ALETHINOPHIDIA: AFROPHIDIA: CAENOPHIDIA
Out of Africa: Recent Snakes

The Caenophidia (Caeno = new, recent; -ophidia = snakes) are the Recent Snakes, containing almost 3,000 species, 82 percent of all living snakes. The Caenophidia contains two superfamilies: the Acrochordoidea, containing only the three species in the family Acrochordidae, genus Acrochordus, and the Colubroidea, containing eleven families.

The largest family in the Colubroidea is the Colubridae (> 860 species), which dominates North America, Europe, and Asia but is less well represented in the southern continents. The Natricidae (> 220 species) are similarly distributed. The Dipsadidae (> 750 species) dominate Central and South America, with representatives in North America and Tibet, while the Lamprophiidae (> 300 species) inhabit Africa and Madagascar, with representative species in Europe and Asia. Endemic Southeast Asia families include Pseudoxenodontidae (11 species), Pareatidae (21 species), and Xenodermatidae (18 species). The Homalopsidae (55 species) inhabit Asia and Australasia, and the Sibynophiidae (11 species) are Asian and American. The Elapidae (> 360 species) inhabit the Americas, Africa, and Asia, and they are the dominant family of Australasia and the Pacific and Indian Oceans. The Viperidae (> 330 species) inhabit the Americas, Europe, Africa, and Asia.

ACROCHORDUS ARAFURAE
ARAFURA FILESNAKE

MCDOWELL, 1979

ADULT LENGTH
Male
3 ft 3 in–4 ft (1.0–1.2 m)

Female
4 ft 7 in–5 ft 7 in, rarely 8 ft 2 in–10 ft 1.4–1.7 m, rarely 2.5–3.0 m

The large, freshwater-dwelling Arafura Filesnake is found in northern Australia, particularly Kakadu, and southern New Guinea, in the Trans-Fly. It is fully aquatic and helpless on land. The loose, flabby skin of the Arafura Filesnake is covered in sensory tubercles that also assist the snake in maintaining a grip on its captured prey while it repositions it for swallowing. Arafura Filesnakes can swallow large fish such as barramundi or catfish. They swim well but they are sluggish, spending much time hunting or sheltering in the submerged roots of screw palms or other aquatic trees. In northern Australia, aboriginal women hunt filesnakes for food, feeling for them with their feet, while in southern New Guinea their skins are used on traditional kundu drums.

RELATED SPECIES

The closest relative of Acrochordus arafurae is the marine-adapted Little Filesnake (A. granulatus), although it more closely resembles the other freshwater species, the Javan Filesnake (A. javanicus) of Southeast Asia. A 10 ft (3 m) extinct freshwater fossil species (A. dehmi) is also known to have inhabited Asia during the Miocene, 6.35 million years ago.

FAMILY	Acrochordidae
RISK FACTOR	Nonvenomous
DISTRIBUTION	Australasia: southern New Guinea and northern Australia
ELEVATION	0–98 ft (0–30 m) asl
HABITAT	Freshwater lagoons, billabongs, creeks, slow-moving rivers, and swamps
DIET	Freshwater fish
REPRODUCTION	Viviparous, with litters of 11–25 neonates
CONSERVATION STATUS	IUCN Least Concern

The Arafura Filesnake is a bulky, flabby, tuberculate-skinned aquatic snake with a large head, small eyes, dorsally positioned, valvular nostrils, and a long prehensile tail. Coloration is generally yellow-brown or red-brown with a pattern of dark brown or black reticulations and pale spots ventrolaterally, although the patterning becomes obscured in adult specimens. The undersides are off-white or light brown.

ACROCHORDUS GRANULATUS
LITTLE FILESNAKE

(SCHNEIDER, 1799)

ADULT LENGTH
Male
2 ft 7 in–3 ft 3 in (0.8–1.0 m)

Female
3–4 ft, rarely 5 ft 2 in (0.9–1.2 m, rarely 1.6 m)

The Little Filesnake is the smallest and only marine member of the genus Acrochordus, and the most widely distributed. It occurs along the Asian coast from Pakistan to China, and the Indo-Australian Archipelago to New Guinea, northern Australia, and the Solomon Islands. It inhabits turbid river mouths, estuaries, mudflats, and mangrove swamps, but it is also found on coral reefs and it travels many miles upstream in tidal rivers, to enter freshwater rivers and lakes. It preys on small fish, mostly gobies such as mudskippers. The flabby, loose-skinned body and lack of ventral scales make this snake helpless on land, but in the ocean it flattens its body like a ribbon and swims effortlessly. The tubercles on the skin are sensory and also help the Little Filesnake grip its slippery prey.

RELATED SPECIES

The only other living relatives of Acrochordus granulatus are the two freshwater species, the Arafura Filesnake (A. arafurae) and the Javan Filesnake (A. javanicus), the Arafura Filesnake being its closest relative.

FAMILY	Acrochordidae
RISK FACTOR	Nonvenomous
DISTRIBUTION	Asia and Australasia: Pakistan to China, Malaysia, Indonesia, the Philippines, New Guinea, northern Australia, and Solomon Islands
ELEVATION	295 ft (90 m) asl to −66 ft (−20 m) bsl
HABITAT	Estuaries, river mouths, tidal rivers, mudflats, mangrove swamps, and coral reefs
DIET	Marine fish
REPRODUCTION	Viviparous, with litters of 1–12 neonates
CONSERVATION STATUS	IUCN Least Concern

The Little Filesnake is instantly recognizable due to its loose-fitting, rough, tuberculate skin. The head is small, the eyes are small, and the nostrils are dorsally located for breathing at the surface and valvular to prevent water entry. The tail is prehensile for gripping vegetation. Coloration may be uniform brown but many specimens are banded gray, brown, black, or reddish.

AHAETULLA NASUTA
LONG-NOSED VINESNAKE

(BONNATERRE, 1790)

ADULT LENGTH
5 ft–6 ft 7 in (1.5–2.0 m)

The Long-nosed Vinesnake is diurnal and highly arboreal, hunting in the tangled vegetation of rainforests or gardens. Prey includes frogs, lizards, small birds, and small mammals in the case of larger specimens. Hunting by stealth, this camouflaged vinesnake stalks its prey with punctuated movements resembling the movements of the vegetation, and judging distance by sighting up the prey with its horizontal pupils down “gunsight-like” grooves on the elongate snout. Ahaetulla vinesnakes might possess the best vision of any snake. Prey is killed with venom from the rear fangs, but Asian vinesnakes are not dangerous to humans. This species is found in India, Sri Lanka, and mainland Southeast Asia.

RELATED SPECIES

The genus Ahaetulla contains eight species distributed from India to Indonesia and the Philippines. Ahaetulla nasuta has a nasal protuberance, which distinguishes it from all other species, except perhaps the Brown-speckled Vinesnake (A. pulverulenta) of India, Sri Lanka, and Bangladesh. In the Western Ghats these two species occur in sympatry with A. nasuta: Günther’s Vinesnake (A. dispar) and the Western Ghats Vinesnake (A. perroteti).

FAMILY	Colubridae: Ahaetullinae
RISK FACTOR	Rear-fanged, mildly venomous; harmless to humans
DISTRIBUTION	South and Southeast Asia: India, Sri Lanka, Nepal, Bangladesh, Myanmar, Thailand, Cambodia, Laos, and Vietnam
ELEVATION	0–6,890 ft (0–2,100 m) asl
HABITAT	Lowland and low montane forests, gardens, and secondary growth
DIET	Amphibians, lizards, birds, and small mammals
REPRODUCTION	Viviparous, with litters of 3–23 neonates
CONSERVATION STATUS	IUCN not listed

The Long-nosed Vinesnake is an extremely slender snake with a long tail and an elongate, pointed head with a protruding nasal extension. The eyes have horizontal pupils, which are sighted down a groove on the side of the snout. Coloration ranges from green to brown, often marked with oblique dark stripes on the dorsum and a fine yellow longitudinal stripe on the lower flanks. The undersides are green, yellow, or gray.

AHAETULLA PRASINA
ORIENTAL VINESNAKE

(BOIE, 1827)

ADULT LENGTH
5 ft–6 ft 5 in (1.5–1.95 m)

The Oriental Vinesnake is a common diurnal snake of forest edges and gardens where it hunts lizards and small birds, and possibly frogs or mice. Camouflaged, and possessing excellent vision with its horizontal pupils, it will jerkily stalk its prey. Its venom kills small vertebrates but is harmless to humans. The Oriental Vinesnake occurs from northeast India and Bhutan, to Southeast Asia, southern China, Indonesia, and the Philippines. Ahaetulla is a Singhalese word meaning “eye-plucker,” a reference to the elongate head and body shape.

RELATED SPECIES

Four subspecies are recognized, with the nominate form occupying most of the range, and subspecies in China (Ahaetulla p. medioxima) and the Philippines (A. p. suluensis and A. p. preocularis). This species may be confused with the River Vinesnake (A. fronticincta) of Myanmar, Speckled-headed Vinesnake (A. fasciolata) of Malaysia and Indonesia, or the Malaysian Green Vinesnake (A. mycterizans).

FAMILY	Colubridae: Ahaetullinae
RISK FACTOR	Rear-fanged, mildly venomous; harmless to humans
DISTRIBUTION	South and Southeast Asia: northeast India, Bhutan, Bangladesh, southern China, Myanmar, Thailand, Cambodia, Laos, Vietnam, Malaysia, Indonesia, and the Philippines
ELEVATION	0–4,530 ft (0–1,380 m) asl
HABITAT	Lowland and low montane forest edges, regrowth, and gardens
DIET	Lizards and birds
REPRODUCTION	Viviparous, with litters of 4–10 neonates
CONSERVATION STATUS	IUCN Least Concern

The Oriental Vinesnake is an extremely slender snake with a long tail and an elongate head that terminates in a point. The eyes have horizontal pupils, which are directed down a groove on the side of the snout, enabling the Oriental Vinesnake to see and stalk highly camouflaged prey. Coloration is variable, from green or yellow to brown. Often the lower flanks bear a fine yellow longitudinal stripe. The venter is green, yellow, or gray.

CHRYSOPELEA PARADISI
PARADISE FLYING SNAKE

BOIE, 1827

ADULT LENGTH
3 ft 3 in–5 ft (1.0–1.5 m)

Flying snakes do not actually fly, they glide, but how they achieve this is not well understood. Snakes lack a sternum (breastbone) so they have more mobility in their ribs than mammals, and just as a cobra can expand the ribs of the anterior body to form a hood, the slender and lightweight flying snakes can expand the ribs along the length of the body to form a concave cavity that catches the air when they leap into space and enables them to glide to safety. The Paradise Flying Snake is found throughout Southeast Asia and is one of only three snake species to have recolonized Krakatau since the 1883 eruption. Its weak venom is only powerful enough to kill geckos.

RELATED SPECIES

Chrysopelea paradisi contains three subspecies, the nominate form (C. p. paradisi) throughout most of the range, a Philippine subspecies (C. p. variabilis), and a Sulawesi subspecies (C. p. celebensis). The genus Chrysopelea also contains four other species of flying snakes, the Golden Flying Snake (C. ornata) from India and China to the Philippines; the Twin-barred Flying Snake (C. pelias) from Malaysia and Indonesia; the Moluccan Flying Snake (C. rhodopleuron); and the Sri Lankan Flying Snake (C. taprobanica), which also occurs in India.

FAMILY	Colubridae: Ahaetullinae
RISK FACTOR	Rear-fanged, mildly venomous; harmless to humans
DISTRIBUTION	Southeast Asia: Myanmar, Thailand, Singapore, Andaman Islands, Sumatra, Borneo, Java, Sulawesi, and the Philippines
ELEVATION	0–5,000 ft (0–1,525 m) asl
HABITAT	Lowland and low montane rainforest, dry forest
DIET	Lizards
REPRODUCTION	Oviparous, with clutches of 5–8 eggs
CONSERVATION STATUS	IUCN Least Concern

The Paradise Flying Snake is slender-bodied with obliquely arranged smooth scales, a long tail, an elongate head, large eyes, and round pupils. Every dorsal scale is emerald green or yellow, but black-edged, the overall result being a stunning reticulate pattern of black and green or yellow. The green or yellow venter is also sutured with black. A vivid series of red or orange spots is often present, forming a punctuated longitudinal stripe. The head may bear four pale, black-edged transverse bars, and a black stripe passes through the eye and along the supralabials.

DENDRELAPHIS CALLIGASTRA
COCONUT TREESNAKE

(GÜNTHER, 1867)

ADULT LENGTH
3 ft 3 in–4 ft 3 in (1.0–1.3 m)

Also called the Northern Treesnake in Australia, the Coconut Treesnake is most frequently encountered in coastal or island bush, or coconut plantations, but it also occurs in highland gardens. It has a preference for open sunny habitats rather than closed-canopy forest. The keels on the outer edges of its ventral scales enable it to scale vertical coconut palms with ease, and it uses its long tail as an anchorage when attempting to bridge gaps. This is a widely distributed species found in New Guinea, the Solomon Islands, northeastern Cape York Peninsula, Queensland, and the Moluccas of Indonesia. A relatively gracile snake, the alert, diurnal Coconut Treesnake feeds on frogs, skinks, geckos, reptile eggs, and small agamid lizards, which are actively hunted and chased down, or captured while they sleep.

RELATED SPECIES

(Dendrelaphis calligastra) currently includes the former Solomons Treesnake (D. solomonis), but it may be a species-complex containing several cryptic geographical species. Several other treesnake species occur in sympatry with D. calligastra in New Guinea, the Montane treesnake (D. gastrostictus); Side-striped Treesnake (D. lineolatus); Lorentz’s Treesnake (D. lorentzi), and Big-eyed Treesnake (D. macrops), while it occurs alongside the much larger Common Treesnake (D. punctulatus) in Queensland.

FAMILY	Colubridae: Ahaetullinae
RISK FACTOR	Nonvenomous
DISTRIBUTION	Australasia: eastern Indonesia, New Guinea, and the Solomon Islands
ELEVATION	0–3,770 ft (0–1,150 m) asl
HABITAT	Coastal bush, coconut plantations, gardens, and islands
DIET	Frogs and lizards
REPRODUCTION	Oviparous, with clutches of 5–8 eggs
CONSERVATION STATUS	IUCN Least Concern

The Coconut Treesnake is a slender snake with obliquely arranged, smooth scales, a long prehensile tail, an elongate head that is only slightly distinct from the neck, large eyes, and round pupils. It is bronze-brown to olive above with light blue interstitial skin, which shows between the scales when the snake moves. It is pale yellow to white below anteriorly, light gray posteriorly, and a black stripe passes from the snout, through the eye and back onto the anterior body, before fading out.

DENDRELAPHIS TRISTIS
COMMON INDIAN BRONZEBACK

(DAUDIN, 1803)

ADULT LENGTH
2 ft 7 in–3 ft 3 in, rarely 5 ft 2 in (0.8–1.0 m, rarely 1.6 m)

Asian members of the diurnal treesnake genus Dendrelaphis are usually known as bronzebacks, as many have brown dorsums. The Common Indian Bronzeback can be found throughout the Indian subcontinent from Sri Lanka to Nepal, and Pakistan to Myanmar. It occurs in a wide variety of wooded or forested habitats, both native rainforest and man-made plantations, and is also found in gardens or on lone-standing trees. It is a common sight, hunting primarily frogs, but also small lizards and birds, during the day, but if it stops moving it blends into its surroundings perfectly with its slender body and cryptic patterning. Bronzebacks climb well due to a pair of ridged keels along either side of the ventral scales. They are nonvenomous and rarely bite, even if handled.

RELATED SPECIES

Dendrelaphis contains 45 species distributed throughout South and Southeast Asia, and also Australasia. The Asian species are called bronzebacks but the Australasian species are usually just called treesnakes; for example, the Coconut Treesnake (D. calligastra). The species most closely related to D. tristis are the Karnataka Bronzeback (D. chairecacos), from the Western Ghats, and Schokar’s Bronzeback (D. schokari), from southern India and Sri Lanka.

FAMILY	Colubridae: Ahaetulliinae
RISK FACTOR	Nonvenomous
DISTRIBUTION	South Asia: India, Sri Lanka, Pakistan, Nepal, Bangladesh, and Myanmar
ELEVATION	0–6,560 ft (0–2,000 m) asl
HABITAT	Most wooded habitats, plantations, riverine forest, etc.
DIET	Frogs, lizards, and birds
REPRODUCTION	Oviparous, with clutches of 6–8 eggs
CONSERVATION STATUS	IUCN not listed

The Common Indian Bronzeback is a slender snake with obliquely arranged, smooth scales, a long whiplike tail, and an angular, elongate head, only slightly distinct from the neck, with large eyes and round pupils. It is rich red or bronze-brown above and brownish gray below, the two colors separated by a distinctive white lateral stripe that extends forward through the supralabials, under the eye, to the snout. The interstitial skin of the neck is pale blue, exposed when the snake inflates its throat in a defensive display.

DRYOPHIOPS RUBESCENS
KEEL-BELLIED WHIPSNAKE

(GRAY, 1835)

ADULT LENGTH
2 ft 5 in–3 ft 3 in, occasionally 4 ft (0.75–1.0 m, occasionally 1.2 m)

The Keel-bellied Whipsnake is an extremely slender, vine-like snake that inhabits lowland rainforest and forest-edge situations. It occurs in both primary and secondary rainforest and also enters gardens. It is diurnally active and highly arboreal in behavior, although it is often found in bushes relatively low to the ground. Its prey consists of small lizards; it uses acute vision, due to its horizontal pupils, to locate them, and venom, injected via its rear fangs, to kill them. The Keel-bellied Whipsnake is docile when handled and its venom is harmless to humans. Often several males will court a single female, the males being smaller with darker heads. Being a slender-bodied snake the female only lays small clutches of two to three eggs.

RELATED SPECIES

A second species, the Philippine Whipsnake (Dryophiops philippina), occurs in the central and northern Philippines. Member of this genus are similar in appearance to the Asian vinesnakes (Ahaetulla), although they do not possess the long pointed snout of the vinesnakes.

FAMILY	Colubridae: Ahaetullinae
RISK FACTOR	Rear-fanged, mildly venomous
DISTRIBUTION	Southeast Asia: southern Thailand, Cambodia, Peninsular Malaysia, Singapore, Sumatra, Java, and Borneo
ELEVATION	0–1,640 ft (0–500 m) asl
HABITAT	Lowland forests and forest edges
DIET	Lizards
REPRODUCTION	Oviparous, with clutches of 2–3 eggs
CONSERVATION STATUS	IUCN Least Concern

The Keel-bellied Whipsnake is an extremely elongate and slender snake with smooth dorsal scales, keeled ventral scales, a long tail, and an elongate head, distinct from the neck, with moderately large eyes and horizontal pupils. The head and body are red-brown to gray-brown, patterned with numerous small light and dark flecks, while the head bears dark streak markings, and a dark stripe passes through the eye to the postocular area. The venter is yellow or olive-brown.

CALAMARIA LUMBRICOIDEA
VARIABLE REEDSNAKE

BOIE, 1827

ADULT LENGTH
233/4–251/4 in (600–640 mm)

The genus Calamaria contains 61 species and is the largest genus in the endemic Southeast Asian subfamily Calamariinae, which also contains six other genera. At up to 251/4 in (640 mm) in length, the Variable Reedsnake is one of the largest species of Calamaria, most others being under 153/4 in (400 mm), and many under 73/4 in (200 mm). A terrestrial snake, it inhabits leaf litter in lowland and low montane rainforest, and is also sometimes found in gardens, provided they are close to less disturbed habitats. Prey recorded for this species ranges from earthworms to insect larvae, but it achieves a size where it may also prey upon smaller snakes. It is oviparous, like all reedsnakes, but its clutch size is unknown.

