recipes, 228, 231, 234; products of fractionation, 27, 214; products of processing, 26

mineral salts, 80, 121–26, 180, 214. See also specific mineral salts

mineral water, 122–23

mint, 22, 46, 47, 166, 221

mirabelle (yellow plum), 47

molecular cooking: critiques of, 63, 179; deconstruction in, 187t, 191; defined, 20; emblematic techniques, 63–64, 112; equipment used, 63–64, 216; evoking emotion through, 191; gels used, 63–64; history of, 20, 224; learning, 35; obtaining ingredients, 212–13; recipes, 224; thickening and gelling additives used, 99 (see also gelling agents; thickening agents); traditional cooking not replaced by, 33

molecular gastronomy, 5, 20

molecules: and compounds, 9, 16–19, 18; defined, 9; “handedness” of, 128–29; oligomers and polymers, 92 (see also polymers); water molecules, 9, 10, 17, 18, 18–19. See also specific compounds and substances

monosaccharides, 92, 93, 94, 132, 136, 137. See also saccharides; and specific sugars

monosodium glutamate, 80, 117, 131–32, 144; in note-by-note cooking, 229, 231

mushrooms: 3-octanol’s odor reminiscent of, 161; mannitol found in, 140; morels, 185; octenol and, 3–4, 139, 162, 191; pigments in, 179; wholesome vs. poisonous, 15; wild vs. fresh, 3

music: innovations in, 22–23, 33, 186–89, 187–88t, 204, 216; nature often imitated by, 48; structure and contrast in, 190

names of dishes. See nomenclature

“natural” foods, 11–12, 14

natural vs. artificial, 11–16, 156–57; artificial as “good” or “bad,” 15; artificially reproducing existing foods, 29, 186; coloring agents, 181–82; natural not always best/safest, 205; natural vs. synthetic compounds, 10–11, 15–16, 21, 34, 156–57

neohesperidinedihydrochalcone, 142

Newtonian liquids, 73–74. See also liquids

Nignon, Édouard, 145, 197

nitrate(s), 122, 126, 218. See also potassium nitrate

nomenclature (naming dishes), 8, 193–200, 221–22, 235–36

non-Hookean solids, 68–69

non-Newtonian liquids, 74–75. See also liquids

nonpolyhedral solids, 44–49

Note-by-Note Beet Soufflé with an Orange Center, 230–31

note-by-note cooking: as an art, 32–33 (see also cooking as art); attraction of, 32; breadth of possibilities for, 29, 185–86; compared to other arts (see music; painting); by consumers, 21; critiques of, 63; disruptive power of, 211–13, 220; economics of, 33–34, 222–23; first note-by-note dish, 13, 32, 193, 199; health risks of, 30–31 (see also safety; toxicity); history of, 5–8, 20–22, 32, 198–99; learning, 4–5, 35–36; and nomenclature (naming dishes), 198–200; not chemistry, 8, 11, 21; and nutrition, 29–30, 202–4 (see also nutrition); political aspects of, 217–25; precision of, with regard to taste, 147–48; proper use of OECs, 168–69; resistance and social acceptance, 8, 24–25, 33–35, 99, 116, 223–25; technological questions, 26–29; term defined, 1–5. See also recipes and suggestions; and specific topics and compounds

Note-by-Note Mozzarella, 231

Note-by-Note No. 1 (first note-by-note dish), 13, 32, 193, 199

Note-by-Note Pie Crust, 232

Note-by-Yolk, 200, 232–33

novelty, 186–90, 187–88t, 204

number(s), 42–43. See also polyhedrons

nutrition, 2–3, 25, 203–4; note-by-note cooking and, 203–4, 220; vitamins and dietary supplements, 30, 204, 218–19 (see also ascorbic acid). See also carcinogens; safety; toxicity

obesity, 29–30, 139, 141, 202

octenol (1-octen-3-ol), 3–4, 139, 162, 191, 233

odor, 38–39, 150–71; and anticipation, 55; attraction of, 151; combining odors, 150–51; complexity of odors, 46; detected while eating, 59, 150; enhanced by neohesperidinedihydrochalcone, 142; importance of, 57; mechanism of olfaction, 157–58, 158, 173; odorigenic, as descriptor, 162, 166; orthonasal vs. retronasal odors, 150; perception of contrast, 39; and taste perception, 114; vocabulary for, 159–60.See also odorant compounds; olfactory receptors; and specific foods and compounds