RELATED SPECIES

Calamaria lumbricoidea is, as its common name suggests, a very variable species across its considerable range, which overlaps with the ranges of many other reedsnakes with which it may be confused. The juvenile patterning may also mimic the highly venomous Red-headed Krait (Bungarus flaviceps), or the Blue Long-glanded Coralsnake (Calliophis bivirgata). At one time the juvenile morphotype was described as a separate species, Calamaria bungaroides, due to this close resemblance.

FAMILY	Colubridae: Calamariinae
RISK FACTOR	Nonvenomous
DISTRIBUTION	Southeast Asia: Thailand, Peninsular Malaysia, Singapore, Sumatra, Java, Borneo, and the Philippines
ELEVATION	655–5,500 ft (200–1,676 m) asl
HABITAT	Lowland and low montane rainforest
DIET	Earthworms and insect larvae
REPRODUCTION	Oviparous, clutch size unknown
CONSERVATION STATUS	IUCN Least Concern

The Variable Reedsnake is a small, fairly robust snake with smooth scales, a narrow head, and small eyes. The dorsum is black with narrow white or yellow rings, while the venter is the reverse, being yellow with black bands. The juvenile has a red or orange head but this becomes darker brown with increased maturity.

CALAMARIA SCHLEGELI
RED-HEADED REEDSNAKE

DUMÉRIL, BIBRON & DUMÉRIL, 1854

ADULT LENGTH
153/4–173/4 in (400–450 mm)

This reedsnake is also sometimes called the Pink-headed or White-headed Reedsnake, given its variable head coloration. It is just one of many reedsnake species that inhabit the lowland rainforests of peninsular Thailand and Malaysia, Singapore, and the islands of Sundaland (Sumatra, Borneo, Java, and Bali). Reedsnakes are terrestrial leaf-litter dwellers that feed on invertebrates and small vertebrates, and the Red-headed Reedsnake has been recorded to feed on small frogs and slugs. These small snakes are also the prey of many larger, ophiophagous snakes such as kraits (Bungarus) and coralsnakes (Calliophis). This species was named in honor of the noted German naturalist and herpetologist Hermann Schlegel (1804–84), who worked for the Rijksmuseum van Natuurlijke Historie in Leiden at the time when large collections were being made in the Dutch East Indies.

RELATED SPECIES

Two subspecies are recognized, the nominate form (Calamaria schlegeli schlegeli) from Thailand, Peninsular Malaysia, Singapore, Sumatra, and Borneo, which exhibits a brightly colored head, and a second form (C. s. cuvieri) from Java and Bali that has a dark brown head. It may be confused with the juvenile of the Variable Reedsnake (C. lumbricoidea), which also has a red head.

FAMILY	Colubridae: Calamariinae
RISK FACTOR	Nonvenomous
DISTRIBUTION	Southeast Asia: Thailand, Peninsular Malaysia, Singapore, Sumatra, Java, Bali, and Borneo
ELEVATION	0–5,250 ft (0–1,600 m) asl
HABITAT	Lowland rainforest
DIET	Frogs and slugs
REPRODUCTION	Oviparous, clutch size unknown
CONSERVATION STATUS	IUCN Least Concern

The Red-headed Reedsnake is a small, slender snake with smooth scales, a head no wider than the neck, and small eyes. The dorsum is black or dark brown, the venter is yellow or white without other markings, and the head and neck are red, pink, white, or brown.

MACROCALAMUS TWEEDIEI
TWEEDIE’S MOUNTAIN REEDSNAKE

LIM, 1963

ADULT LENGTH
173/4–193/4 in (450–500 mm)

The montane Macrocalamus tend to be more localized in their distribution than their numerous and widely distributed relatives in the genus Calamaria (shown here). All seven species are endemic to the Malay Peninsula. Tweedie’s Mountain Reedsnake inhabits the leaf litter of low montane rainforest in the Cameron and Genting Highlands of Pahang state, Malaysia, as do most of its congeners. Its diet in the wild is unknown, but in captivity it takes geckos, while Chanard’s Mountain Reedsnake (M. chanardi) feeds on earthworms, slugs, and insect larvae. The reproductive strategy of Tweedie’s Reedsnake is also undocumented, but presumed to be oviparous. Michael Tweedie (1907–93) was a Singapore-based British naturalist and Raffles Museum director, who specialized in the reptiles, fish, and crabs of Malaysia.

RELATED SPECIES

Macrocalamus contains seven species of montane reedsnakes, of which M. tweediei is the second largest at 193/4 in (500 mm), exceeded only by Jason’s Reedsnake (M. jasoni) at 291/2 in (750 mm). Macrocalamus tweediei appears similar to Schultz’s Mountain Reedsnake (M. schultzi), which is brown rather than black, or the black and yellow Genting Highlands Reedsnake (M. gentingensis).

FAMILY	Colubridae: Calamariinae
RISK FACTOR	Nonvenomous
DISTRIBUTION	Southeast Asia: Peninsular Malaysia
ELEVATION	4,920–6,460 ft (1,500–1,970 m) asl
HABITAT	Low montane rainforest
DIET	Unknown, possibly earthworms, mollusks, insects, or geckos
REPRODUCTION	Presumed oviparous, clutch size unknown
CONSERVATION STATUS	IUCN Least Concern

Tweedie’s Mountain Reedsnake is a robustly built snake with a small head and small eyes, smooth scales, and a short tail. It is shiny black above and checkerboard black and yellow below, the yellow pigment of the throat and neck extending onto the lower flanks of the anterior body, and onto the supralabials.

PSEUDORABDION LONGICEPS
SHARP-NOSED DWARF REEDSNAKE

(CANTOR, 1847)

ADULT LENGTH
73/4–9 in (200–230 mm)

The Dwarf Reedsnakes of genus Pseudorabdion are small snakes of less than 113/4 in (300 mm) in length, the Sharp-nosed Dwarf Reedsnake achieving up to 9 in (230 mm). This species is found on the Malay Peninsula, and on Sumatra and Borneo and several other archipelagos, but reports of its occurrence on Sulawesi are thought to be erroneous. It is an inhabitant of lowland rainforest with specimens also collected in rice paddies and plantations, although it has been suggested they may have been carried there with floodwater and are not naturally occurring in these man-made microhabitats. The Sharp-nosed Dwarf Reedsnake feeds on earthworms, insects, and insect larvae, which it finds in the leaf litter or subsoil. It is a semi-fossorial species, which is generally active at night. It lays two or three elongate eggs.

RELATED SPECIES

The genus Pseudorabdion contains 15 species distributed across Southeast Asia, with the related genus Rabdion, which contains two species, endemic to Sulawesi. Most of the species of Pseudorabdion have a similar body and head shape and most have narrow or broad collars of white, yellow, or red, but some species are more localized in their distribution, several being endemic to Borneo or smaller island groups from Thailand to the Philippines.

FAMILY	Colubridae: Calamariinae
RISK FACTOR	Nonvenomous
DISTRIBUTION	Southeast Asia: southern Thailand, Peninsular Malaysia, Sumatra, Borneo, Singapore, and Nias, Mentawai, and Riau archipelagos
ELEVATION	0–1,640 ft (0–500 m) asl
HABITAT	Lowland rainforest, rice paddies, and plantations
DIET	Earthworms, insects, and insect larvae
REPRODUCTION	Oviparous, with clutches of 2–3 eggs
CONSERVATION STATUS	IUCN Least Concern

The Sharp-nosed Dwarf Reedsnake is a small, slender snake with a long, pointed head, indistinct from the neck, and smooth scales. It is iridescent black above and brown below, the only markings being a thin white or yellow collar around the neck.

ARCHELAPHE BELLA
ELEGANT RATSNAKE

(STANLEY, 1917)

ADULT LENGTH
2 ft 7 in–3 ft 3 in (0.8–1.0 m)

The Elegant Ratsnake is a very poorly known species. It inhabits low to mid-montane rainforest habitats and is rare and secretive. Very little is known regarding its natural history, although captive specimens have been maintained and bred in Russia. Captive specimens fed on mice, but the Elegant Ratsnake’s prey preferences in nature are unknown. Even its taxonomic position has been the source of confusion because it was included in the racer genus Coluber, the ratsnake genus Elaphe, the smooth snake genus Coronella, the kukri snake genus Oligodon, and the genus Maculophis, before Archelaphe. Arch means early and -elaphe means ratsnake, an indication that this species is considered to represent a primitive form of ratsnake.

RELATED SPECIES

Two subspecies are recognized, the nominate form (Archelaphe bella bella) from India, China, and Myanmar, and a Vietnamese subspecies (A. b. chapaensis), which may also occur in Laos. The closest relatives of A. bella are thought to be green ratsnakes (Gonyosoma), trinket snakes (Elaphe), and East Asian ratsnakes (Euprepiophis).

FAMILY	Colubridae: Colubrinae
RISK FACTOR	Nonvenomous, constrictor
DISTRIBUTION	Southeast Asia: northeast India, southern China, Myanmar, Laos, and Vietnam
ELEVATION	3,280–9,840 ft (1,000–3,000 m) asl
HABITAT	Low to mid-montane forests
DIET	Not known
REPRODUCTION	Oviparous, with clutches of 6 eggs
CONSERVATION STATUS	IUCN not listed

The Elegant Ratsnake is a smooth-scaled, cylindrical snake with a dorsoventrally compressed, blunt-snouted head, relatively small eyes and round pupils. The overall coloration is red to pink with a series of pale to bright yellow bands around the body, some of which fork on the flanks to form a chain-link pattern, and all of which are edged with black. The head is pale at the front, with an elongate red, dorsal, V-shaped marking surrounded by pale pigment, and red postocular stripes. The undersides are marked with a checkerboard of black and yellow.

ARGYROGENA FASCIOLATA
BANDED RACER

(SHAW, 1802)

ADULT LENGTH
251/2–291/2 in, rarely 4 ft 3 in (650–750 mm, rarely 1.3 m)

The Banded Racer is usually only banded as a juvenile, the adults being more uniform in color. This is a common and fast-moving inhabitant of plains and low hills, being found in woodlands, parks, and gardens. It prefers dense brush, rock piles, and areas with many rodent burrows, where it hunts mice and rats as an adult, killing them by constriction, although juveniles feed more on insects, lizards, and frogs. Shrews and bats are also eaten. The Banded Racer is found throughout peninsular India (except the extreme southeast), Pakistan, Sri Lanka, and Bangladesh, but reports from Nepal are unproven. When it feels threatened it will raise its body and flatten its neck into a narrow hood, leading to it being mistaken for an Indian Cobra (Naja naja).

RELATED SPECIES

The genus Argyrogena only contains one other species, the little-known Stripe-tailed Racer A. vittacaudata from Darjeeling and West Bengal. Apart from the Indian Cobra (Naja naja), A. fasciolata also resembles a small Dharman Ratsnake (Ptyas mucosa).

FAMILY	Colubridae: Colubrinae
RISK FACTOR	Nonvenomous, constrictor
DISTRIBUTION	South Asia: India, Pakistan, Sri Lanka, and Bangladesh
ELEVATION	0–82 ft (0–25 m) asl
HABITAT	Lowland plains, forests, parks, and gardens, with dense brush, rock piles, or rodent burrows
DIET	Insects, frogs, lizards, and small mammals
REPRODUCTION	Oviparous, with clutches of 2–7 eggs
CONSERVATION STATUS	IUCN not listed

The Banded Racer is a relatively muscular snake with smooth scales, a head slightly distinct from the neck, moderately large eyes with round pupils, and a rounded snout. Juveniles are brown with distinctive fine black and white bands, whereas adults are uniform brown to red-brown with a white or yellowish venter.

ARIZONA ELEGANS
GLOSSY SNAKE

KENNICOTT, 1859

ADULT LENGTH
2 ft 7 in–3 ft 3 in, rarely 5 ft 7 in (0.8–1.0 m, rarely 1.7 m)

The Glossy Snake has a very patchy distribution with numerous subspecies isolated from one another over a large swath of southwestern USA and northern Mexico. The northernmost population just enters southern Nebraska, while the southernmost extent of its range is Aguascalientes and northern Jalisco, Mexico. This is a snake of arid habitats, ranging from desert to thorny scrubland, chaparral, grassland, and rocky habitats, often in extremely hot locations, provided the substrate is loose sand or loam. It primarily hunts lizards but will also take rodents, small snakes, or birds. Prey captured on the surface is constricted but the Glossy Snake also spends a lot of time exploring subterranean burrows, where it kills prey by squeezing it against the burrow walls, there being insufficient room to apply its constricting coils.

RELATED SPECIES

Arizona elegans comprises eight subspecies, the Texas (A. e. arenicola), Mohave (A. e. candida), Desert (A. e. eburnata), Kansas (A. e. elegans), Chihuahuan (A. e. expolita), Arizona (A. e. noctivaga), California (A. e. occidentalis), and Painted Desert Glossy Snake (A. e. philipi), while a second species, the Peninsular Glossy Snake (A. pacata), a former subspecies, is found in southern Baja California.

FAMILY	Colubridae: Colubrinae
RISK FACTOR	Nonvenomous, constrictor
DISTRIBUTION	North America: southwestern USA and northern Mexico
ELEVATION	0–6,000 ft (0–1,830 m) asl
HABITAT	Desert, thornbush scrub, chaparral, creosote–mesquite scrub, grasslands, oak–hickory woodland, and rocky valleys, with loose sandy or loamy substrates
DIET	Lizards and small mammals, occasionally snakes, birds, or insects
REPRODUCTION	Oviparous, with clutches of 3–23 eggs
CONSERVATION STATUS	IUCN Least Concern, protected in Kansas and Utah

The Glossy Snake is a moderately slender snake with a head just distinct from the neck, and moderately large eyes with round pupils. Its scales are smooth with a highly glossy appearance. Patterning shows geographical variation but is usually gray or brown above, with a series of paler or darker middorsal rhomboid blotches or transdorsal cross-bars, while the undersides and lower flanks are off-white to pale gray or brown, without any markings. A black stripe passes over the head, through the eyes, and back to the angle of the jaw.

BOGERTOPHIS SUBOCULARIS
TRANS-PECOS RATSNAKE

(BROWN, 1901)

ADULT LENGTH
4 ft 7 in–5 ft 7 in, rarely 6 ft (1.4–1.7, rarely 1.8 m)

The Trans-Pecos Ratsnake is primarily a north Mexican species, from the Chihuahuan Desert in Durango, north to southern Texas and New Mexico in the United States. This is a large, nocturnal, desert-adapted species that is rarely seen. The Trans-Pecos Ratsnake was a holy grail for herpetologists visiting southwestern Texas, where most specimens are encountered on desert roads at night. A powerful constrictor, it preys on lizards, birds, and rodents. Male Trans-Pecos Ratsnakes will pursue a female and bite her repeatedly during courtship, and even during mating. This species is unique in that it has a host–parasite relationship with one particular species of tick, known only from this ratsnake, that congregates in large numbers on the dorsum of the snake’s tail. Charles Mitchell Bogert (1908–92) was an American herpetologist.

RELATED SPECIES

A second species is recognized in the genus Bogertophis, the Baja California Ratsnake (B. rosaliae), which lacks the dark patterning of its congener. Two subspecies are recognized, a northern subspecies (Bogertophis subocularis subocularis) and a southern subspecies (B. s. amplinotus). Bogertophis subocularis is related to the glossy snakes (Arizona), king- and milksnakes (Lampropeltis), and ratsnakes (Pantherophis, Pseudelaphe, and Senticolis).

FAMILY	Colubridae: Colubrinae
RISK FACTOR	Nonvenomous, constrictor
DISTRIBUTION	North America: southwestern USA and northern Mexico
ELEVATION	1,480–5,910 ft (450–1,800 m) asl
HABITAT	Arid and semiarid rocky habitats, from sandy grassland and creosote bush, mesquite or cacti desert lowlands, to arid oak or cedar woodland at higher elevations
DIET	Lizards, birds, and small mammals
REPRODUCTION	Oviparous, with clutches of 3–14 eggs
CONSERVATION STATUS	IUCN Least Concern

The Trans-Pecos Ratsnake is a slender, muscular snake with a long tail, weakly keeled scales, and an angular, slightly pointed head. The eyes have vertically elliptical pupils. Coloration is buff or tan with a pair of dark, longitudinal paravertebral stripes, which may be broken, and which are conjoined at intervals by H-shaped transverse blotches. The genus Bogertophis is characterized by a row of subocular scales under the eyes.

BOIGA CYANEA
GREEN CATSNAKE

(DUMÉRIL, BIBRON & DUMÉRIL, 1854)

ADULT LENGTH
5–6 ft (1.5–1.87 m)

One of the most spectacular members of a spectacular genus, the Green Catsnake is a vividly colored snake. When it threatens, it opens its mouth widely to gape, exposing the black lining, which contrasts with its emerald green body and gray eyes. This is a widely distributed species found from the southern Himalayas of Bhutan to the Malay Peninsula and the Nicobar Islands, in the Andaman Sea. It is highly arboreal and nocturnal, inhabiting pristine and disturbed rainforest habitat, both lowland and low montane. Prey preferences include most vertebrates, from frogs and lizards to birds and their eggs, rodents, and other snakes. The Green Catsnake is a rear-fanged venomous species that uses its venom to subdue prey, combined with constriction, but it is not considered dangerous to humans.

RELATED SPECIES

The genus Boiga contains 33–35 species, mostly distributed through South and Southeast Asia, but one species, the Brown Treesnake (B. irregularis) occurs in New Guinea and northern Australia. Boiga cyanea is most similar in appearance to the Banded Green Catsnake (B. saengsomi) from southern Thailand.

FAMILY	Colubridae: Colubrinae
RISK FACTOR	Rear-fanged, mildly venomous; harmless to humans
DISTRIBUTION	South and Southeast Asia: northeastern India, Bangladesh, Bhutan, Myanmar, Thailand, Peninsular Malaysia, Nicobar Islands, Cambodia, Laos, Vietnam, and southern China
ELEVATION	490–6,890 ft (150–2,100 m) asl
HABITAT	Lowland to low montane rainforest, including secondary growth
DIET	Frogs, lizards, birds and their eggs, small mammals, and other snakes
REPRODUCTION	Oviparous, with clutches of 4–10 eggs
CONSERVATION STATUS	IUCN not listed

The Green Catsnake is a slender snake with a laterally compressed, muscular body, a long prehensile tail, and a large, rounded head with large bulging eyes and vertically elliptical, catlike pupils. The scales are smooth and arranged in oblique rows. It is bright emerald green, contrasting with the black of the interstitial skin and the pale gray of the iris. The undersides are yellow-green while the throat may be white or pale blue. Juveniles are red-brown except for the head, which is green.

BOIGA DENDROPHILA
MANGROVE SNAKE

(BOIE, 1827)

ADULT LENGTH
5 ft–8 ft 2 in (1.5–2.5 m)

Also known as the Black-and-Gold Treesnake, the Mangrove Snake is the third largest Boiga, after the 9 ft (2.75 m) Dog-toothed Catsnake (B. cynodon) and the 10 ft (3 m) Brown Treesnake (B. irregularis). A frequent inhabitant of mangrove swamps, and an excellent swimmer, it should not be confused with the unrelated mangrove mudsnakes (Homalopsidae). This large, highly arboreal, nocturnal treesnake also inhabits lowland rainforest and dipterocarp forest. Prey preferences include frogs, lizards, birds, snakes, and mammals, from mice to shrews and mouse-deer. Prey is subdued through a combination of venom, injected with a chewing bite by its rear fangs, and constriction. This species has its own enemies, the King Cobra (Ophiophagus hannah) being a frequent predator. This is a large snake and bites should be avoided.

RELATED SPECIES

Nine subspecies exist, the nominate subspecies being Javan. Other subspecies occur in Borneo (B. d. annectans), the Malay Peninsula and Sumatra (B. d. melanota), Sumatra and Nias (B. d. occidentalis), Sulawesi (B. d. gemmicincta), Palawan (B. d. levitoni), north Philippines (B. d. divergens), central Philippines (B. d. multicincta), and south Philippines (B. d. latifasciata).

FAMILY	Colubridae: Colubrinae
RISK FACTOR	Rear-fanged, mildly venomous
DISTRIBUTION	Southeast Asia: southern Thailand, Cambodia, Vietnam, Malaysia, Singapore, Indonesia (including Borneo), Sumatra, Java, Sulawesi, and the Philippines
ELEVATION	0–1,970 ft (0–600 m) asl
HABITAT	Lowland rainforest, mangrove swamps, and mixed dipterocarp forest
DIET	Frogs, lizards, birds and their eggs, small mammals, and other snakes
REPRODUCTION	Oviparous, with clutches of 4–15 eggs
CONSERVATION STATUS	IUCN not listed

The Mangrove Snake is a large and powerful snake with smooth scales, a long prehensile tail and a large head, distinct from its neck, with large bulbous eyes, and vertically elliptical, catlike pupils. The various subspecies vary considerably, but are generally glossy black, with numerous broad or narrow yellow (occasionally white) rings around the body and tail, and a yellow throat and supralabials, sutured with black. The undersides are dark gray to black and may include the edges of the yellow dorsal markings.

BOIGA IRREGULARIS
BROWN TREESNAKE

(BOIE, 1827)

ADULT LENGTH
Male
6 ft 7 in–8 ft, rarely 10 ft (2.0–2.4 m, rarely 3 m)

Female
6 ft 7 in–7 ft 7 in (2.0–2.3 m)

It is not the native populations of the Brown Treesnake that are under scrutiny, but the introduced population on Guam, in the Mariana Islands. After World War II the Brown Treesnake was accidentally introduced to Guam with military equipment, en route to the continental USA. Today more than one million snakes inhabit the island, and as voracious predators on a previously snake-free island they have eaten several endemic flightless birds into extinction; invaded houses, and inflicted serious (but so far nonfatal) bites to human babies; and caused numerous power outages by entering electrical installations. In its natural range, this species is very common but not a problem, feeding on a range of vertebrate prey and inhabiting many habitats. This is one of the most studied snakes in the world.

RELATED SPECIES

Boiga irregularis cannot be confused with any other species within its range, although the boldly banded specimens from northwestern Australia are sometimes treated as a separate species, the Tiger Catsnake (Boiga fusca). It occurs in sympatry on Sulawesi with the Mangrove Snake (Boiga dendrophila gemmicincta).

FAMILY	Colubridae: Colubrinae
RISK FACTOR	Rear-fanged, venomous
DISTRIBUTION	Southeast Asia and Australasia: eastern Indonesia, northern Australia and New Guinea, the Solomon Islands, and neighboring archipelagos; introduced onto Guam
ELEVATION	0–7,500 ft (0–2,286 m) asl
HABITAT	Rainforest, coastal forest, gardens and other agricultural areas, scrubland, and around human habitations
DIET	Frogs, lizards, birds, and their eggs, small mammals, and other snakes
REPRODUCTION	Oviparous, with clutches of 2–11 eggs
CONSERVATION STATUS	IUCN not listed

The Brown Treesnake is a powerful but relatively slender snake with a long, prehensile tail, smooth, obliquely arranged scales, a large head with bulbous eyes, and vertically elliptical, catlike pupils. It may be yellow, brown, orange, red, or gray, with or without irregular transverse chevron markings and a speckling of darker pigment. Northwestern Australian specimens are boldly banded brown and white. The undersides are immaculate yellow or white, or speckled with darker pigment. A fine brown postocular stripe is present.

CEMOPHORA COCCINEA
SCARLETSNAKE

(BLUMENBACH, 1788)

ADULT LENGTH
193/4–213/4 in, rarely 321/2 in (500–550 mm, rarely 828 mm)

The Scarletsnake is endemic to the United States, being found in every Atlantic state from New Jersey to Florida and west to Oklahoma and Texas. It is found in woodland habitats, from pine to oak and including mixed woodland, usually on loamy soil and with an understory of wiregrass. The principal diet of the Scarletsnake comprises reptile eggs, of both lizards and snakes, including its own species. Small eggs are swallowed whole while large eggs are chewed until the enlarged posterior maxillary teeth can slit the egg open, the snake then feeding on the contents, squeezing them along with its coils. The Scarletsnake cannot break into birds’ eggs but occasionally it will prey on lizards, small snakes, salamanders, small frogs, invertebrates, or even neonate mice.

RELATED SPECIES

Three subspecies are recognized, the Florida Scarletsnake (Cemophora coccinea coccinea), Northern Scarletsnake (C. c. copei), and Texas Scarletsnake (C. c. lineri). The monotypic genus Cemophora is most closely related to the milksnakes and kingsnakes (Lampropeltis). It may also be confused with the Eastern Coralsnake (Micrurus fulvius) or the Texas Coralsnake (M. tener), but the order of the bands should distinguish it; North American coralsnakes have the red and yellow bands in contact while C. coccinea has the red and black bands in contact.

FAMILY	Colubridae: Colubrinae
RISK FACTOR	Nonvenomous
DISTRIBUTION	North America: eastern and southeastern USA
ELEVATION	0–2,460 ft (0–750 m) asl
HABITAT	Pine, hardwood, or pine–oak woodland with a wiregrass understory
DIET	Reptile eggs, also lizards, small snakes, salamanders, small frogs, insects, mollusks, and neonate mice
REPRODUCTION	Oviparous, with clutches of 7–19 eggs
CONSERVATION STATUS	IUCN not listed, threatened in Indiana and Texas, rare in Missouri

The Scarletsnake is a small, slender snake with a narrow, pointed head, only slightly distinct from the neck, small eyes with round pupils, and a short tail. The patterning varies geographically and between subspecies, but is generally pale yellow to off-white with numerous broad red bands, saddles, or patches, sandwiched between narrow black bands. The head is red, followed by a black band and then by yellow and black nape bands. The undersides are white.

CHILOMENISCUS STRAMINEUS
VARIABLE SANDSNAKE

COPE, 1860

ADULT LENGTH
61/2–91/2 in, occasionally 111/4 in (165–240 mm, occasionally 285 mm)

This species was previously known as Chilomeniscus cinctus but the older name C. stramineus takes precedence. It occurs in southern Arizona, USA, and northwestern Sonora, Mexico, and also on the Baja California Peninsula and many of the islands of the Gulf of California, including Tiburon Island. The Variable Sandsnake is a small snake that inhabits arid habitats from desert arroyos and washes to areas dominated by saguaro cactus or thorn scrub. It burrows easily in loose sand and may feed on the surface or underground. It is an accomplished “sand-swimmer,” being able to move quickly for long distances just beneath the surface, leaving S-shaped tracks in its wake. It is most active on wet nights. Prey consists mainly of insects, from ants to cockroaches, but dangerous centipedes are also eaten.

RELATED SPECIES

A second species of Chilomeniscus, the Isla Cerralvo Sandsnake (C. savagei), is endemic to Cerralvo Island, in the southern Gulf of California, Mexico. The closest relatives to Chilomeniscus are the American groundsnakes (Sonora) and the shovelnose snakes (Chionactis), both of which occur in the same region.

FAMILY	Colubridae: Colubrinae
RISK FACTOR	Nonvenomous
DISTRIBUTION	North America: southwestern USA and northwestern Mexico
ELEVATION	0–3,000 ft (0–915 m) asl
HABITAT	Desert arroyos and washes, and rocky uplands including habitats dominated by saguaro cactus, mesquite, creosote, and thornbush
DIET	Cockroaches, ant and termite larvae, and centipedes
REPRODUCTION	Oviparous, with clutches of 2–4 eggs
CONSERVATION STATUS	IUCN not listed

The Variable Sandsnake is a small snake with mostly smooth, glossy scales, a cylindrical body, a short tail, and a narrow, pointed head, indistinct from the neck. The eyes are small. Patterning is variable but commonly this snake is banded orange, yellow, or reddish, alternating with dark brown or black. The bands may completely ring the body, be broken on the pale yellow or white venter, or even be absent. The snout is pale yellow, with a broad black hood over the posterior head and neck.

CHIONACTIS PALAROSTRIS
SONORAN SHOVELNOSE SNAKE

(KLAUBER, 1937)

ADULT LENGTH
93/4–113/4 in, rarely 17 in (250–300 mm, rarely 430 mm)

The Sonoran Shovelnose Snake is poorly known. It occurs from extreme southern Arizona, USA, into Sonora, Mexico, and it inhabits upland desert with vegetation ranging from saguaro cacti to mesquite or creosote bushes, but its natural history is poorly documented. Sonoran Shovelnose Snakes are believed to spend the daylight hours under flat rocks, in rocky crevices or in animal burrows, emerging at night to hunt. The Sonoran Shovelnose Snake is believed to be a less proficient burrower than its relative, the Western Shovelnose Snake (Chionactis occipitalis). The prey of the Sonoran Shovelnose Snake includes spiders, small centipedes, and insects and their larvae. This is a very secretive snake that, if uncovered, will adopt an elevated S-shaped posture and launch repeated strikes at its perceived enemy.

RELATED SPECIES

Two subspecies are recognized, the nominate Sonoran Shovelnose Snake (Chionactis palarostris palarostris) in the south of the range, and the Organ Pipe Shovelnose Snake (C. p. organica) in the north, which includes the US population. The second species, the Western Shovelnose Snake (C. occipitalis), occurs from Arizona to southern Nevada, California, northern Baja California, and Sonora. Shovelnose snakes are closely related to the American sandsnakes (Chilomeniscus) and the American groundsnakes (Sonora).

FAMILY	Colubridae: Colubrinae
RISK FACTOR	Nonvenomous
DISTRIBUTION	North America: southwestern USA and northwestern Mexico
ELEVATION	0–2,490 ft (0–760 m) asl
HABITAT	Upland desert and arroyos with saguaro cactus or mesquite–creosote bush cover
DIET	Insects, centipedes, and spiders
REPRODUCTION	Oviparous, with clutches of 3–5 eggs
CONSERVATION STATUS	IUCN not listed

The Sonoran Shovelnose Snake is a small, cylindrical snake with smooth scales and a short tail, a narrow, pointed head, and small eyes. Patterning consists of broad black bands with broader white or pale yellow interspaces, each with a squarish, red dorsal saddle marking that does not extend below the midline on the flank. The anterior of the head is pale yellow, the posterior being covered by the first black band.

CHIRONIUS EXOLETUS
COMMON SIPO

(LINNAEUS, 1758)

ADULT LENGTH
3 ft 3 in–5 ft (1.0–1.5 m)

The sipos of genus Chironius are some of the few neotropical colubrid snakes that have an even dorsal scale count, with odd scale counts that include a strengthening vertebral row being the norm. The others are tiger ratsnakes (Spilotes), which have 14 or more dorsal scale rows, compared to Chironius which has 12 or fewer. The Common Sipo occurs across most of the range of the genus and is sympatric with several congeners. This species inhabits many forest habitats and also cleared areas. It is a common snake, diurnal, and both arboreal and terrestrial. The Common Sipo preys on frogs and lizards, and takes salamanders in Central America. Although this species is nonvenomous it will bite vigorously if handled, and will draw blood. The word “sipo” may be from the Tupi word cipó, for vine.

RELATED SPECIES

The genus Chironius contains 22 species distributed through northern and central South America and lower Central America, with an endangered species, the St. Vincent Racer (C. vincenti), in the Lesser Antilles. In South America C. exoletus may be confused with the Northern Sipo (C. carinatus), the Atlantic Coastal Sipo (C. bicarinatus), or the Yellow-striped Sipo (C. flavolineatus).

FAMILY	Colubridae: Colubrinae
RISK FACTOR	Nonvenomous
DISTRIBUTION	Central and South America: Costa Rica, Panama, Venezuela, the Guianas, Brazil, Ecuador, Peru, Bolivia, and northern Argentina
ELEVATION	0–7,870 ft (0–2,400 m) asl
HABITAT	Primary and secondary rainforest, forest edge situations, gallery forest, forested creeks, and forest clearings
DIET	Frogs, lizards, and salamanders
REPRODUCTION	Oviparous, with clutches of 4–12 eggs
CONSERVATION STATUS	IUCN not listed

The Common Sipo is a relatively large but slender snake with a slightly laterally compressed body, a long tail, smooth scales (except the paravertebral rows, which are keeled), a moderately broad head, distinct from the neck, and large eyes with round pupils. It is generally uniform green, brown, olive, gray, or bluish, without spots or stripes, although juveniles may be banded. The venter is paler than the dorsum and the throat and neck may be white or yellow. A black postocular stripe may be present on the side of the head.

COELOGNATHUS SUBRADIATUS
LESSER SUNDA RATSNAKE

(SCHLEGEL, 1837)

ADULT LENGTH
5 ft–5 ft 7 in, occasionally 6 ft 7 in (1.5–1.7 m, occasionally 2.0 m)

The Lesser Sunda Ratsnake is sometimes called the Lesser Sunda Racer, the names being interchangeable. It is the only ratsnake or racer occurring in the Lesser Sundas, from Lombok to Wetar in the Inner Banda Arc, and Sumba to Timor in the Outer Banda Arc. It is known to prey on frogs in Timor-Leste but is also thought to take small mammals and birds, which are killed by constriction. The Lesser Sunda Ratsnake is found in many habitats, from coastal forests to montane rainforest and the outskirts of towns. When confronting a potential threat it raises its body into an S-shape and makes rapid, open-mouthed strikes, while vibrating its tail on the leaf litter, and it may bite freely but is nonvenomous.

RELATED SPECIES

The genus Coelognathus contains seven species distributed from Pakistan to the Philippines. The Enggano Island Ratsnake (C. enganensis), from west of Sumatra, was once a subspecies of C. subradiatus. Another similar species is the Radiated Ratsnake (C. radiatus), occurring from Nepal to Java. Other species are the Indian Trinket Snake (C. helena), also occurring in Sri Lanka; Palawan Trinket Snake (C. philippinus); Red-tailed Trinket Snake (C. erythrurus), from the Philippines and Sulawesi; and Yellow-striped Trinket Snake (C. flavolineatus), from Thailand, Malaysia, Sumatra, Java, and Borneo.

FAMILY	Colubridae: Colubrinae
RISK FACTOR	Nonvenomous, constrictor
DISTRIBUTION	Southeast Asia: Lesser Sunda Islands (Indonesia and Timor-Leste)
ELEVATION	0–3,940 ft (0–1,200 m) asl
HABITAT	Coastal forest, montane rainforest, and the outskirts of towns
DIET	Frogs, small mammals, and birds
REPRODUCTION	Oviparous, with clutches of up to 6 eggs
CONSERVATION STATUS	IUCN not listed

The Lesser Sunda Ratsnake is a large, powerful, muscular snake with a long tail and elongate head, with large eyes and round pupils. It varies in coloration from yellow or buff to deep reddish brown, with an immaculate white or yellowish venter. Dorsal markings, if present, comprise a pair of dark dorsolateral, longitudinal stripes, although these may be fragmented, and sometimes a finer lateral stripe or broader vertebral stripe. The intervening scales may be flecked with dark pigment, and a dark postocular stripe is usually present running onto the neck.

COLUBER CONSTRICTOR
NORTH AMERICAN RACER

LINNAEUS, 1758

ADULT LENGTH
5 ft–6 ft 3 in (1.5–1.9 m)

The North American Racer is one of the most widely distributed snakes in North America, occurring on both seaboards and throughout most of the USA, north into British Columbia, Canada, and south through Mexico to Guatemala and Belize. It is found in many habitats, and is often associated with watercourses. It does not inhabit deserts, and is less widely distributed south of the US–Mexican border. North American Racers prey on many organisms, from insects and spiders to amphibians, lizards, small snakes, and even small turtles. Small mammals are also taken, from mice to shrews and squirrels. Despite its scientific name, the North American Racer does not constrict its prey, but chews it vigorously until it is dead.

RELATED SPECIES

The genus Coluber is now confined to Nearctic racers, but while some authors only recognize C. constrictor in the genus, others include 11 species that may be placed in the genus Masticophis, such as the Coachwhip (M. flagellum). The Common Racer consists of 11 subspecies, including the Everglades Racer (C. c. paludicola) and the Mexican Racer (C. c. oaxaca).

FAMILY	Colubridae: Colubrinae
RISK FACTOR	Nonvenomous
DISTRIBUTION	North and Central America: southern Canada, USA, Mexico, Guatemala, and Belize
ELEVATION	0–8,010 ft (0–2,440 m) asl
HABITAT	Woodland, forests, grasslands, prairies, swamps, and urban habitats
DIET	Small mammals, lizards, small snakes, small turtles, reptile eggs, fish eggs, frogs, salamanders, spiders, and insects
REPRODUCTION	Oviparous, with clutches of 1–36 eggs
CONSERVATION STATUS	IUCN Least Concern

The North American Racer is a slender snake with smooth scales, a long tail, a head broader than the neck, and large eyes with round pupils under a shelved supraocular scale, giving a scowling impression. Coloration is variable depending on subspecies, with clues provided in the common names; for example, the Northern and Southern Black Racers (Coluber constrictor constrictor and C. c. priapus), and Yellow-bellied and Western Yellow-bellied Racers (C. c. flaviventris and C. c. mormon).

COLUBROELAPS NGUYENVANSANGI
NGUYEN VAN SANG’S SNAKE

ORLOV, KHARIN, ANANJEVA, THIEN TAO & QUANG TRUONG, 2009

ADULT LENGTH
193/4 in (500 mm)

Nguyen Van Sang is an eminent Vietnamese herpetologist with a specialist interest in the snakes of his country. His Russian and Vietnamese colleagues named this unusual snake, which he collected, in his honor. Nguyen Van Sang’s Snake was until recently only known from the female holotype, which was collected during the 2003 dry season in the Loc Bac Forest Enterprise, Lam Dong Province, southern Vietnam. It was found in the leaf litter of a secondary evergreen forest. A second specimen was later obtained in Bu Gia Map National Park, Binh Phuoc Province, also in the south. Nothing is known of its prey preferences or its reproductive strategy, but given its extremely slender body shape it is unlikely to be able to feed on anything larger than earthworms or insects.

RELATED SPECIES

Although Colubroelaps nguyenvansangi is included in the Colubridae it bears a strong resemblance to the elapid coralsnakes of Calliophis (shown here) and Sinomicrurus (shown here). However, it lacks fangs or venom glands, which is why its describers coined the generic name Colubroelaps. It is unlike any other known colubrine species, despite displaying a number of colubrine characteristics. Its future taxonomic position has yet to be determined, probably by molecular analysis.

FAMILY	Colubridae: Colubrinae
RISK FACTOR	Nonvenomous
DISTRIBUTION	Southeast Asia: Vietnam
ELEVATION	2,360 ft (720 m) asl
HABITAT	Secondary evergreen forest
DIET	Not known
REPRODUCTION	Not known
CONSERVATION STATUS	IUCN Data Deficient

Nguyen Van Sang’s Snake is an extremely slender, worm-like snake with smooth, iridescent scales, a long, cylindrical tail that terminates abruptly, and a small, rounded head, with small eyes, round pupils, and large, regular scutes. The flanks are blue-black, and the dorsum is orange-brown with a narrow blue-black vertebral stripe running the length of the body and tail. The venter is immaculate white. The head is yellow and black, while the throat and chin are white, with black markings.