odorant compounds: acids and, 126; artificial and synthetic compounds, 88, 155–57; binding with gelatin, 60; classification of, 160–68; cost of, 159; in emulsions, 81; extraction and processing methods, 151–56; and flavor, 36, 59; manipulating, 151–53, 159; OECs, 23, 162, 168–69, 216–17; released by chewing, 59; results unpredictable when combined, 28; salt and, 143–44; volatility and threshold perception, 157–58; in wine and grape juice, 214. See also odor; and specific compounds

odorigenic extracts and compositions (OECs), 23, 162, 168–69, 216–17. See also composition; odorant compounds

oils: defined, 68; in dispersed systems, 75, 77–78, 77t, 80–81; extracting compounds with, 145–46; in foams, 82; forming a paste with, 78; history of, 151; in note-by-note recipes, 230, 232–33, 234; and odors, 151–52, 159; oil gels, 83; overheating, 214; in surimi, 88; and the taste of fatty acids, 148–49; triglycerides in, 9, 80–81, 148; uses, in note-by-note cooking, 107t. See also essential oils; fats

olfactory receptors, 28, 157, 158, 173

oligosaccharides, 92, 136

onion(s): bitterness of browned onions, 145; caramelizing, 213; hint of, in benzyl mercaptan, 22; sugars in, 92, 133, 134, 136

orange (color), 12, 13, 36

oranges (fruit), 4, 58, 142, 163. See also citrus; limonene

organic and mineral acids, 126–29. See also acids; amino acids; and specific acids

organic compounds, 121–22

oxalic acid and oxalates, 209

painting (art): color-mixing, 178; innovations in, 14, 23, 33, 48–49, 186, 187–88t; making paints, 78; structure and contrast in, 190

paprika extract, 179

paraethylphenol, 5–7, 7, 229

Parmentier, Antoine-Augustin, 35, 223–24

pasta, 102t, 104t, 106t, 229

Pasteur, Louis, 128, 128–29

pearls, 101–12; dispersal/superposition formulae and suggested uses, 102t, 104t, 106t, 108t; making, 83–84, 86, 112, 228, 229; in molecular cooking, 102t, 229. See also conglomèle

pectins, 96–97; esterified pectins, 61, 97, 100t; extracted from apple pulp, 182; as food additive, 62; and jams and jellies, 60–61, 96, 142; molecular structure, 61, 97; properties of, 100t; and the sensation of satiety, 58

péligot, 136, 235; péligot disks, 101, 228

Péligot, Eugène-Melchior, 101, 135, 152, 235

pepper, black, 28, 46, 47, 170

pepper, Melegueta (alligator), 207

peppers, hot, 28, 170

peptides, 27, 131, 203

perfumes and perfumery, 23, 155–56, 162, 165, 168–69

phases (types) of matter, 66

phenolic compounds, 167; browning of fruits and vegetables due to, 182–83; POP2 (yellow dye), 182–84; in a sauce, 33; toxic risks, 31; in wine, 80, 214

phloridzin, 182–83

phosphoric acid, 126, 127

Pie Crust, Note-by-Note, 232

piperine, 28, 170. See also pepper, black

plants: aromatic, 145, 150, 166; safety of, 206–9.See also fruit; vegetables

Plato, 14. See also Platonic forms; Platonic solids

Platonic forms, 46–47

Platonic solids, 40–42, 41

polyhedrons, 40–44, 41, 47

polymers, 71–72, 91, 92. See also alginates; specific polymers

polyols, 137, 139–40

Polyphenol Caramel Disk, 199, 233

polysaccharides, 27, 91, 136, 137. See also alginates

POP2 (yellow dye), 182–84

potassium chloride, 121

potassium hydroxide (lye), 121

potassium nitrate (saltpeter), 123, 126

potatoes: health risks, 31; history of, 35, 223–24; shape and preparation of, 39, 41 (see also polyhedrons); starch from, 9, 98; sugars in, 92