CONOPSIS LINEATA
LINED TOLUCAN EARTHSNAKE

(KENNICOTT, 1859)

ADULT LENGTH
93/4– 121/2 in (250–320 mm)

The Lined Tolucan Earthsnake is widely distributed above 5,740 ft (1,750 m) asl. It has been recorded across the Mexican Plateau and in the central Mexican highlands, from Zacatecas in the north to Oaxaca in the south. It is found in a wide variety of elevated habitats, from mesquite grassland, to thorn or pine-oak forest, in high-elevation cloud forest, and also in cultivated plots, where it shelters under debris or small rocks. It may also be found close to human dwellings. This is a small but brave snake that may attempt to mimic one of the many small montane rattlesnakes if uncovered. Totally harmless and all bluff, its prey consists of insects and their larvae, and females give birth to between two and seven neonates. Conopsis is the only live-bearing colubrid genus in the Americas.

RELATED SPECIES

Some authors recognize three subspecies of Conopsis lineata, depending on the presence or absence of stripes. Genus Conopsis also contains a further five species. The most widely distributed is the Large-nosed Earthsnake (C. nasus), which occurs through most of the western Mexico highlands, as far north as Sonora and Chihuahua. The Two-lined Mexican Earthsnake (C. biserialis) occurs from Jalisco to Hidalgo, while the Twin-spotted Mexican Earthsnake (C. amphistcha), Spotted Mexican Earthsnake (C. acutus), and Carlos San Filip Earthsnake (C. megalodon) are found in Oaxaca and Guerrero. Conopsis may be most closely related to the hook-nosed snakes (Ficimia and Gyalopion).

FAMILY	Colubridae: Colubrinae
RISK FACTOR	Nonvenomous
DISTRIBUTION	North America: south-central Mexico
ELEVATION	5,740–10,200 ft (1,750–3,100 m) asl
HABITAT	Pine-oak forest, thorn-forest, savanna-grasslands, cloud forest, agricultural lands, and around human habitations
DIET	Insects and insect larvae
REPRODUCTION	Viviparous, with litters of 2–7 neonates
CONSERVATION STATUS	IUCN Least Concern

The Lined Tolucan Earthsnake is small with smooth scales and a slightly pointed head that is only slightly distinct from the neck, and a short tail. It may be gray, brown, or orange, either unpatterned or with a single vertebral stripe or a series of three or five longitudinal stripes. Its eyes protrude slightly and have round pupils.

CORONELLA AUSTRIACA
SMOOTH SNAKE

LAURENTI, 1768

ADULT LENGTH
233/4–291/2 in, occasionally 311/2 in (600–750 mm, occasionally 800 mm)

Britain’s rarest reptile, the Smooth Snake is confined to the southern heaths of England, but in Europe it is distributed east to Kazakhstan and Iran, west to Galicia, Spain, north to Scandinavia, and south to Sicily. It inhabits woodland, rocky scree slopes, marshes, vineyards, dry-stone walls, and montane regions. The Smooth Snake feeds on reptiles, primarily small lacertid lizards, but slow worms and snakes are also taken, as are mice and birds. The Smooth Snake uses constriction to subdue its prey. In the United Kingdom this species is totally protected.

RELATED SPECIES

Three subspecies may be recognized. The nominate form (Coronella austriaca austriaca) occupies most of the range while the western Iberian and southern Italian and Sicilian populations are recognized as separate subspecies by some authors (C. a. acutirostris and C. a. fitzingeri, respectively). The other two smooth snakes are the oviparous Southern Smooth Snake (C. girondica), from Iberia and Morocco, and the Indian Smooth Snake (C. brachyura). The Smooth Snake is related to the Red-backed Ratsnake (Oocatochus rufodorsatus), the only other viviparous Eurasian colubrine snake.

FAMILY	Colubridae: Colubrinae
RISK FACTOR	Nonvenomous, constrictor
DISTRIBUTION	Eurasia: southern England to Kazakhstan and northern Iran, Sicily, and Spain to southern Sweden
ELEVATION	0–7,380 ft (0–2,250 m) asl
HABITAT	Southern heathlands, railway embankments (England), open forest and woodland, scree slopes, dry areas of marshes, vineyards, dry stone walls, and montane heathland
DIET	Lizards, snakes, small mammals, and birds and their eggs
REPRODUCTION	Viviparous, with litters of 2–16 neonates
CONSERVATION STATUS	IUCN not listed, protected in the United Kingdom

The Smooth Snake is a muscular snake with smooth scales, a moderately long tail, a head just distinct from the neck, a rounded snout, and moderately large eyes with round pupils. It ranges from silver or dark gray to yellow-brown, with a pair of broad, dorsolateral, longitudinal stripes or a series of short vertebral cross-bars, of darker gray or brown than the ground color. The head bears a dark postocular stripe and a bilobed nape marking that may run into the first dorsal markings. The venter is gray or brown, reddish in juveniles.

CROTAPHOPELTIS HOTAMBOEIA
RED-LIPPED HERALD SNAKE

(LAURENTI, 1768)

ADULT LENGTH
233/4–28 in, rarely 311/2 in (600–710 mm, rarely 800 mm)

The Red-lipped Herald Snake, also known as the White-lipped Herald Snake, is a slow-moving nocturnal and terrestrial predator of frogs. It is widely distributed through Sub-Saharan Africa, from Senegal to Eritrea, and south down the eastern side of the continent to the Cape, South Africa. It occurs in savanna and woodland habitats and demonstrates a preference for wetland areas, where its prey is abundant. If disturbed it will elevate its anterior body, flatten its head to display its contrastingly colored lips, hiss loudly, and launch open-mouthed strikes. If given the opportunity this little snake will deliver a chewing bite with its long, bladelike rear fangs, but although its venom is effective against frogs it is believed harmless to humans.

RELATED SPECIES

The genus Crotaphopeltis contains six species. Crotaphopeltis hotamboeia occurs in sympatry with the Barotse Watersnake (C. barotseensis) in the Okavango Swamp and upper Zambezi River in Botswana. In Kenya it occurs in sympatry with the Tana Herald Snake (C. braestrupi) and the Yellow-flanked Herald Snake (C. degeni), and in Tanzania with Tornier’s Catsnake (C. tornieri). The West African Herald Snake is C. hippocrepis.

FAMILY	Colubridae: Colubrinae
RISK FACTOR	Rear-fanged, mildly venomous; harmless to humans
DISTRIBUTION	Sub-Saharan Africa: Senegal to Eritrea, south to the Cape, South Africa
ELEVATION	0–8,200 ft (0–2,500 m) asl
HABITAT	Wet savanna and woodland, especially in association with water
DIET	Frogs
REPRODUCTION	Oviparous, with clutches of 6–19 eggs
CONSERVATION STATUS	IUCN not listed

The Red-lipped Herald Snake is a small snake with smooth scales anteriorly, keeled scales posteriorly, a short tail, and a broad head with small eyes and vertically elliptical pupils. It is usually uniform gray, brown, or olive with an iridescent, shiny black head and either red or white supralabials.

DASYPELTIS MEDICI
EAST AFRICAN EGG-EATER

BIANCONI, 1859

ADULT LENGTH
Male
193/4–233/4 in (500–600 mm)

Female
233/4–291/2 in, rarely 3 ft 3 in (600–750 mm, rarely 1.0 m)

Also known as the Rufous Egg-eater, the East African Egg-eater occurs on the coast of Somalia, Kenya, and Tanzania, and Zanzibar, Lamu, and Mafia islands. Farther south it inhabits Malawi, eastern Zimbabwe, Mozambique, and KwaZulu-Natal, South Africa. It feeds exclusively on small birds’ eggs, which are “tongue-flicked” for freshness and sized up before the swallowing process begins, the egg then being slowly engulfed by the articulable jaws. When it reaches the throat a forward-facing spinal process pierces the shell, the contents are swallowed, and the compressed remains of the shell are regurgitated. The teeth are minute or absent, so in defense, egg-eaters mimic the highly venomous carpet vipers (Echis) in patterning and display. Michele Medici (1782–1859) was an Italian physician and naturalist.

RELATED SPECIES

There are two subspecies, a nominate southern form (Dasypeltis medici medici) and a northern form (D. m. lamuensis), which has Lamu Island as its type locality. The genus Dasypeltis contains 13 species, all found in Africa. Other egg-eaters occurring in sympatry with D. medici include the widespread Common Egg-eater (D. scabra), which also inhabits the Arabian Peninsula, and the Southern Brown Egg-eater (D. inornata).

FAMILY	Colubridae: Colubrinae
RISK FACTOR	Nonvenomous
DISTRIBUTION	Sub-Saharan Africa: Somalia, Kenya, Tanzania (including Zanzibar and Mafia Island), Zimbabwe, Mozambique, Malawi, and eastern South Africa
ELEVATION	0–3,280 ft (0–1,000 m) asl
HABITAT	Coastal scrub, moist savannas, and lowland evergreen forest
DIET	Birds’ eggs
REPRODUCTION	Oviparous, with clutches of 6–28 eggs
CONSERVATION STATUS	IUCN not listed

The East African Egg-eater is a small snake with strongly keeled, serrated scales, a long tail, and a rounded head, indistinct from the neck, with large eyes and vertically elliptical pupils. It may be brown, red, orange, gray, or pink in color, either uniform or with a dark brown vertebral stripe with evenly spaced white spots. Several chevron markings are present on the back of the head and neck. The iris is distinctive, being yellow, orange, or gray.

DENDROPHIDION CLARKII
RAINBOW FOREST RACER

DUNN, 1933

ADULT LENGTH
3 ft 3 in–5 ft (1.0–1.5 m)

The Rainbow Forest Racer, also known as Clark’s Forest Racer, inhabits lowland and montane rainforest, evergreen forest, riverine forest, and open areas, such as treefall gaps or cleared gardens. An alert, diurnal species, it is primarily terrestrial but is also at home aloft. It preys mainly on frogs, but lizards and small rodents are also taken. If disturbed it will attempt to flee, but if cornered it will make mock strikes and inflate its neck to display the contrastingly colored interstitial skin. If grasped by the tail it may demonstrate caudal pseudautotomy, deliberately shedding its tail, but unlike lizards it cannot regenerate a new tail. Former United Fruit employee Herbert Clark (1877–1960) organized the annual Panamanian snake census from 1929 to 1953.

RELATED SPECIES

The South and Central American forest racers are a complicated genus containing 15 species. Dendrophidion clarkii was resurrected from synonymy in D. nuchale, the Red-headed Forest Racer, at the same time as the Red-tailed Forest Racer (D. rufiterminorum) was described.

FAMILY	Colubridae: Colubrinae
RISK FACTOR	Nonvenomous
DISTRIBUTION	Central America and northern South America: Costa Rica, Panama, western Colombia, and western Ecuador
ELEVATION	0–5,250 ft (0–1,600 m) asl
HABITAT	Lowland and low montane rainforest, evergreen forest, riverine forest, and open cleared areas
DIET	Frogs, lizards, and small mammals
REPRODUCTION	Oviparous, with clutches of up to 7 eggs
CONSERVATION STATUS	IUCN not listed

The Rainbow Forest Racer is a slender snake with a long, whiplike tail, weakly keeled scales, and a distinctive head with very large eyes, round pupils, and a squarish snout. It is bright green anteriorly, except the head, which is brown, becoming olive-green and then olive-brown by the midbody, this section also exhibiting a lateral pattern of light-centered black ocelli or cross-bands, and finally red-brown on the tail. The underside of the head and neck is yellow, while the venter of the body is gray-brown with dark and light spotting.

DIPSADOBOA UNICOLOR
GÜNTHER’S GREEN TREESNAKE

GÜNTHER, 1858

ADULT LENGTH
2 ft 4 in–3 ft 3 in, rarely 4 ft 2 in (0.7–1.0 m, rarely 1.28 m)

Günther’s Green Treesnake is a nocturnal West and Central African species, found in mid- to high-elevation rainforest from Guinea-Bissau to western Uganda and south to Rwanda, Burundi, and the Democratic Republic of the Congo. Although it occurs in rainforest habitats and plantations, and has the demeanor of a treesnake, it is not especially adapted to arboreal life because it lacks the ridged ventral scales that give many other treesnakes their climbing abilities. This species is actually often seen on the ground, but little is known regarding its natural history. It is believed to feed exclusively on frogs and their tadpoles, while its congeners are known to take skinks, geckos, and chameleons, which are subdued by venom injected by the rear fangs. Its reproductive strategy is probably oviparity, like other Dipsadoboa species.

RELATED SPECIES

The genus Dipsadoboa has the appearance of the smaller species of Asian catsnakes (Boiga), and along with Toxicodryas (shown here) and Telescopus (shown here) it may occupy the nocturnal cat-eyed snake niche in tropical Africa. There are ten species distributed through Sub-Saharan Africa with at least five other species in the West African rainforest, including the Green Treesnake (D. viridis), Duchesne’s Treesnake (D. duchesnii), and Underwood’s Treesnake (D. underwoodi).

FAMILY	Colubridae: Colubrinae
RISK FACTOR	Rear-fanged, mildly venomous; harmless to humans
DISTRIBUTION	West and Central Africa: Guinea-Bissau to DRC, and western Uganda, Rwanda, and Tanzania
ELEVATION	4,920–9,840 ft (1,500–3,000 m) asl
HABITAT	Montane and mid-montane rainforest, and plantations
DIET	Frogs and tadpoles
REPRODUCTION	Presumed oviparous, clutches size unknown
CONSERVATION STATUS	IUCN not listed

Günther’s Green Treesnake is a slender snake with smooth scales, a long tail, a broad head, and protruding eyes with vertically elliptical pupils. It is a highly variable species. Juveniles are gray or brown, paler anteriorly, darker posteriorly. At maturity the body becomes green, blue, or black with a blue tail, while the interstitial skin becomes black or gray.

DISPHOLIDUS TYPUS
BOOMSLANG

(SMITH, 1828)

ADULT LENGTH
Male
3 ft 3 in–4 ft 3 in (1.0–1.29 m)

Female
3 ft 3 in–4 ft, rarely 6 ft 7 in (1.0–1.26 m, rarely 2.0 m)

The Boomslang, which means “treesnake,” is the most dangerous rear-fanged snake in the world. A juvenile specimen claimed the life of eminent Field Museum herpetologist Karl Patterson Schmidt in 1957. Other deaths are on record, usually of snake handlers, and specific Boomslang antivenom is now produced in South Africa. Small quantities of venom are injected from the large rear fangs, located under the eyes in the large mouth, but it may cause massive internal hemorrhage and renal failure 24–48 hours later. The Boomslang is found throughout sub-Saharan Africa, in savanna woodland and coastal scrub, but it also occupies gardens and hedges. It is an alert and agile diurnal predator of chameleons, other lizards, and birds, being able to enter suspended weaverbird nests. Defensive Boomslangs inflate their throats to expose the contrasting interstitial skin color.

RELATED SPECIES

The genus Dispholidus is monotypic, although three subspecies of D. typus are recognized by some authors. Most of the range is occupied by the nominate subspecies (D. t. typus), with separate subspecies in the Rift Valley, from Kenya to Zambia (D. t. kivuensis), and Angola, Republic of the Congo, Democratic Republic of the Congo, and northwestern Zambia (D. t. punctatus). Dispholidus is most closely related to the African black treesnakes (Thrasops).

FAMILY	Colubridae: Colubrinae
RISK FACTOR	Rear-fanged, highly venomous: procoagulants and hemorrhagins, and possibly anticoagulants
DISTRIBUTION	Sub-Saharan Africa: Senegal to Eritrea, south to the Cape, South Africa
ELEVATION	0–7,870 ft (0–2,400 m) asl
HABITAT	Savanna woodland, mopane woodland, coastal bush, and gardens, excluding deserts and rainforests
DIET	Lizards and birds, occasionally frogs or rodents
REPRODUCTION	Oviparous, with clutches of 10–25 eggs
CONSERVATION STATUS	IUCN not listed

The Boomslang is a slender snake with obliquely arranged, keeled scales, a long tail and a short, relatively large head, dominated by very large eyes with round pupils. Juveniles are brown above with blue interstitial skin, and white below, with a yellow throat and emerald green irises. Adult females are brown or olive above and white or brown below, while males range from light blue or green above, with black interstitial skin and pale green undersides, to yellow-green with black scale edging, red-brown with pink undersides, or even black above and gray below, with black scale edging.

DOLICHOPHIS CASPIUS
CASPIAN WHIPSNAKE

(GMELIN, 1789)

ADULT LENGTH
6 ft 7 in–8 ft 2 in (2.0–2.5 m)

The Caspian Whipsnake is probably Europe’s largest snake. It is widely distributed through southeastern Europe, from Albania to the northern shores of the Caspian Sea. This is a relatively common, diurnal, and primarily terrestrial species, which is most frequently encountered on rocky hillsides or in open sandy valleys, but also occurs in vineyards, forests, steppe, and semidesert habitats. When encountered the Caspian Whipsnake will seek to flee, but if cornered it will defend itself vigorously, striking high and biting. Although wounds bleed profusely, this is a nonvenomous snake of no danger to humans. The preferred prey comprises lizards, especially for juvenile Caspian Whipsnakes, but birds, small mammals, and other snakes are also included in the diets of adults.

RELATED SPECIES

The closest relative of Dolichophis caspius is Schmidt’s Whipsnake (D. schmidti) from Turkey, Iran, and Armenia. Three other Dolichophis species are the Cypriot Whipsnake (D. cypriensis), Gyaros Island Whipsnake (D. gyarosensis), from the Cyclades, and the Large Whipsnake (D. jugularis), from Greece, Turkey, the Middle East, and Iran.

FAMILY	Colubridae: Colubrinae
RISK FACTOR	Nonvenomous, constrictor
DISTRIBUTION	Southeastern Europe: Greece, Albania, European Turkey, southern Bulgaria, Romania, Moldova, Ukraine, and southwestern Russia; small populations in Hungary, Serbia, Montenegro, and Croatia
ELEVATION	0–5,250 ft (0–1,600 m) asl
HABITAT	Rocky hillsides, vineyards, hedges, dry stone walls, forests, steppes, and semidesert
DIET	Lizards, birds, small mammals, occasionally other snakes
REPRODUCTION	Oviparous, with clutches of 5–12 eggs
CONSERVATION STATUS	IUCN not listed

The Caspian Whipsnake is a moderately slender snake with smooth glossy scales, a long tail, and a head just distinct from the neck. It has large eyes and round pupils under shelved supraocular scales that present a slightly scowling expression in adults. In adults the dorsum is gray, olive-brown, or olive-green, with every scale black-edged, giving a reticulate appearance, and the venter is yellow to pale green. Juveniles are gray to brown with short transverse black bars.

DRYMARCHON KOLPOBASILEUS
GULF COAST INDIGO SNAKE

(HOLBROOK, 1842)

ADULT LENGTH
5–6 ft, rarely 8 ft 6 in (1.5–1.8 m, rarely 2.6 m)

The Gulf Coast Indigo Snake was recently split from the Eastern Indigo Snake (Drymarchon couperi). The largest native nonvenomous snake found north of Mexico, it occurs from the Florida Keys to the bayous of Louisiana, in a variety of habitats from mangrove swamps to pine flatlands, seasonally flooded sawgrass plains, and drier hardwood hammocks. It shares the burrows of gopher tortoises and nine-banded armadillos. Once abundant, Gulf Coast Indigo Snakes are now federally protected, but may still be declining due to commercial collecting and to harvesting of the stumps they use for winter shelter. They hunt a variety of vertebrates, from rodents to turtles, as well as other snakes, from Cornsnakes (Pantherophis guttatus) to Eastern Diamondback Rattlesnakes (Crotalus adamanteus). Indigo snakes are immune to the venom of their rattlesnake prey.