Potel & Chabot (catering company), 32, 199–200

preservatives: for food, 90t, 126, 127, 212 (see also preserved foods); in wine, 8, 125

preserved foods, 3, 24–25. See also preservatives; smoked foods

proteins: amino acids and, 130–31; cooking, 131–32; dispersal of, 76–78, 77t; in egg whites, 9; as emulsifiers, 89; insects as potential source of, 215; molecular structure, 133; nutritional need for, 203; recovered from milk, wheat, 27; in saliva, 136–37; on tongue (see sapictive receptors)

pungency, 170. See also pepper, black; peppers, hot; spices; trigeminal sensations

pure compounds, 210–14

purity of compounds, 26–27, 211

rebaudioside A (from stevia), 143

red coloring agents, 175–77, 179–80

regulation: authenticity and labeling, 8, 89, 221; coloring agents (approved), 174–81; defining “natural” foods, 12; and the names of dishes, 221–22; need for, 31, 219–20; use of aroma regulated, 13; of various food additives, 26, 79, 89, 90t, 143, 211; of white alcohols, 138

resinoids, 154. See also odorant compounds

restaurants, 34, 179, 211, 212, 215, 221–24

rheofluidifying liquids, 74. See also mayonnaise

rheothickening liquids, 74–75

rice starch, 9, 26–27, 98

Roasted Flour Cookies, 233–34

Rosier-Labouré, Hélène, 58–59

saccharides, 28, 92. See also specific saccharides

Sacchi, Bartolomeo, 194–95

safety, 31; adulterated foods, 219; of beneficial compounds, 205–6; of coloring agents, 176, 181–84; of compounds generally, 205; concentration (dosage) and, 206; determining, for various compounds, 176–77, 183–84, 220; of food additives, 99; Internet unreliable regarding, 206–8; kitchen safety, 31, 126, 213, 220 (see also hydrogen sulfide); of natural/wild foods, 205; of plants, 206–9; of smoked foods, 14, 24, 25; synthesizing compounds oneself, 213–14; of traditional foods, 14, 24, 29–31, 99, 207–9. See also carcinogens; toxicity

saliva, 36, 68, 119, 136, 180. See also chewing

salt (sodium chloride): concentration and taste, 115; forming a paste with, 78; in note-by-note cooking, 147; as preservative, 25; properties of, 36, 143–44; in a sauce, 33; seasoning eggs with, 124–25; structure of, 72, 121, 123; in surimi, 88; uniqueness lost below the molecular level, 17; used in food manufacturing, 26

sapictive receptors, 68, 119; biology of, 28, 119, 120, 173; importance of stimulating, 28; map incorrect, 115–16. See also flavor; taste

sapid compounds, 28, 81, 115, 118–21, 120

satiety, sensation of, 58–59

sauces: collagen and, 60; in note-by-note cooking, 33–34, 233, 236; properties of, 81; sweet-and-sour sauces, 126; thickening agents, 62–63, 91, 98; thickening meat juices for, 60; wine reduction, 33

Saulnier, Louis, 197

Schlatter, James, 141

Schutz, H. G., 56–58

selection and supply of compounds, 210–17

“Sens dessus dessous” (dish), 71–72

shape and form, 37–49, 52; dispersion and superposition of objects of various dimensions, 102–11t; importance of structure, 38–40; nonpolyhedral solids, 44–49; polyhedrons, 40–44, 41; symmetry, 42, 44–46; topology, 47–48

sheets, 103t, 105–9t, 111t

small hemlock, 206–7

smell, sense of. See odor; odorant compounds; olfactory receptors

smoked foods, 14, 24, 25

sodium alginate: derivation and properties, 91, 100t; in note-by-note cooking, 83–84, 87, 100t, 228

sodium bicarbonate (baking soda), 28, 117, 127–28, 178, 180

softness, 63–64, 70–72

solids, 66–72; crystalline vs. noncrystalline solids, 69–71, 70; defined, 66; deformation of, 66–68; in dispersed systems, 77, 77t; hardness or softness of, 70–72; Hookean solids, 67, 67–68; non-Hookean solids, 68–69; nonpolyhedral solids, 44–49; polyhedrons, 40–44, 41; sensation of satiety after eating, 58–59. See also shape and form

solubility: water-insoluble compounds, 69; water-soluble compounds, 27, 36, 69, 82