RELATED SPECIES

The closest relative is the Eastern Indigo Snake (Drymarchon couperi) from eastern Florida, Alabama, and Georgia, which was once a subspecies of D. corais, now known as the Yellow-tailed Cribo, which occurs from Venezuela to Argentina. The other former subspecies of D. corais are now subspecies of the Mexican Cribo (D. melanurus), although the Isla Margarita Cribo (D. margaritae) was elevated to specific status. The Falcon Cribo (D. caudomaculatus) is another recently described species from northern Venezuela.

FAMILY	Colubridae: Colubrinae
RISK FACTOR	Nonvenomous
DISTRIBUTION	North America: southeastern USA
ELEVATION	0–490 ft (0–150 m) asl
HABITAT	Coastal scrub, mangrove swamp, pine flatlands, prairie and hardwood hammocks, and sawgrass plains
DIET	Frogs, rodents, other snakes, and turtles
REPRODUCTION	Oviparous, with clutches of 4–11 eggs
CONSERVATION STATUS	IUCN Least Concern, threatened and federally protected in the USA

The Gulf Coast Indigo Snake is a powerful, stout-bodied snake with smooth, iridescent scales, a long tail, and a large head with large eyes and round pupils. Unlike some cribos from South America, the indigo snakes are glossy blue-black throughout, with a reddish throat and occasional white patches, while the venter is orange or blue-gray.

DRYMARCHON MELANURUS
MEXICAN CRIBO

(DUMÉRIL, BIBRON & DUMÉRIL, 1854)

ADULT LENGTH
5 ft–6 ft 7 in, occasionally 9 ft 8 in (1.5–2.0 m, occasionally 2.95 m)

The Mexican Cribo inhabits wet and dry forests, savanna woodlands, and rocky arroyos from Texas to Peru, west of the Andes, and Venezuela, east of the Andes. Central America’s largest snake after the Common Boa (Boa constrictor) and bushmasters (Lachesis), it is a formidable predator of lizards, birds, rodents, and particularly snakes. Cribos pursue other snakes, even large venomous species, moving alongside their quarry and grasping the head in their jaws, preventing retaliatory bites, before chewing vigorously to kill it, then swallowing it headfirst. They are immune to bites from venomous snakes. Rodents are killed underground by being crushed against the burrow walls; one cribo may kill all the occupants of an entire rat’s nest at the same time.

RELATED SPECIES

Genus Drymarchon was once one species and eight subspecies. Today it comprises six species but only D. melanurus has subspecies: the Black-Tailed Cribo (D. m. melanurus) of northwestern South America; Texas Indigo Snake (D. m. erebennus) from Texas and northeastern Mexico; Red-tailed Cribo (D. m. rubidus) from northwest Mexico; Orizaba Cribo (D. m. orizabensis) from Veracruz, Mexico; and Central American Cribo (D. c. unicolor) from Chiapas, Mexico to Costa Rica.

FAMILY	Colubridae: Colubrinae
RISK FACTOR	Nonvenomous
DISTRIBUTION	North, Central, and South America: Texas, through Mexico and Central America, to Venezuela and South America west of the Andes
ELEVATION	0–5,250 ft (0–1,600 m) asl
HABITAT	Lowland and montane rainforest, and dry forest, savanna woodland, rocky arroyos, and mangrove forest
DIET	Frogs, lizards, birds and their eggs, small mammals, and snakes
REPRODUCTION	Oviparous, with clutches of 4–11 eggs, rarely up to 25
CONSERVATION STATUS	IUCN Least Concern

The Mexican Cribo is a large, stout-bodied snake with smooth scales, a long tail, and a large head, distinct from the neck, with moderately large eyes and round pupils. Coloration varies with subspecies, but generally the anterior body and head are light to olive-brown with markings confined to a horizontal bar on the neck and dark supralabial suturing; the midbody and posterior body are dark brown with darker scale suturing, while the tail varies with location from red to black.

DRYMOBIUS MARGARITIFERUS
SPECKLED RACER

(SCHLEGEL, 1837)

ADULT LENGTH
2 ft 4 in–3 ft 3 in, rarely 4 ft 3 in (0.7–1.0 m, rarely 1.3 m)

A fast-moving, diurnal inhabitant of forest edge and clearings, the Speckled Racer may also be found in lowland and low montane forests, and inhabits rocky, arid, overgrown arroyos, too. It is primarily a terrestrial snake, but is able to climb well and may be encountered in low vegetation. It is a widely distributed species, being found from Texas, down both versants of Mexico and Central America, to Colombia. Its prey consists largely of frogs and toads, but lizards, reptile eggs, small mammals, and occasionally small snakes are also taken by adults. There are reports of fish being on the menu, and juveniles take small vertebrates but also feed on insects. Speckled Racers are themselves preyed upon by the ophiophagous Mexican Cribo (Drymarchon melanurus).

RELATED SPECIES

There are four subspecies: the Northern Speckled Racer (Drymobius margaritiferus margaritiferus) from Texas to northern South America; West Mexican Speckled Racer (D. m. fistulosus) from Sonora to Oaxaca; Central American Speckled Racer (D. m. occidentalis) from Chiapas, Mexico to El Salvador; and Big Corn Island Speckled Racer (D. m. maydis) from Nicaragua. There are three other Drymobius species: the Green Highland Racer (D. chloroticus) and Black Forest Racer (D. melanotropis) from Central America, and Esmarald or Rhombic Racer (D. rhombifer) from Central and South America.

FAMILY	Colubridae: Colubrinae
RISK FACTOR	Nonvenomous
DISTRIBUTION	North, Central, and South America: Texas, through Mexico and Central America, to Colombia
ELEVATION	0–6,000 ft (0–1,830 m) asl
HABITAT	Forest edges, clearings, lowland and low montane wet and dry forests, and arid arroyos
DIET	Frogs, lizards, birds, small mammals, and snakes; sometimes insects
REPRODUCTION	Oviparous, with clutches of 4–8 eggs
CONSERVATION STATUS	IUCN Least Concern

The Speckled Racer is a slender, smooth-scaled species with a long tail and a head slightly broader than the neck, with moderately large eyes and round pupils. The dorsum may be pale or bright green, yellow, or reddish, with every scale black-edged to present a speckled or reticulate pattern, and the undersides are yellow.

DRYMOLUBER DICHROUS
NORTHERN WOODLAND RACER

(PETERS, 1863)

ADULT LENGTH
2 ft 4 in–4 ft (0.7–1.2 m)

The Northern Woodland Racer is a widespread and common species that inhabits primary and secondary rainforest in the Guianas and the Amazon Basin countries. It is a diurnally active, terrestrial or semi-arboreal species that hunts a wide variety of lizards and frogs, but also takes reptile eggs, and other snakes, and has been known to be cannibalistic. This is an ontogenetically patterned species, juveniles exhibiting a pattern distinctly different from that of the adults. The Northern Woodland Racer is also able to pseudautotomize its tail in response to attack by a potential predator, but unlike many lizards, which autotomize (shed) their tails, snakes that practice pseudautotomy are unable to regenerate a new tail.

RELATED SPECIES

The generic name Drymoluber was coined to demonstrate a perceived close relationship with two other racer genera, Drymobius (shown here) and Coluber (shown here), but Drymoluber is actually more closely related to the tropical racers (Mastigodryas). Two other species are included in the genus Drymoluber, the high-elevation Apurímac Woodland Racer (D. apurimacensis) from Peru, and Vital Brazil’s Woodland Racer (D. brazili) from Brazil and Paraguay.

FAMILY	Colubridae: Colubrinae
RISK FACTOR	Nonvenomous
DISTRIBUTION	South America: Colombia, Venezuela, Guyana, Suriname, French Guiana, Brazil, Ecuador, eastern Peru, and Bolivia
ELEVATION	0–11,500 ft (0–3,500 m) asl
HABITAT	Primary and secondary rainforest
DIET	Lizards, frogs, reptile eggs, and small snakes
REPRODUCTION	Oviparous, with clutches of 2–6 eggs
CONSERVATION STATUS	IUCN Least Concern

The Northern Woodland Racer is a moderately robust snake with smooth scales, a long tail, and a head just distinct from the neck, with large eyes and round pupils. The head may be black, and the body leaf-green on the flanks to dark green or olive on the dorsum, with a yellow venter and white on the throat, neck, and labials. Juveniles are light brown with darker brown bands and these may also be faintly visible on adult snakes.

DRYOCALAMUS GRACILIS
SCARCE BRIDAL SNAKE

(GÜNTHER, 1864)

ADULT LENGTH
153/4–201/2 in (400–520 mm)

The Scarce Bridal Snake is well named, as it is remarkably rare. It is recorded from northeast India, the Eastern and Western Ghats of southern India, and from northern Sri Lanka, where only three specimens have ever been found. There is also a record from False Island, on the Rakhine coast of Myanmar. It inhabits lowland habitats, and has been found near habitations or crossing roads in rice-growing districts. It is generally a very poorly known species, but probably mirrors its congener, the Common Bridal Snake (Dryocalamus nympha), in being oviparous and feeding on small lizards. The Common Bridal Snake also adopts a defensive strategy that involves tying itself in knots and it is possible the Scarce Bridal Snake has the same defense.

RELATED SPECIES

The closest relative to Dryocalamus gracilis is the Common Bridal Snake (D. nympha) from India, and some authors consider D. gracilis to be a synonym of D. nympha. The genus contains four Southeast Asian species: Davison’s Bridal Snake (D. davisonii), the Three-striped Bridal Snake (D. tristrigatus), the Half-banded Bridal Snake (D. subannulatus), and the Palawan Bridal Snake (D. philippinus). Bridal snakes are closely related to the wolfsnakes (Lycodon).

FAMILY	Colubridae: Colubrinae
RISK FACTOR	Nonvenomous
DISTRIBUTION	South Asia: southern and northeastern India, northern Sri Lanka, and False Island, Myanmar
ELEVATION	0–655 ft (0–200 m) asl
HABITAT	Lowland habitats, poorly known
DIET	Dietary preferences unknown, presumed lizards
REPRODUCTION	Presumed oviparous, clutch size unknown
CONSERVATION STATUS	IUCN Least Concern

The Scarce Bridal Snake is a small snake with a slender, cylindrical body and a slightly elongate, rounded head, just distinct from the neck. The eyes are small and the pupils are elliptical. It is a cream-colored snake, immaculate below but dorsally marked with long, oval brown saddles, the pale interspaces being spotted with brown, and with a light brown cap over the dorsum of the head.

EIRENIS MODESTUS
ASIA MINOR DWARF SNAKE

(MARTIN, 1838)

ADULT LENGTH
193/4–241/2 in (500–620 mm)

The Asia Minor Dwarf Snake, also known as the Ring-headed Dwarf Racer, is the only member of this relatively large genus to occur in European Turkey, from where it occurs east to the Caucasus (Dagestan, Georgia, Armenia, and Azerbaijan). It also occurs on several Greek islands in the Aegean, which really constitute part of Asia Minor, where it is widely distributed, through Turkey and into Iran. It is a small snake that frequents arid open habitats, such as sparsely vegetated rocky hillsides, stony steppe, and sunny clearings in woodland, but it avoids the direct sun, being active under or around rocks, boulders, or vegetation. Its prey comprises mostly invertebrates, including centipedes, millipedes, spiders, scorpions, cockroaches, beetles, woodlice, earthworms, and snails, but small lizards are also taken.

RELATED SPECIES

The genus Eirenis contains 20 species in several subgenera. Eirenis modestus is contained in the subgenus Eirenis, with the Gold-striped Dwarf Snake (E. aurolineatus) from Turkey. These two sister species are believed to be basal (primitive) members of the genus. Eirenis modestus contains three subspecies, with the nominate form (E. m. modestus), which may be a species complex, in the Caucasus and Turkey, a southern Turkish subspecies (E. m. cilicius), and a northwestern subspecies (E. m. semimaculatus) from the Aegean and Bosphorus.

FAMILY	Colubridae: Colubrinae
RISK FACTOR	Nonvenomous
DISTRIBUTION	Europe and Southeast Asia: Greece, Turkey, Georgia, Armenia, Azerbaijan, Nagorno-Karabakh, Dagestan, and Iran
ELEVATION	0–6,560 ft (0–2,000 m) asl
HABITAT	Arid rocky hills with sparse vegetation, stony steppe, clearings in oak forest
DIET	Centipedes, scorpions, other invertebrates, and small lizards
REPRODUCTION	Oviparous, with clutches of 3–8 eggs
CONSERVATION STATUS	IUCN Least Concern

The Asia Minor Dwarf Snake is delicate, being little thicker than a pencil, with smooth scales, a relatively long tail, a head only slightly distinct from the neck, small eyes, and round pupils. It is gray, brown, or olive-green without body markings, apart from a broad crescent marking on the nape. The head is dorsally brown with transverse yellow cross-bars posterior to the eyes and anterior to the nape marking. There are dark markings on the pale supralabials. The venter is yellow, pale gray, or off-white.

ELACHISTODON WESTERMANNI
INDIAN EGG-EATING SNAKE

REINHARDT, 1863

ADULT LENGTH
271/2–311/2 in (700–800 mm)

Unlike the virtually toothless African egg-eaters (Dasypeltis), the rare Indian Egg-eating Snake has teeth and rear fangs. It is nocturnal and arboreal. Once only known from Bengal, it has now been recorded more widely in India, Bangladesh, and Nepal. The Indian Egg-eating Snake may be found near the nests of small birds such as sparrows. It enters the nest and selects an egg by smell, before swallowing it whole. Vigorous movements force the egg against sharp vertebral processes; the contents are swallowed, and the shell regurgitated. The presence of venom and a thermosensitive pit in the nostril raises an interesting question as to whether birds or small mammals are also hunted at night. Gerardus Frederik Westermann (1807–90) was a zoologist who founded Amsterdam Zoo in 1838.

RELATED SPECIES

Elachistodon westermanni is contained in a monotypic genus. The fact that both it and the African egg-eaters feed on birds’ eggs in the same way is probably more as a result of convergent evolution than any close relationship between the two genera, so it is difficult to determine which genera are most closely related to Elachistodon. However, they are likely to be Asian, rear-fanged, and arboreal, with an enlarged vertebral scale row.

FAMILY	Colubridae: Colubrinae
RISK FACTOR	Rear-fanged, mildly venomous; harmless to humans
DISTRIBUTION	South Asia: India, Bangladesh, and Nepal
ELEVATION	820–1,640 ft (250–500 m) asl
HABITAT	Low-lying deciduous woodland on plains or low foothills, and near water
DIET	Birds’ eggs, and possibly birds or small mammals
REPRODUCTION	Believed oviparous, with clutches of up to 7 eggs
CONSERVATION STATUS	IUCN Least Concern

The Indian Egg-eating Snake is small and slender with smooth scales, a relatively long tail, a head that is a little broader than the neck, moderately large eyes, and vertically elliptical pupils. It is generally dark brown to black with cream markings, in the form of a checkerboard pattern or random blotches. A pale longitudinal stripe runs the length of the body on the enlarged vertebral scales, and the venter is off-white with brown speckling. The head is brown with a dorsal black arrowhead marking.

ELAPHE CLIMACOPHORA
AODAISHO

(BOIE, 1826)

ADULT LENGTH
3 ft 3 in–6 ft 7 in, rarely 7 ft 7 in (1.0–2.0 m, rarely 2.3 m)

Also called the Japanese Ratsnake, the Aodaisho is found on Japan’s four main islands, in the northern Ryukyu and northern Bonin Islands, and on Kunashir in the southern Kurile Islands, Russia. It is one of the few snake species for which albino individuals are commonly encountered in nature, and a leucistic (pigmentless) population is also known. The Aodaisho inhabits forests, bamboo thickets, and agricultural areas, and enters houses to hunt rodents, although birds, squirrels, and frogs are also taken. Birds’ eggs are ruptured by a vertebral process, as in the Indian Egg-eating Snake (Elachistodon) or African egg-eaters (Dasypeltis), although an Aodaisho is large enough to swallow eggs whole. Its main defense is to empty the foul-smelling contents of its cloacal glands, a tactic also used by its relative, the aptly-named Stinking Goddess (E. carinata).

RELATED SPECIES

The much-revised genus Elaphe contains 11 species distributed from Japan, Korea, and Amur, Russia, to western Europe. Four other ratsnakes occur within Japanese territories, the Stinking Goddess (E. carinata), Japanese Four-lined Ratsnake (E. quadrivirgata), Japanese Burrowing Ratsnake (Euprepiophis conspillata), and Beauty Ratsnake (Orthriophis taeniurus).

FAMILY	Colubridae: Colubrinae
RISK FACTOR	Nonvenomous, constrictor
DISTRIBUTION	East Asia: Japan (Ryukyu Islands, Bonin Islands), and Kurile Islands (Russia)
ELEVATION	0–4,350 ft (0–1,325 m) asl
HABITAT	Grassland, rice paddies, bamboo thickets, forests, and around human habitations
DIET	Small mammals, birds, and frogs
REPRODUCTION	Oviparous, with clutches of 7–12 eggs
CONSERVATION STATUS	IUCN not listed

The Aodaisho is a large, muscular but slender snake with smooth to weakly keeled scales, a moderately long tail, a large head, and large eyes with round pupils. Patterned specimens are dark olive-green dorsally, with or without darker mottling, or four longitudinal stripes on the body, but many specimens are albino or leucistic. Juveniles exhibit a blotched pattern.

ELAPHE MOELLENDORFFI
MÖLLENDORFF’S RATSNAKE

(BOETTGER, 1886)

ADULT LENGTH
5 ft 2 in–6 ft, rarely 8 ft 2 in (1.6–1.8 m, rarely 2.5 m)

Möllendorff’s Ratsnake, also known as the Hundred-flower Snake, or the Red-headed Ratsnake or Trinket Snake, was named in honor of Otto Franz von Möllendorff (1848–1903), a German malacologist (mollusk expert) who spent many years in China. It is confined to extreme southern China and northern Vietnam, where it inhabits deciduous forest, particularly on karst limestone outcrops, and also bamboo thickets and meadows near water. It has been little studied in nature, but like all other ratsnakes (except the Red-backed Ratsnake, Oocatochus rufodorsatus) it is oviparous. Its prey preferences appear to be for warm-blooded animals; it feeds on small mammals such as mice, rats, and bats, but also takes birds. The IUCN list Möllendorff’s Ratsnake as Vulnerable due to its harvesting for meat, skins, and potions, and its popularity in the pet trade.

RELATED SPECIES

Elaphe moellendorffi is one of four ratsnakes that were until recently included in the genus Orthriophis, but which are now returned to Elaphe, the others being the Eastern Trinket Snake (E. cantoris) from Nepal, northeast India, Bhutan, and Myanmar; Hodgson’s Ratsnake (E. hodgsoni) from northern India, Nepal, and Tibet; and the widely distributed Beauty Ratsnake (E. taeniura).

FAMILY	Colubridae: Colubrinae
RISK FACTOR	Nonvenomous, constrictor
DISTRIBUTION	Southeast Asia: southern China and northern Vietnam
ELEVATION	165–1,640 ft (50–500 m) asl
HABITAT	Deciduous forest on karst limestone, also bamboo thickets, and meadows near water
DIET	Small mammals and birds
REPRODUCTION	Oviparous, with clutches of 6–12 eggs
CONSERVATION STATUS	IUCN Vulnerable

Möllendorff’s Ratsnake is a large snake with an elongate, laterally compressed body, a dorsally red, gray-lipped head, and small eyes with red irises. Its body is light gray, patterned with irregular, light-centered, dark-bordered, rusty-brown blotches arranged vertebrally and laterally, which continue onto the posterior body and tail, where the ground color may be partially obscured by a wash of red pigment. Some specimens lack any patterning except the red head.