sorbitol, 88, 136, 139, 140

soup, 58–59, 195, 233. See also bouillon

sourness, 126–27. See also acids

spheres, 44–45, 47. See also pearls

spices: aromatic plants, 145, 150, 166; healthful properties of, 151; odorant compounds in, 151, 165, 166, 167, 168; pungent spices, 169, 170 (see also pepper, black; peppers, hot); safety and toxicity of, 31, 158, 207; taste-activating compounds in, 4; and trigeminal sensations, 169, 174. See also essential oils; and specific spices

spinach, 172, 178, 209

stabilizers, 96, 139–40

starches: compounds in, 9; corn starch, 74–75, 98, 232; in note-by-note recipes, 232, 233–34; polyols from, 139–40; reticulated starches, 99; rice starch, 9, 26–27, 98; in surimi, 88; as thickening agent, 62, 74–75, 98–99, 100t. See also amylopectin; amylose

strings, 63–64; creating, 87; dimensional formulae and uses of, 85, 87, 104t, 108–10t

structure, 38–49, 190. See also shape and form

substance and form (old vs. new), 186–90, 187–88t

sucrose (sugar): appeal of, 15; and caramel, 135–36, 178–79 (see also caramel); concentration and taste, 115; crystalline vs. noncrystalline structures, 69–71; and dental cavities, 139; effects of heating on, 64 (see also caramel); in foams, 82; forming a paste with, 78; as Hookean solid, 68; in jams and jellies, 60, 68; in note-by-note recipes, 229, 230, 234; nutritive value of, 24; polyols derived from, 139–40; sugar molecule, 17, 133, 135; used in food manufacturing, 26; using without hesitation, 28. See also sugars

sugars, 92, 132–40; and amino acids, 132; in fruits and vegetables, 12, 118; heat and, 64, 70, 134, 135–36; molecular structure, 133, 137; in wine and grape juice, 214. See also fructose; galactose; glucose; sucrose; sweeteners; and other sugars

sulfur compounds, 22. See also benzyl mercaptan

superposition of objects, 101, 104–5t, 107t, 108–9t, 110–11t, 112. See also dimension

suspensions, 77, 77t, 78–79

sweeteners: caramelizing artificial sweeteners, 213; food industry’s use of, 30, 90t; intense sweeteners, 140–43; polyols, 139–40. See also saccharides; sugars; and specific sweeteners and saccharides

sweetness, 115–17, 126–27, 144. See also sugars; sweeteners

symmetry, 42, 44–46

syneresis, 98, 100t

synthetic compounds, 155–56; defined, 11; vs. natural compounds, 10–11, 15–16, 21, 34, 156–57; new discoveries inevitable, 210. See also compounds

Taillevent, 193–94

tannins, 80, 96, 180–81, 229. See also phenolic compounds

tarragon, 31, 158, 207

tartaric acid, 128–29; in note-by-note recipes, 33–34, 229, 233; taste enhanced with, 126; using without hesitation, 28; in wine, 80, 129

taste, 114–49; acids and, 28, 126–27 (see also acids; specific acids); bitterness, 46, 47, 118–19, 145–46; duration of, 192–93; evolutionary purpose of, 118–19; of fats, 148–49; four-taste theory incorrect, 114, 115–16, 126, 138; individual variance in perception of, 115–16, 117–18; learning to recognize different tastes, 115, 116–17; matrix effects, 146–48; mineral salts and, 122–23, 125; note-by-note cooking’s precision with regard to, 147–48; perception of, 23, 57, 68–69, 114, 117–18, 145, 172–74; sourness, 126–27 (see also acids); sweetness, 115–17, 126–27, 144 (see also sugars; sweeteners; and specific sugars); taste-receptor map incorrect, 115–16; vocabulary for, 114, 117, 118; of water, 122–23; water solubility and, 68, 119. See also flavor; sapictive receptors; sapid compounds; trigeminal receptors; and specific foods and compounds