ELAPHE QUATUORLINEATA
FOUR-LINED RATSNAKE

(BONNATERRE, 1790)

ADULT LENGTH
4 ft 3 in–5 ft 2 in, rarely 6 ft 7 in (1.3–1.6 m, rarely 2.0 m)

The Four-lined Ratsnake is a southern and southeastern European species, occurring in Italy, the Balkan countries along the Adriatic coast, Greece, and the islands of the Aegean Sea. It demonstrates a preference for arid habitats, such as clearings in deciduous woodland, old quarries, broken stone walls, and karst outcrops, but it is also found near water, and around pastures, under hedges, and around old buildings. It is diurnal, and a terrestrial predator of a range of small mammals, from mice to young rabbits, as well as birds and their eggs, and lizards. It kills its prey by constriction. It is also an adept climber that may be found aloft. A proficient rat-killer, this snake should be encouraged in farmland because it performs an invaluable service, ridding the area of vermin.

RELATED SPECIES

The Western Four-lined Ratsnake (Elaphe quatuorlineata quatuorlineata) is found on the mainland and many islands, and three Aegean island subspecies are also recognized: the Cyclades Four-lined Ratsnake (E. q. muenteri), on Naxos, Amorgos, and neighboring islands; Paros Ratsnake (E. q. parensis); and Skyros Ratsnake (E. q. scyrensis). The Amorgos Ratsnake (E. rechingeri) is now a synonym of E. q. muenteri, while the Eastern Four-lined Snake (E. sauromates), a former subspecies, inhabits Bulgaria, Romania, Moldova, Ukraine, Turkey, and the Caucasus.

FAMILY	Colubridae: Colubrinae
RISK FACTOR	Nonvenomous, constrictor
DISTRIBUTION	Southeastern Europe: Italy, Slovenia, Croatia, Bosnia, Montenegro, Macedonia, Albania, and Greece
ELEVATION	0–8,200 ft (0–2,500 m) asl
HABITAT	Arid habitats, clearings in deciduous woodland, old quarries, abandoned buildings, vegetated karst outcrops, and hedges and dry stone walls around agricultural land
DIET	Small mammals, birds, eggs, and lizards
REPRODUCTION	Oviparous, with clutches of 3–18 eggs
CONSERVATION STATUS	IUCN Near Threatened

The Four-lined Ratsnake is stout-bodied, with smooth or weakly keeled scales, a relatively long tail, a head broader than the neck, large eyes, and round pupils. Juveniles are pale gray with bold dark blotches, but adults are generally mid- or dark brown above, paler brown or yellow on the flanks, and off-white below, with four broad, black longitudinal stripes, and a black postocular stripe on the side of the head. Amorgos specimens are almost patternless, and some mainland specimens are almost melanistic.

ELAPHE TAENIURA
BEAUTY RATSNAKE

(COPE, 1861)

ADULT LENGTH
4 ft 3 in–8 ft 2 in (1.3–2.5 m)

The Beauty Ratsnake occurs in a wide variety of geographical locations and habitats, from deciduous montane woodland in China to tropical rainforest in Southeast Asia. It may also be found in rice paddies, and around human habitations, entering roof spaces in search of prey. Some populations are associated with karst limestone caves, in Peninsular Malaysia, Sumatra, and Borneo, and are known as Cave Racers. Cave Racers have been found up to 2 miles (3 km) deep in caves, hunting bats and cave swiftlets, while Beauty Ratsnakes above ground feed on a variety of small mammals and birds, which are killed by constriction.

RELATED SPECIES

Nine subspecies are recognized: from eastern China (Orthriophis taeniurus taeniura); western China, northeast India, Myanmar, Thailand, and Laos (Elaphe. t. yunnanensis); Myanmar and Thailand (E. t. helfenbergeri); Vietnam, Cambodia, and Thailand (E. t. callicyanous); Taiwan (E. t. friesi); the Ryukyu Islands (E. t. schmackeri); Hainan Island (E. t. mocquardi); southern Thailand and West Malaysia (E. t. ridleyi); and Borneo and Sumatra (E. t. grabowskyi). The last two forms are the famous Cave Racers.

FAMILY	Colubridae: Colubrinae
RISK FACTOR	Nonvenomous, constrictor
DISTRIBUTION	East and Southeast Asia: Russia, China, Ryukyu Islands, Taiwan, northeast India, Bhutan, Myanmar, Thailand, Vietnam, Laos, Peninsular Malaysia, Borneo, and Sumatra
ELEVATION	0–10,200 ft (0–3,100 m) asl
HABITAT	Deciduous forests, rainforests, montane forests, rice paddies, around human habitations, and in limestone caves
DIET	Small mammals, bats, and birds
REPRODUCTION	Oviparous, with clutches of 5–25 eggs, depending on population
CONSERVATION STATUS	IUCN not listed

The Beauty Ratsnake has smooth scales, a long tail, and an elongate head. It is variably patterned, being olive, yellow-brown, or gray-brown, with a dorsal black chain-link pattern and a bold stripe on the tail. The flanks may be heavily flecked with dark pigment. The head is brown above, pale on the lips, with a broad black postocular stripe. The body of the Malaysian Cave Racer (E. t. ridleyi) is pale anteriorly, darker posteriorly and on the tail, with a distinctive yellow vertebral stripe.

EUPREPIOPHIS MANDARINUS
MANDARIN RATSNAKE

(CANTOR, 1842)

ADULT LENGTH
3 ft 3 in–4 ft, rarely 5 ft 7 in (1.0–1.2 m, rarely 1.7 m)

The Mandarin Ratsnake is a poorly documented species that was infrequently seen in nature and for many years did not thrive in captivity. Its range includes southern, eastern, and central China, Taiwan, Tibet, northeastern India, and northern Myanmar and Vietnam. It is found in subtropical montane forest, vine forest, rocky habitats, and even rice paddies, and is rare at low elevations, being much more frequently encountered over 6,560 ft (2,000 m). Its prey in nature is also poorly documented, although one specimen did contain a shrew, while in captivity Mandarin Ratsnakes will feed on rodents. A secretive snake, it inhabits subterranean burrows, and as there is little space to coil and constrict, it will use its body to crush its prey against the burrow wall.

RELATED SPECIES

The genus Euprepiophis contains two other species, the Japanese Burrowing Ratsnake (E. conspicillata) and the even more infrequently encountered and Endangered Szechwan Ratsnake (E. perlacea). Both species also occur at higher elevations.

FAMILY	Colubridae: Colubrinae
RISK FACTOR	Nonvenomous, constrictor
DISTRIBUTION	Southeast Asia: northeastern India, northern Myanmar and Vietnam, Tibet, China, and Taiwan
ELEVATION	1,480–9,840 ft (450–3,000 m) asl
HABITAT	Subtropical montane forest, vine forest, densely vegetated rocky outcrops, upland areas of mixed grass, scrub, bushes, and trees, and rice paddies
DIET	Small mammals
REPRODUCTION	Oviparous, with clutches of 2–10 eggs
CONSERVATION STATUS	IUCN Least Concern

The Mandarin Ratsnake is a moderately stout snake with a short tail and a rounded head, only slightly broader than the neck, with relatively small eyes and round pupils. The patterning of the Mandarin Ratsnake is unmistakable, being light gray, blue-gray, gray-brown, or dark gray with large, oval, black ocelli-like saddles with yellow edges and centers. The head bears two black chevrons, separated by yellow flashes, and a black snout tip.

FICIMIA STRECKERI
TAMAULIPAN HOOKNOSE SNAKE

TAYLOR, 1931

ADULT LENGTH
51/2–9 in, rarely 19 in (140–230 mm, rarely 480 mm)

The Tamaulipan Hooknose Snake inhabits the states of northeastern Mexico, as far south as Veracruz and Puebla, but only enters the United States along the lower Rio Grande, southeastern Texas. It is a small and relatively common, nocturnal, semi-fossorial snake found in arid thornbush habitats, and also near watercourses, such as irrigation ditches or ponds. It preys on spiders, although centipedes and other invertebrates are also taken. Hooknose snakes possess slightly enlarged, grooved rear fangs, but their oral secretions are pre-digestants and benumbing agents that only act on invertebrates. Its defensive tactic involves repeatedly forcing its cloacal lining in and out, making an audible popping sound. John Korn Strecker (1875–1933) was a Baylor University herpetologist.

RELATED SPECIES

Ficimia contains six other species of eastern hooknose snakes, occurring from Mexico to Central America. They are similar in appearance and ecology to the two western hooknose snakes (Gyalopion) of the southwestern USA and Mexico, and the Southwestern Hooknose Snake (Pseudoficimia frontalis) from Mexico.

FAMILY	Colubridae: Colubrinae
RISK FACTOR	Rear-fanged, very mildly venomous; harmless to humans
DISTRIBUTION	North America: southern USA and northern Mexico
ELEVATION	0–4,920 ft (0–1,500 m) asl
HABITAT	Arid thornbush, near watercourses
DIET	Spiders, centipedes, and other invertebrates
REPRODUCTION	Oviparous, with clutches of up to 3 eggs
CONSERVATION STATUS	IUCN Least Concern

The Tamaulipan Hooknose Snake is a short, stocky snake, with smooth scales, a short tail, a narrow head that terminates in a slightly upturned snout, and small eyes with round pupils. It is gray-brown to olive above with a series of irregular transverse dark cross-bands, a dark brown spot under the eye, and an immaculate white venter.

GONYOSOMA BOULENGERI
RHINOCEROS RATSNAKE

(MOCQUARD, 1897)

ADULT LENGTH
4 ft 3 in–5 ft 2 in, rarely 6 ft 7 in (1.3–1.6 m, rarely 2.0 m)

The Rhinoceros Ratsnake, also known as the Vietnamese Horned Snake, is a curious species, with a long, fleshy projection of unknown purpose on its snout. In this respect it bears a strong resemblance to Baron’s Bush Racer (Philodryas baroni) of South America. The Rhinoceros Ratsnake demonstrates a preference for primary rainforest, especially near water, where it is both diurnal and arboreal in behavior. The diet of the Rhinoceros Ratsnake in nature is poorly known but thought to comprise small mammals or birds. This species was named in honor of George Albert Boulenger (1858–1937), a Belgian-British zoologist at the British Museum (Natural History), and one of the most influential herpetologists of his generation.

RELATED SPECIES

Gonyosoma now contains six species of Asian snakes that were previously contained in different genera. Gonyosoma boulengeri was in genus Rhynchophis, as were the Rein Snake (G. frenatum) and the Green Bush Snake (G. prasinum). The Royal Treesnake (G. margaritatum) was in Gonyophis, while the Red-tailed Ratsnake (G. oxycephalum) and Celebes Black-tailed Ratsnake (G. jansenii) were already in Gonyosoma. Not all authors follow this arrangement.

FAMILY	Colubridae: Colubrinae
RISK FACTOR	Nonvenomous, constrictor
DISTRIBUTION	Southeast Asia: southern China, including Hainan Island, and northern Vietnam, including the Norway Islands (Vietnam)
ELEVATION	655–4,920 ft (200–1,500 m) asl
HABITAT	Primary rainforest
DIET	Probably small mammals and birds
REPRODUCTION	Oviparous, with clutches of up to 6 eggs
CONSERVATION STATUS	IUCN Least Concern

The Rhinoceros Ratsnake is a laterally compressed snake with smooth scales, a long tail, and a narrow, elongate head that terminates in a long hornlike projection. It has relatively small eyes and round pupils. Coloration is generally green or bluish-green, paler on the venter, sometimes with a faint mottled pattern on the anterior body. A black line passes from the snout, through the eye, separating the green of the dorsum from the white, or yellow-green of the supralabials, chin, and throat.

GONYOSOMA MARGARITATUM
ROYAL TREESNAKE

PETERS, 1871

ADULT LENGTH
5 ft 7 in–6 ft 7 in (1.7–2.0 m)

Also known as the Rainbow Treesnake, the stunningly attractive Royal Treesnake is poorly known in nature. It inhabits lowland rainforest on the Malay Peninsula, Singapore, and Borneo, but there are reports that it may occur up to 6,560 ft (2,000 m) asl on Mt. Kinabalu in Sabah. The presence of this species is difficult to ascertain as it is a rainforest canopy-dweller that lives hundreds of feet above the forest floor. It has longitudinal keels on its ventral scales that enable it to climb the tall branchless trunks of rainforest emergents with ease. The only information regarding its diet is that a captive specimen refused everything except fish, an unlikely diet in nature for a diurnal canopy-dwelling snake. It is probably oviparous but even that is not known with certainty.

RELATED SPECIES

When the Royal Treesnake was contained in Gonyophis it was monotypic, but it now shares the genus Gonyosoma with five other species, including the Rhinoceros Ratsnake (G. boulengeri).

FAMILY	Colubridae: Colubrinae
RISK FACTOR	Nonvenomous
DISTRIBUTION	Southeast Asia: Peninsular Malaysia, Singapore, and Borneo
ELEVATION	0–2,300 ft (0–700 m), possibly 6,560 ft (2,000 m) asl on Mt. Kinabalu
HABITAT	Lowland rainforest, possibly montane rainforest
DIET	Dietary preferences unknown
REPRODUCTION	Presumed oviparous, clutch size unknown
CONSERVATION STATUS	IUCN Least Concern

The Royal Treesnake is slender and laterally compressed with a whiplike tail, a long head, distinct from the neck, large eyes, and round pupils. The body is green anteriorly, becoming banded with yellow by the midbody, with green replaced by powder blue. Every scale is black-edged, the black becoming dominant on the tail, which is marked by widely separated yellow bands. The head is orange, with broad black postocular stripes, while the throat and undersides of the body are yellow with black scale edging. There are few colors absent from this species’ livery.

GYALOPION QUADRANGULARE
SONORAN HOOKNOSE SNAKE

(GÜNTHER, 1893)

ADULT LENGTH
61/2–91/2 in, rarely 14 in (165–240 mm, rarely 360 mm)

Also known as the Thornscrub Hooknose Snake, the Sonoran Hooknose Snake occurs along the northwestern coast of Mexico, south to Nayarit, and just enters the United States in southern Arizona. It occurs in a variety of habitats, from desert thornbush on hills and in canyons, to creosote- or mesquite-covered hills, to grassy flatlands. It is semi-fossorial in habit and only seen on the surface after rain, and then only at night. Prey primarily consists of spiders, but scorpions, centipedes, and possibly insects and their larvae are also taken. Its defense involves cloacal popping, as described for the Tamaulipan Hooknose Snake (Ficimia streckeri). Hooknose snakes possess slightly enlarged, grooved rear fangs, but their oral secretions are pre-digestants and benumbing agents that specifically target invertebrates. They pose no threat to humans.

RELATED SPECIES

The closest relative of Gyalopion quadrangulare is the Chihuahuan Hooknose Snake (G. canum), which occurs in north-central Mexico and enters the United States in southeastern Arizona, southern New Mexico and southwestern Texas. Related genera include the eastern hooknose snakes (Ficimia) and the Southwestern Hooknose Snake (Pseudoficimia frontalis).

FAMILY	Colubridae: Colubrinae
RISK FACTOR	Rear-fanged, very mildly venomous; harmless to humans
DISTRIBUTION	North America: southeastern USA and northwestern Mexico
ELEVATION	50–4,130 ft (15–1,260 m) asl
HABITAT	Grasslands, thorn scrub, creosote- and mesquite-covered foothills and canyons
DIET	Spiders, scorpions, centipedes
REPRODUCTION	Oviparous, but clutch size unknown
CONSERVATION STATUS	IUCN Least Concern

The Sonoran Hooknose Snake is a small, slender snake with smooth scales, a short tail, and a narrow head, which terminates in a slightly turned-up rostral scale. The eyes are small with round pupils. The dorsum is pink to orange, with alternating black and white square patches that unite to form a broad vertebral stripe, the black patches extending onto the flanks in some specimens. The dorsum of the head bears a black cap, which runs into the first of the black markings on the nape. The venter is cream, with or without black speckling.

HAPSIDOPHRYS SMARAGDINUS
EMERALD SNAKE

(SCHLEGEL, 1837)

ADULT LENGTH
2 ft 4 in–4 ft (0.7–1.2 m)

The Emerald Snake occurs through West and Central Africa, from The Gambia to Uganda, and south to Angola. It is common in West Africa but less common in Central Africa.This species is also reported to occur on São Tomé in the Gulf of Guinea. It is a common arboreal and diurnal species that inhabits rainforests, gallery forest, deciduous woodland, savanna woodland mosaics, and plantations, and also occurs in close proximity to villages. It prefers habitats near water. A pair of longitudinal keels on the ventral scales enable it to scale straight tree trunks. It preys on small frogs such as hyperolid reed frogs, and a variety of lizards, from geckos to agamas. The long tail can be pseudautotomized, but unlike the autotomized tails of lizards it does not regenerate the lost tail.

RELATED SPECIES

Two other species are recognized, the Green-lined Green Snake (Hapsidophrys lineatus), which occurs in sympatry with H. smaragdinus, and the Príncipe Treesnake (H. principis), from Príncipe Island, the neighboring island to São Tomé, in the Gulf of Guinea. All three snakes were previously included in the genus Gastropyxis.

FAMILY	Colubridae: Colubrinae
RISK FACTOR	Nonvenomous
DISTRIBUTION	West and Central Africa: The Gambia to Uganda and Angola, also São Tomé
ELEVATION	0–7,280 ft (0–2,200 m) asl
HABITAT	Rainforest, gallery forest, savanna woodland, deciduous woodland, plantations, and villages
DIET	Lizards and frogs
REPRODUCTION	Oviparous, with clutches of 3–4 eggs
CONSERVATION STATUS	IUCN not listed

The Emerald Snake is a slender, laterally compressed snake with keeled scales, a very long tail, a long head, just distinct from the neck, large eyes, and round pupils. The dorsal color is dark or emerald green (smaragdinus means emerald green), the anterior body also being marked with several rows of pale blue and black spots, and the head by a dark stripe through the eye that separates the green dorsum from the yellow lips. The venter is pale green, while the throat is yellow.

HEMEROPHIS SOCOTRAE
SOCOTRAN RACER

(GÜNTHER, 1881)

ADULT LENGTH
Male
5 ft (1.5 m)

Female
3 ft 3 in (1.0 m)

The Socotran Racer is endemic to the Socotra Islands, a small Yemeni archipelago between Yemen and Somalia in the Arabian Sea. It is found on Socotra and the smaller islands of Darsa and Samha, known as The Brothers, but is not recorded from Abd al Kuri Island. It is terrestrial, crepuscular, and fast-moving, and it inhabits rocky scrub but is commonest in the vicinity of water, along rivers and around pools and wadis. It is also found in papyrus swamps and along the island coastline in sandy habitats. Prey consists of lizards and rodents, but one author reports that Socotran Racers feed on sea fish, an unlikely natural diet. The endemic Socotran Racer is threatened by habitat loss, road kills, and active persecution.

RELATED SPECIES

At one time the genus Hemerophis also contained the Kunene Racer (Mopanveldophis zebrinus) from Namibia. Nothing is known of the closest relatives of Hemerophis socotrae.

FAMILY	Colubridae: Colubrinae
RISK FACTOR	Nonvenomous
DISTRIBUTION	Indian Ocean: Socotra Islands (Yemen)
ELEVATION	0–2,950 ft (0–900 m) asl
HABITAT	Rocky scrub near wadis, rivers, papyrus swamps, and in coastal areas
DIET	Lizards, small mammals, and possibly sea fish
REPRODUCTION	Oviparous, clutch size unknown
CONSERVATION STATUS	IUCN Near Threatened

The Socotran Racer is an elongate snake with smooth scales, a long tail, and a narrow head with a squarish snout, large eyes, and round pupils. The head is black above, white on the sides. The anterior body is banded black and salmon-pink, the dark bands being 1.5 times wider than the pale interspaces, which become narrower and white, heavily flecked with black, on the posterior body, the tail being virtually entirely black. The venter is yellowish, reddish, or olive.

HEMORRHOIS HIPPOCREPIS
HORSESHOE WHIPSNAKE

(LINNAEUS, 1758)

ADULT LENGTH
3 ft 3 in–5 ft, rarely 6 ft 7 in (1.0–1.5 m, rarely 2.0 m)

The Horseshoe Whipsnake, which is sometimes called the Horseshoe Racer, is a fast-moving, diurnal snake found in southern Spain, Portugal, northern Morocco, Tunisia, and Algeria. It also inhabits the Italian Mediterranean islands of Sardinia and Pantelleria. The preferred habitat of the Horseshoe Whipsnake comprises open, scrub-covered rocky hillsides, but it also inhabits anthropogenic habitats such as plantations, olive groves, vineyards, abandoned buildings, and dry stone walls—anywhere with rocky ground, abundant prey, and escape routes. Its prey preferences are also wide, from the insects eaten by juveniles, to lizards, snakes, birds and their eggs, reptile eggs, and small mammals as adults. This is a highly alert predator that actively seeks and runs down its prey. It is also a nervous snake that avoids human confrontations, but will bite if cornered or handled. It is nonvenomous.

RELATED SPECIES

Hemorrhois hippocrepis has three close relatives: the Algerian Whipsnake (H. algirus) from North Africa, Asian Whipsnake (H. nummifer) from Greece to Egypt and east to Kazakhstan, and the Spotted Whipsnake (H. ravergieri), which occurs through the same region but farther east to Mongolia.

FAMILY	Colubridae: Colubrinae
RISK FACTOR	Nonvenomous
DISTRIBUTION	Southwestern Europe and northwest Africa: Spain, Portugal, Italy, Morocco, Tunisia, and Algeria
ELEVATION	0–7,410 ft (0–2,260 m) asl
HABITAT	Rocky and scrubby hillsides, vineyards, olive groves, plantations, garbage dumps, cemeteries, dry stone walls, and abandoned settlements
DIET	Lizards, small mammals, snakes, birds and their eggs, reptile eggs, and insects
REPRODUCTION	Oviparous, with clutches of 5–11 eggs
CONSERVATION STATUS	IUCN Least Concern

The Horseshoe Whipsnake is a slender, smooth-scaled snake, with a long tail, a head just distinct from the neck, large eyes, and round pupils. The ground color varies from gray to yellow or olive with a dorsal pattern comprising a vertebral series of large, dark brown, coin-like or ocelli markings, often with light centers, and a smaller, less well-defined series on either flank. The common name comes from a bold horseshoe marking on the dorsum of the head in most specimens.

HIEROPHIS VIRIDIFLAVUS
WESTERN WHIPSNAKE

(LACÉPÈDE, 1789)

ADULT LENGTH
4 ft 7 in–5 ft 2 in (1.4–1.6 m)

The Western Whipsnake occurs in southern Europe, from northeastern Spain, France, and Switzerland to Corsica, Sardinia, Italy, Sicily, Malta, Slovenia, and Croatia, in two distinct forms, a western patterned morphotype and an eastern melanistic morphotype. This is an alert, fast-moving, diurnal, and terrestrial inhabitant of rocky slopes and fields, forest edges and clearings, and anthropogenic habitats ranging from railway embankments to vineyards and quarries. It is a sun-loving species that actively hunts rodents, lizards, smaller snakes, and birds, with amphibians and insects taken by juveniles. Although a terrestrial species it is also an adept climber, which may be found basking or foraging in trees and bushes. Although nonvenomous, this is a nervous snake that will flee if the opportunity exists, but if captured it will bite freely and repeatedly.

RELATED SPECIES

Two subspecies are sometimes recognized, the nominate western form (Hierophis viridiflavus viridiflavus) and the usually melanistic eastern form (H. v. carbonarius). An isolated population on Gyaros Island, formerly known as Dolichophis gyarosensis, is now believed to have been introduced by man in historical times. The other members of the genus are the Andreas Racer (H. andreanus) from Iran, and the Balkan Racer (H. gemonensis), which occurs in the Balkans, Greece and Italy. The whipsnakes of genus Dolichophis (shown here) and the Slender Racer (Orientocoluber spinalis) are also related to Hierophis.

FAMILY	Colubridae: Colubrinae
RISK FACTOR	Nonvenomous
DISTRIBUTION	Southern Europe: northeast Spain, France, western Switzerland, Italy, Malta, Slovenia, Croatia, and Gyaros Island (Greece)
ELEVATION	0–6,890 ft (0–2,100 m) asl
HABITAT	Dry rocky slopes, forest edges and clearings, abandoned buildings, vineyards, railway embankments, and quarries
DIET	Lizards, small mammals, snakes, birds and their eggs, amphibians, and insects
REPRODUCTION	Oviparous, with clutches of up to 20 eggs
CONSERVATION STATUS	IUCN Least Concern

The Western Whipsnake is a large snake with a long tail, smooth scales, a broad head that is distinct from the neck, large eyes, and round pupils. Juveniles may be pale brown with faint transverse markings and a dark-blotched head. Adults are dorsally black with fine yellow or yellow-green transverse markings on the anterior body, speckling on the posterior body, and fine stripes on the tail. The head bears numerous yellow-green spots while the lips, throat, and neck are yellow or yellow-green. The venter is yellow-gray with dark spotting.

LAMPROPELTIS ALTERNA
GRAY-BANDED KINGSNAKE

(BROWN, 1902)

ADULT LENGTH
2 ft 4 in–3 ft 3 in, rarely 5 ft (0.7–1.0 m, rarely 1.5 m)

The Gray-banded Kingsnake is found in southwestern Texas and southeastern New Mexico, and into Mexico as far south as Zacatecas state. It occurs in Chihuahuan Desert canyons, with gravel substrates vegetated with creosote bushes, mesquite and acacia trees, and cacti. Secretive by nature, it shelters during the day in rocky crevices, emerging as night falls to hunt its primary prey—sleeping diurnal lizards. It also takes lizard eggs, small mice, and frogs, but unlike many other kingsnakes and milksnakes it has not been recorded taking other snakes. Heavy rainfall may also trigger foraging activity in the Gray-banded Kingsnake. Prey is often captured in mammal burrows or rocky crevices because this rarely encountered kingsnake is reportedly an ineffectual constrictor that kills prey more easily by pressing it against a hard surface.

RELATED SPECIES

Lampropeltis alterna was previously a subspecies of the Mexican Kingsnake (L. mexicana), which occurs to its south. Some authors recognize two subspecies, the nominate subspecies (L. a. alterna) and Blair’s Kingsnake (L. a. blairi). The related Mexican Kingsnake also contains two to three subspecies, the San Luis Potosi Kingsnake (L. m. mexicana), Thayer’s Kingsnake (L. m. thayeri), and Durango Mountain Kingsnake (L. m. greeri), all from Mexico. Another close relative is Ruthven’s Kingsnake or the Queretaro Mountain Kingsnake (L. ruthveni), found to the south of the Mexican Kingsnake’s range.

FAMILY	Colubridae: Colubrinae
RISK FACTOR	Nonvenomous
DISTRIBUTION	North America: southern USA and northern Mexico
ELEVATION	1,480–5,970 ft (450–1,820 m) asl
HABITAT	Arid Chihuahuan Desert habitats, rocky canyons, with gravel soils and cacti, creosote, and mesquite, or rocky outcrops
DIET	Lizards, lizard eggs, small mammals, and frogs
REPRODUCTION	Oviparous, with clutches of 3–14 eggs
CONSERVATION STATUS	IUCN Least Concern

The Gray-banded Kingsnake has smooth scales, a cylindrical body, and a distinct head, tapering to a pointed snout. The eyes are small and protruding, with round pupils. It is pale to dark gray dorsally, with a series of black-edged bands, narrow in L. a. alterna and broad with red or orange centers in L.. a. blairi.

LAMPROPELTIS CALIFORNIAE
CALIFORNIAN KINGSNAKE

(BLAINVILLE, 1835)

ADULT LENGTH
2 ft 4 in–3 ft 3 in, rarely 4 ft (0.7–1.0 m, rarely 1.2 m)

The Californian Kingsnake is found from southern Oregon to California, Utah, Arizona, and the Baja California Peninsula and Sonora, Mexico. It inhabits coastal regions and also high desert locations, and may be encountered in almost any habitat, from desert and semidesert to agricultural environments and swamps, and it is often associated with water. A powerful constrictor, its prey preferences are as wide as its habitat preferences, with frogs, salamanders, lizards, turtles and their eggs, snakes (including venomous rattlesnakes), birds and their eggs, and small mammals all featuring in the diet. Juveniles may also eat large insects. The Californian Kingsnake is active by day or night. It is inoffensive when handled, and is a good pet species, certainly compared to the related Speckled Kingsnake (Lampropeltis holbrooki), which bites easily.

RELATED SPECIES

Lampropeltis californiae was formerly a subspecies of the Eastern Kingsnake (L. getula), but the latter is now split into five species, the other three being the Speckled Kingsnake (L. holbrooki), Desert Kingsnake (L. splendida), and Black Kingsnake (L. nigra). The Santa Catalina Island Kingsnake (L. catalinensis) was a former synonym of L. californiae.

FAMILY	Colubridae: Colubrinae
RISK FACTOR	Nonvenomous, constrictor
DISTRIBUTION	North America: southwestern USA and northwestern Mexico
ELEVATION	0–5,970 ft (0–1,820 m) asl
HABITAT	Desert, semidesert, canyons, open grasslands, prairie, agricultural habitats, and swamps
DIET	Insects, frogs, salamanders, lizards, other snakes, turtles and turtle eggs, birds and their eggs, small mammals
REPRODUCTION	Oviparous, with clutches of 2–24 eggs
CONSERVATION STATUS	IUCN not listed; L. getula Least Concern

The Californian Kingsnake is a cylindrical snake with smooth scales, a moderately long tail, a rounded head with moderately large eyes, and round pupils. Its patterning can be highly variable, there being a vertebrally striped “californiae” morphotype, and a banded “boylii” morphotype, both of which may occur in “coastal” livery—brown with cream or yellow bands/stripes, or “desert” livery—black with white bands/stripes. Californian Kingsnakes have yellowish heads with darker pigment on the posterior of the head, the snout, and on the sutures between the scutes.

LAMPROPELTIS CALLIGASTER
YELLOW-BELLIED KINGSNAKE

(HARLAN, 1827)

ADULT LENGTH
233/4–351/2 in, rarely 5 ft (600–900 mm, rarely 1.5 m)

The Yellow-bellied Kingsnake is a secretive and rarely encountered species. The three races are found through eastern USA from eastern Texas, north to southern Iowa, and east to Maryland and the Carolinas. It is virtually absent from Florida, except for small populations in the Panhandle, and an isolated race around Lake Okeechobee in central Florida. Habitats range from arid prairie grassland to wet meadows and pastures, salt-grass savanna, and deciduous and mixed woodland. The western race feeds primarily on small mammals, while the eastern races are more inclined to take other reptiles. All three forms are generally docile when handled. During the day this species will shelter under flat rocks or in animal burrows, so it is only rarely encountered when moving abroad at night, especially following heavy rain.

RELATED SPECIES

Lampropeltis calligaster contains three subspecies: the Prairie Kingsnake (L. c. calligaster) from the west of the range, the Mole Kingsnake (L. c. rhombomaculata) from the east of the range, and the South Florida Mole Kingsnake (L. c. occipitolineata) from Lake Okeechobee environs. Lampropeltis calligaster may be the most basal (primitive) living member of the genus. Also near the base of Lampropeltis is the Short-tailed Snake (L. extenuata), from Florida, which was formerly in Stilosoma.

FAMILY	Colubridae: Colubrinae
RISK FACTOR	Nonvenomous, constrictor
DISTRIBUTION	North America: eastern USA
ELEVATION	0–3,000 ft (0–915 m) asl
HABITAT	Dry prairie, wet meadow, salt-grass savanna, rocky hillsides, riverine woodland, deciduous and mixed woodland
DIET	Small mammals and birds, amphibians, lizards, and snakes
REPRODUCTION	Oviparous, with clutches of 6–17 eggs
CONSERVATION STATUS	IUCN Least Concern

The Yellow-bellied Kingsnake is a slender species with smooth scales, a relatively short tail, a narrow, slightly pointed head, and moderately large eyes with round pupils. Patterning consists of a series of red to dark brown cross-bars, sometimes light-edged, on a ground color that varies from dark gray to gray-brown or pale gray. A corresponding series of lateral blotches is also present and dark rows of blotches are present on the pale venter. There is also a dark postocular stripe.

LAMPROPELTIS PYROMELANA
ARIZONA MOUNTAIN KINGSNAKE

(COPE, 1867)

ADULT LENGTH
271/2–351/2 in, rarely 3 ft 3 in (700–900 mm, rarely 1.0 m)

Originally known as the Sonoran Mountain Kingsnake, when it contained four subspecies and was more widely distributed, the now more localized Arizona Mountain Kingsnake is found in montane habitats from Utah and Nevada to Arizona and New Mexico in the USA, although it may cross the border into northern Sonora and Chihuahua, Mexico. It is found at high elevations, over 8,200 ft (2,500 m), but is much less frequently encountered below 4,920 ft (1,500 m) and does not occur in lowland habitats. Its montane populations are isolated and vulnerable to overcollecting, fire, or other threats. Preferred habitats include rocky wooded canyons with talus slopes, deciduous forest, and coniferous forest at the highest elevations. Prey consists of lizards and small mammals, with birds and snakes also taken.

RELATED SPECIES

Lampropeltis pyromelana contained four subspecies but one of these, the Chihuahuan Mountain Kingsnake (L. knoblochi), was elevated to specific status, with the Huachuca Mountain Kingsnake (L. p. woodini) in its synonymy. The Utah Mountain Kingsnake (L. p. infralabialis) has been synonymized with the Arizona Mountain Kingsnake (L. p. pyromelana). The recently described Webb’s Kingsnake (L. webbi), from western Mexico, is also believed to be related to this group. Lampropeltis pyromelana also closely resembles the California Mountain Kingsnake (L. zonata) and venomous Sonoran Coralsnake (Micruroides euryxanthus).

FAMILY	Colubridae: Colubrinae
RISK FACTOR	Nonvenomous, constrictor
DISTRIBUTION	North America: southwestern USA and possibly northern Mexico
ELEVATION	2,790–8,860 ft (850–2,700 m) asl
HABITAT	Rocky, wooded canyons, scree and talus slopes, and montane deciduous and coniferous woodland, usually near water
DIET	Lizards, small mammals, birds, and other snakes
REPRODUCTION	Oviparous, with clutches of 1–9 eggs
CONSERVATION STATUS	IUCN Least Concern

The Arizona Mountain Kingsnake is a cylindrical snake with smooth scales, a moderately long tail, and a narrow head, only lightly distinct from the neck, with bulbous eyes and round pupils. The snout tip is white or yellow, and there is a glossy black mask over the eyes and most of the posterior head, followed by another white/yellow band. Thereafter the body is patterned with distinctive, broad red bands, between narrow black bands, with narrow white/yellow interspaces.

LAMPROPELTIS TRIANGULUM
EASTERN MILKSNAKE

(LACÉPÈDE, 1789)

ADULT LENGTH
2 ft 4 in–3 ft 3 in, rarely 4 ft 3 in (0.7–1.0 m, rarely 1.3 m)

The Eastern Milksnake occurs from Ontario, Canada, south through the New England states of the USA to North Carolina, northern Alabama and Georgia, west to Arkansas and Kansas, and north to Wisconsin and Michigan, taking in the range of the former subspecies syspila and the northeastern Louisiana part of the former amaura range. Although tricolored, this species is not a banded coralsnake mimic, like the other milksnakes within Lampropeltis triangulum in its broadest definition. The Eastern Milksnake inhabits rocky hillsides, scree slopes, deciduous and coniferous woodlands, riverine floodplains, marsh edges, and abandoned buildings. Prey consists primarily of small rodents, but small snakes, lizards, birds, and both reptile and bird eggs are also eaten. When alarmed, Eastern Milksnakes vibrate their tails, which makes a rattling sound on dead leaves, like the venomous Copperhead (Agkistrodon contortrix).

RELATED SPECIES

The Milksnake (Lampropeltis triangulum) was one of the most speciose and widely distributed American snake species, with 25 subspecies. Recent molecular advances demonstrate that at least seven species are involved. Lampropeltis triangulum is now confined to eastern North America. The other species are the Scarlet Milksnake (L. elapsoides) from southeastern USA, Western Milksnake (L. gentilis) from central USA, Northeast Mexican Milksnake (L. annulata), Mexican Milksnake (L. polyzona), Central American Milksnake (L. abnorma), and South American Milksnake (L. micropholis), which occurs as far south as Ecuador. No subspecies are currently recognized.

FAMILY	Colubridae: Colubrinae
RISK FACTOR	Nonvenomous, constrictor
DISTRIBUTION	North America: eastern Canada and USA
ELEVATION	0–10,900 ft (0–3,330 m) asl
HABITAT	Rocky hillsides, deciduous and pine woodlands, scrub, marsh edges, riverine floodplains, and abandoned buildings
DIET	Small mammals, birds, eggs, lizards, small snakes, frogs, salamanders, and various invertebrates
REPRODUCTION	Oviparous, with clutches of 5–20 eggs
CONSERVATION STATUS	IUCN not listed

The Eastern Milksnake has a narrow head, slightly distinct from the neck, and moderately large eyes with round pupils. Its normal pattern consists of red, orange, or brown dorsal saddles with black edges, on a gray or cream background. The dorsum of the head bears a brown or red V-shaped marking, which is contiguous with the first dark dorsal saddle. The other former triangulum species are classic tricolor red, black, and yellow banded, with the red and black pigment in contact.

LAMPROPELTIS ZONATA
CALIFORNIA MOUNTAIN KINGSNAKE

(LACÉPÈDE, 1789)

ADULT LENGTH
2 ft 7 in–3 ft 3 in, rarely 4 ft (0.8–1.0 m, rarely 1.2 m)

The range of the California Mountain Kingsnake is centered on California but extends north into Oregon, and there are isolated populations on the Oregon–Washington border, and also a population in Baja California, Mexico. It occurs in a variety of habitats from chaparral to deciduous woodland and coniferous forest at higher elevations, and riverine forest at lower elevations. South-facing slopes with rocks and vegetation are optimal habitats. The California Mountain Kingsnake appears to feed largely on reptiles, particularly lizards, which are chased and captured. Small snakes and birds and their eggs also feature in their diet. It has been suggested that the species’ bright colors prompt attacks from the parent birds and that it may be guided to the nest based on the intensity of the birds’ mobbing.

RELATED SPECIES

Lampropeltis zonata has been listed with as many as seven subspecies, although currently none are recognized. The population from Todos Santos Island, in the Pacific off Baja California (L. herrerae), considered by some authors to be a subspecies of L. zonata, is listed as Critically Endangered by the IUCN. The closest relatives of L. zonata are the Arizona Mountain Kingsnake (L. pyromelana), Chihuahuan Mountain Kingsnake (L. knoblochi), and the recently described Webb’s Kingsnake (L. webbi).