terpenes, 151, 165–66

Terrien, Patrick, 231, 234

tetrahedrons, 40, 41, 42

texture, 56, 59–60. See also consistency

texturing agents. See gelling agents; thickening agents

Thénard, Louis-Jacques, 235

thickening agents, 62–63, 90t, 94–99, 139–40, 212, 214. See also specific agents

tinctures (infusions), 154

Tirel, Guillaume. See Taillevent

titanium dioxide, 78–79, 176, 181

tomatoes, 31, 180, 231

tongue, taste-receptors on, 115–16, 119. See also sapictive receptors

Les Tontons flingueurs (Crooks in Clover, 1963 film), 88

topology, 47–48, 48

toxicity: of additives and compounds, 14, 30–31, 124, 125–26; adulterated foods, 219; bitterness and, 118, 145; concentration (dosage) and, 206; of copper sulfate, 93–94; determining ADI, 176–77, 220; of hydrogen sulfide, 132, 213; of intense sweeteners, 141; Internet unreliable regarding, 206–8; of methanol, 139; of mineral salts, 123–24; of odorant compounds, 158–59; of plants and essential oils, 206–9; risk of, when synthesizing compounds, 213–14; of spices, 31, 158, 207, 209; of traditional foods, 14, 24, 31, 99, 209. See also carcinogens; safety

traditional cooking: creating new dishes, 37, 38–39; defined, 20; dependent on season, land, and regional tradition, 185–86; disappearance feared, 24, 32–33; energy costs of, 33, 222–23; and gelatin, 60; with gels, 63; imparting consistency through, 89 (see also emulsions; gelling agents); innovations in, 188t, 189; with liquid nitrogen, 31; love as aspect of, 1, 2–3; names of dishes, 193–98, 222–23; over- and under-cooking, 55; and the perception of flavor, 23; replacement inevitable, 204; and shape and form, 38–40; technical aspect of, 1–2. See also cooking as art; food; heat; and specific foods and ingredients

trans-2-hexanal, 163

trigeminal nerve, 138–39, 160

trigeminal receptors, 28, 169–70

trigeminal sensations, 28, 47, 169–71, 174

triglycerides, 9, 71, 81, 148, 203

tryptophan, 130, 131. See also amino acids

tyrosine, 117, 120, 130, 131. See also amino acids

valine, 130, 131. See also amino acids

vanilla: adding to unaged alcohols, 21; compounds in, 10, 15–16, 170–71; extracts, 216; manufacturing process, 15; odor of, 46, 153, 160. See also vanillin

vanillin, 167; from lignin, 16, 21, 219; as main compound in vanilla, 10, 15–16; molecular structure, 153; natural and synthetic identical, 10, 16; synthesized, 152–53, 155

vauquelin, 229–30, 235

Vauquelin, Louis-Nicholas, 236

vegetable carbon, 179

vegetables: browning of, 182–83; cellulose in, 97; chlorophylls in, 177–78; colors of, 19, 179–80; dimensional formula for, 85; extracting compounds from, 34; fractions more lucrative than, 35; as gels, 63; as non-Hookean solid, 68; not “natural,” 11–12, 156; resinoids from, 154; safety of wild vegetables, 205; selective breeding and, 12; sugars in, 92, 133, 134, 139–40; toxic risks, 31; vitamins in, 218–19.See also conglomèle; and specific vegetables

vinaigrette, 107t, 194, 197

vinegar: acidity of, 10, 17–18, 126, 127 (see also acetic acid); in traditional cooking, 75, 135–36, 179, 194, 197; uses, in dimensional cooking, 107; uses, in note-by-note cooking, 107t, 135–36, 179, 180, 232. See also vinaigrette

viscosity, 60, 72–74, 73, 222. See also emulsions; gelling agents; gels; mayonnaise; thickening agents

visual perception, 28, 39, 54, 55, 172–74. See also color

vitamins, 30, 204, 218. See also ascorbic acid

Wahl, O. L., 56–58

water: aqueous solutions as, 68; as compound, 9, 10; in dispersed systems, 77–78, 77t; diving into, 56; extracting compounds with, 145–46; minerals in, 122–23; molecular structure, 9, 10, 17, 18, 18–19; and odorant compounds, 159; odors released in, 151; and pastis, 167; properties of, 16–17, 66, 72, 74; synthesizing, 10; tasting compounds in, 145; used in food manufacturing, 26; water-based gels, 83–84; water content of food, 27, 30, 62; water-soluble compounds, 27, 36, 69, 82

wheat, 26, 27, 214. See also flour

whipped cream, 72, 95

wholesomeness, 14, 89, 157, 220. See also nutrition; safety

wine: additives, 8, 124, 125–26; adulteration of, 6–8, 14, 124; as aqueous solution, 80; bouquet, 150; color of, 173; compounds used in wine-making, 125, 129, 133; fractionation of, 214; more profitable than grapes, 35; oenological tannins, 181, 229; wine reduction, 33