FAMILY	Colubridae: Colubrinae
RISK FACTOR	Nonvenomous, constrictor
DISTRIBUTION	North America: western USA and northwestern Mexico
ELEVATION	0–10,900 ft (0–3,330 m) asl
HABITAT	Deciduous woodland, coniferous forest, chaparral, riverine woodland, and rocky canyon slopes
DIET	Lizards, small birds and their eggs, and small snakes
REPRODUCTION	Oviparous, with clutches of 2–13 eggs
CONSERVATION STATUS	IUCN Least Concern

The California Mountain Kingsnake is a slender, smooth-scaled snake with a relatively short tail and a narrow head, barely distinct from the neck, with medium-sized eyes and round pupils. Its patterning is very similar to that of the Arizona and Chihuahuan Mountain Kingsnakes, with broad red bands between narrow black bands, and white or cream interspaces. The anterior of the head is black, although the snout is sometimes red, followed by a white band around the neck, and then the first black-red-black band.

LEPTOPHIS AHAETULLA
GREEN PARROT SNAKE

(LINNAEUS, 1758)

ADULT LENGTH
4–5 ft, rarely 7 ft 7 in (1.2–1.5 m, rarely 2.3 m)

The Green Parrot Snake, also known as the Green Frogger, occurs from Veracruz, southeastern Mexico, through Central and South America to Argentina and Uruguay. It is found in lowland and low montane rainforest, and also in riverine gallery forest in dry forest habitats. The preferred prey of the Green Parrot Snake comprises frogs, but lizards, snakes, birds and their eggs, and even large insects like grasshoppers are also taken. When it feels threatened the Green Parrot Snake gapes widely, exposing the fleshy interior of the mouth and its blue tongue. A large, rear-fanged, mildly venomous species, it has a long strike and bites easily. The effects of a bite from a large specimen include localized pain followed by numbness. It lays small clutches of eggs in epiphytic bromeliads.

RELATED SPECIES

This widely distributed species is represented by 10–11 subspecies occurring from southern Mexico (Leptophis ahaetulla praestans) to Paraguay, Uruguay, and Argentina (L. a. marginatus). The genus Leptophis includes a further ten species including several green species; the West Coast Parrot Snake (L. diplotropis), endemic to Mexico; Cope’s Parrot Snake (L. depressirostris), from Honduras to Peru; and the Cloud Forest Parrot Snake (L. modestus), from Central America, which is considered Vulnerable by the IUCN.

FAMILY	Colubridae: Colubrinae
RISK FACTOR	Rear-fanged, mildly venomous; relatively harmless to humans
DISTRIBUTION	North, Central, and South America: southern Mexico to Argentina
ELEVATION	0–9,020 ft (0–2,750 m) asl
HABITAT	Lowland and low montane rainforest, and gallery forest in dry forest habitats
DIET	Frogs, lizards, snakes, birds and their eggs, and insects
REPRODUCTION	Oviparous, with clutches of 1–8 eggs
CONSERVATION STATUS	IUCN not listed

The Green Parrot Snake is a large, slender snake with keeled scales arranged in oblique rows, a long tail and a broad head, distinct from the neck, with large eyes and round pupils. The overall color is green, lighter on the venter than the dorsum, with a black postocular stripe, pale yellow lips, and a black and golden iris.

LIOPELTIS FRENATUS
GÜNTHER’S STRIPE-NECKED SNAKE

(GÜNTHER, 1858)

ADULT LENGTH
30 in (760 mm)

Günther’s Stripe-necked Snake occurs in the northeast Indian states from Meghalaya and Assam to Arunachal Pradesh, and also in northern Myanmar, Laos, and Vietnam, where it inhabits subtropical and montane forests, especially those containing bamboo stands and thickets. This species is diurnal and believed to be terrestrial in habit. Specimens have been seen in close proximity to temporary pools containing frogs and their tadpoles and therefore these are its presumed prey, but its diet is otherwise undocumented. This is an oviparous species, which reportedly lays up to five eggs in the internodes of live bamboo stands. It is an inoffensive and completely harmless snake that does not bite when handled.

RELATED SPECIES

There are five other members of the genus Liopeltis, including Stoliczka’s Stripe-necked Snake (L. stoliczkae), which occurs in sympatry with this species. The other species are the Philippine Four-striped Snake (L. philippinus), Sri Lankan Striped Snake (L. calamaria), Himalayan Stripe-necked Snake (L. rappii), and Malayan Ringneck Snake (L. tricolor).

FAMILY	Colubridae: Colubrinae
RISK FACTOR	Nonvenomous
DISTRIBUTION	Southeast Asia: northeast India, Myanmar, Laos, and Vietnam
ELEVATION	2,000–6,000 ft (610–1,830 m) asl
HABITAT	Subtropical and montane forests, and bamboo thickets
DIET	Presumed frogs and tadpoles
REPRODUCTION	Oviparous, with clutches of 4–5 eggs
CONSERVATION STATUS	IUCN Least Concern

Günther’s Stripe-necked Snake is a small snake with smooth scales, a long, prehensile tail, and a head slightly distinct from the neck, with large eyes and round pupils. The dorsal color is mid-brown while the undersides are white. A broad, black postocular stripe exits the eye and narrows on the neck to form the upper of four fine, longitudinal lateral stripes, created by the black edging of the scales. The lips and throat are pale yellow.

LYCODON CAPUCINUS
COMMON ISLAND WOLFSNAKE

(BOIE, 1827)

ADULT LENGTH
193/4–261/2 in (500–670 mm)

The Common Island Wolfsnake occurs from southeastern China, though mainland Southeast Asia and the major archipelagos of the Philippines and Indonesia, to as far south as Timor-Leste. It is a good colonizer, which has been accidentally introduced to the Maldives, the Mascarenes, and Christmas Island (an Australian territory south of Java in the Indian Ocean), Micronesia, and New Guinea. It can occur almost anywhere, and it is especially common in anthropogenic habitats, entering inhabited and uninhabited buildings. Its primary prey consists of the geckos that also occur in human habitations, but skinks and rodents are also taken, and reptile eggs also feature in its diet. Although harmless, the Common Island Wolfsnake will vibrate its tail on leaves to warn potential predators to keep their distance, and it bites easily if handled.

RELATED SPECIES

The Asian genus Lycodon contains up to 50 species and is closely related to the Australo-Papuan genus Stegonotus (shown here). Lycodon capucinus is very similar in appearance to, and was once a subspecies of, the Common Indian Wolfsnake (L. aulicus) from South Asia.

FAMILY	Colubridae: Colubrinae
RISK FACTOR	Nonvenomous
DISTRIBUTION	Southeast Asia: southeastern China to the Philippines, Indonesia, and Timor-Leste, and introduced widely
ELEVATION	0–2,300 ft (0–700 m) asl
HABITAT	Most habitats, including anthropogenic environments
DIET	Lizards, small mammals, and reptile eggs
REPRODUCTION	Oviparous, with clutches of 4–11 eggs
CONSERVATION STATUS	IUCN Least Concern

The Common Island Wolfsnake is a small snake with smooth scales, a moderately long tail, and a broad head that narrows abruptly before the snout, with bulbous eyes and vertically elliptical pupils. The general coloration is brown or gray above and immaculate white below, with the dorsal pigment also heavily flecked with white or pale yellow. The head is brown with a broad white or pale yellow collar, flecked with brown, and white lips with brown flecking.

LYCODON RUFOZONATUS
RED BANDED SNAKE

CANTOR, 1842

ADULT LENGTH
1 ft 8 in–3 ft 3 in, occasionally 4 ft 3 in (0.5–1.0 m, occasionally 1.3 m)

The Red Banded Snake inhabits Vietnam, Laos, China, Mongolia, Korea, and possibly also far eastern Russia. It also occurs on Hainan Island, Taiwan, and the Ryukyu Islands. It is generally a common, nocturnal snake that feeds primarily on frogs but also takes a wide variety of other vertebrates, including small fish, lizards, snakes, birds, and rodents. Its habitats include flood meadows and rice paddies at low montane elevations. When disturbed some specimens elevate the anterior body and further flatten the already flat head, biting readily if handled, while others are inoffensive and prefer thanatosis as a means of defense. The common name should not be hyphenated; this is a red snake with bands, not a red-banded snake.

RELATED SPECIES

This is one of eight species that spent the last century in the genus Dinodon, before being moved back into Lycodon. The main differences between the two genera relate to the arrangement of their teeth. Lycodon rufozonatus contains two subspecies, the mainland nominate subspecies (L. r. rufozonatus), which also occurs on the Tsushima Islands of Japan, and a broader-banded Okinawan subspecies (L. r. walli). Related species include the Rose Banded Snake (L. rosozonatus) and the Yellow Banded Snake (L. flavozonatus).

FAMILY	Colubridae: Colubrinae
RISK FACTOR	Nonvenomous
DISTRIBUTION	East and Southeast Asia: Mongolia, eastern China and Russia, Hainan Island, Korea, Japanese Ryukyu Islands, Taiwan, Laos, and Vietnam
ELEVATION	1,310–3,610 ft (400–1,100 m) asl
HABITAT	Low montane habitats, rice paddies, and flood meadows
DIET	Frogs, lizards, fish, birds, and small mammals
REPRODUCTION	Oviparous, with clutches of 6–10 eggs
CONSERVATION STATUS	IUCN Least Concern, included in the Russian Red List

The Red Banded Snake has a laterally compressed body, a broad, flattened head, and small eyes with vertical pupils. It is a red snake with a series of regular black dorsal bands that begin as a V-shaped marking on the neck and continue to the tail tip. The flanks also bear two rows of irregular black blotches. A black postocular stripe exits the rear of the eye. The venter is white.

LYTORHYNCHUS DIADEMA
CROWNED LEAFNOSE SNAKE

(DUMÉRIL, BIBRON & DUMÉRIL, 1854)

ADULT LENGTH
93/4–113/4 in, rarely 171/4 in (250–300 mm, rarely 440 mm)

Also known as the Awl-headed Snake, the Crowned Leafnose Snake is found from Mauritania to Egypt in North Africa, through much of the Arabian Peninsula, and in western Iran, along the Iraq border and the coast of the Persian Gulf. It is a nocturnal inhabitant of sandy desert habitats, gravel pans, and saltmarshes. The Crowned Leafnose Snake has an enlarged leaf-shaped rostral scale to help it burrow in loose sand, but it also moves easily over the surface, leaving distinct trails. It feeds almost exclusively on lizards, especially sand dune-dwelling geckos. Although nonvenomous, the Crowned Leafnose Snake kills lizards by vigorous chewing, enabling its enlarged rear teeth to introduce its oral secretions into the prey, and it uses its coils for prey restraint until the weak secretions have taken effect.

RELATED SPECIES

Four subspecies are sometimes proposed, but only the widely distributed nominate form (Lytorhynchus diadema diadema) and a northeastern subspecies (L. d. gaddi), from Saudi Arabia, Iraq, and Iran, are widely recognized. Of the other six Lytorhynchus species, Gasperetti’s Leafnose Snake (L. gasperetti) occurs in southwestern Saudi Arabia, while Kennedy’s Leafnose Snake (L. kennedyi) is found in Jordan, Syria, and Iraq. Ridgeway’s Leafnose Snake (L. ridgewayi) occurs in Iran, Afghanistan, and Pakistan, Leviton’s Leafnose Snake (L. levitoni) is also in Iran, while Maynard’s Leafnose Snake (L. maynardi) and the Sindh Leafnose Snake (L. paradoxus) are found in Pakistan.

FAMILY	Colubridae: Colubrinae
RISK FACTOR	Nonvenomous
DISTRIBUTION	North Africa, Arabia, and Western Asia: Mauritania to Egypt, Syria to Oman and Yemen, and western Iran
ELEVATION	0–7,550 ft (0–2,300 m) asl
HABITAT	Sandy deserts, especially where sand meets rock, gravel pans, and saltmarshes
DIET	Lizards and insects
REPRODUCTION	Oviparous, with clutches of 3–5 eggs
CONSERVATION STATUS	IUCN Least Concern

The Crowned Leafnose Snake is a slender snake with a long tail, smooth scales, a long, narrow head that terminates in a leaf-shaped rostral scale, and large eyes with vertically elliptical pupils. Across its range coloration is variable, from pinkish brown to tan or cream, with a series of irregular dorsal brown saddle markings and smaller lateral spots. The venter is white. A bold brown or red-brown crown marking is present on the head, with a band across the snout that continues backward through the eyes as a postocular stripe.

MACROPROTODON CUCULLATUS
COMMON FALSE SMOOTH SNAKE

(GEOFFROY SAINT-HILAIRE, 1827)

ADULT LENGTH
153/4–193/4 in, occasionally 213/4 in (400–500 mm, occasionally 550 mm)

Also known as the Cowled or Hooded Snake, the Common False Smooth Snake resembles the true smooth snakes (Coronella). It is a widely distributed North African species, occurring from the Atlantic coast to the Middle East, but only found in Europe on Lampedusa, an Italian island between Tunisia and Sicily. It prefers open, arid rocky or sandy habitats, with sparse vegetation, but this small species also occurs around human habitations, using broken stone walls or discarded trash as cover. A terrestrial species, it is usually crepuscular, but it may also be active diurnally on overcast days. Small lizards and amphisbaenians (worm-lizards) are its main prey, with mice also taken. Prey is subdued, if not actually killed, by weak venom injected via the snake’s rear fangs.

RELATED SPECIES

The nominate subspecies (Macroprotodon cucullatus cucullatus) occurs on the Mediterranean coast from Tunisia to Egypt, and Israel, while another subspecies (M. c. textilis) inhabits the Tunisian to Moroccan mountains, the Algerian Hoggar region, and Lampedusa Island. Three other species occur from Spain, Portugal, and Morocco (M. brevis), the Morocco–Algeria border region (M. abubakeri), and Algeria to Tunisia, and the Balearic Islands (M. mauritanicus).

FAMILY	Colubridae: Colubrinae
RISK FACTOR	Rear-fanged, mildly venomous; harmless to humans
DISTRIBUTION	North Africa and Middle East: Western Sahara, Morocco, Algeria, Tunisia, Libya, Egypt, southwestern Israel; also Lampedusa Island, Italy
ELEVATION	0–8,200 ft (0–2,500 m) asl
HABITAT	Arid open habitats with sparse vegetation, rocky habitats, and around human habitations
DIET	Lizards, amphisbaenians, and small mammals
REPRODUCTION	Oviparous, with clutches of 5–7 eggs
CONSERVATION STATUS	IUCN Least Concern

The Common False Smooth Snake is a small, slender snake with smooth scales, a relatively short tail, a broad head, medium-sized eyes, and round pupils. It is generally pale gray or gray-brown with body patterning limited to faint spotting of darker pigment. The dorsum of the head is marked by a dark V-shape that runs into a broad dark collar or nape band, the cowl or mask, while a black stripe may also pass through the eye.

MASTICOPHIS FLAGELLUM
COACHWHIP

(SHAW, 1802)

ADULT LENGTH
3 ft 3 in–5 ft, occasionally 8 ft 6 in (1.0–1.5 m, occasionally 2.6 m)

The Coachwhip is a widely distributed species in the southern USA, found from Florida to California, almost coast to coast, although it is absent from the Mississippi Valley and coastal California. It also occurs farther south into central Mexico. This large, highly alert, fast-moving, diurnal snake is terrestrial but also hunts for prey in underground burrows. Prey mainly comprises lizards and small mammals, which are actively pursued or ambushed, but birds, amphibians, snakes including rattlesnakes, reptile eggs, and even insects are also eaten. The common name and the term flagellum both allude to an old wives’ tale that this snake will coil its body around a person’s legs and then lash them repeatedly with its whiplike tail. This is of course false. Coachwhips are nonvenomous, but bite quickly if handled.

RELATED SPECIES

This widely distributed species contains six subspecies: the Eastern Coachwhip (Masticophis flagellum flagellum), Western Coachwhip (M. f. testaceus), Lined Coachwhip (M. f. lineatulus), Red Coachwhip (M. f. piceus), Sonoran Coachwhip (M. f. cingulum), and San Joaquin Coachwhip (M. f. ruddocki). Related species include the Baja California Coachwhip (M. fuliginosus), a former subspecies, the Sonoran Whipsnake (M. bilineatus), and the Critically Endangered Clarion Island Whipsnake (M. anthonyi). All 11 species of Masticophis are included in the genus Coluber (shown here) by other authors.

FAMILY	Colubridae: Colubrinae
RISK FACTOR	Nonvenomous, constrictor
DISTRIBUTION	North America: southern USA to central Mexico
ELEVATION	8,200 ft (0–2,500 m) asl
HABITAT	Mesquite grassland, chaparral and prairie, farmland, thornbush and creosote scrub, deciduous and mixed woodland, and desert
DIET	Lizards, small mammals, birds, other snakes, reptile eggs, amphibians, and insects
REPRODUCTION	Oviparous, with clutches of 4–24 eggs
CONSERVATION STATUS	IUCN Least Concern

The Coachwhip is a slender snake with smooth scales, a long tail, a narrow head that tapers to a relatively pointed snout, and protruding supraocular scales over the large eyes, presenting a scowling expression. Coloration is variable, depending on subspecies, ranging from two-tone, with a black anterior body and head and a tan or red-brown posterior body and tail, to black, red-brown, yellow-brown, gray-brown, or pale pink throughout, with darker cross-bands.

MASTIGODRYAS BODDAERTI
BODDAERT’S TROPICAL RACER

(SENTZEN, 1796)

ADULT LENGTH
3 ft 3 in–4 ft, rarely 5 ft 2 in (1.0–1.2 m, rarely 1.6 m)

Boddaert’s Tropical Racer, also called the Tan Racer, is widely distributed across northern South America from Colombia to Trinidad and Tobago, where it is called “machete couesse,” and south to Brazil and Bolivia. It is a closed-canopy species found in primary and secondary wet and dry forest, plantations, and forest-edge situations merging into savanna. It is also encountered close to semi-permanent ponds and other watercourses, or basking in sunny spots on trails or in treefall clearings. It can climb into low vegetation, but is more often seen on the forest floor. An alert, diurnal, terrestrial species, it hunts lizards, frogs, nestling birds, rodents, and large insects. Pieter Boddaert (1730–96) was a Dutch naturalist-physician and a friend of Carl Linnaeus.

RELATED SPECIES

The majority of the range is occupied by the nominate form (Mastigodryas boddaerti boddaerti), but a second subspecies may also occur in Colombia and Venezuela (M. b. ruthveni). The nominate subspecies occurs on Trinidad, but the Tobago and Little Tobago populations are treated as distinct (M. b. dunni). The genus Mastigodryas also contains a further 13 species distributed from southern Mexico to northern Argentina, and into the Lesser Antilles (M. bruesi). A number of species, including the Brazilian Tropical Racer (M. bifossatus), occur in sympatry with M. boddaerti.

FAMILY	Colubridae: Colubrinae
RISK FACTOR	Nonvenomous
DISTRIBUTION	Northern South America: Colombia, Venezuela, the Guianas, Trinidad and Tobago, Brazil, Ecuador, Peru, and Bolivia
ELEVATION	0–7,280 ft (0–2,200 m) asl
HABITAT	Primary and secondary wet and dry tropical forests, forest edges, and plantations
DIET	Frogs, lizards, nestling birds, small mammals, and large insects
REPRODUCTION	Oviparous, with clutches of up to 5 eggs
CONSERVATION STATUS	IUCN not listed

Boddaert’s Tropical Racer is a slender snake with smooth scales, a long tail, and an elongate head, just distinct from the neck, with large eyes and round pupils. Juveniles are brown above and white below and on the lips, with a dorsal pattern of alternative dark and light cross-bands and a faint dorsolateral stripe. Adults are red-brown or dark tan above with a much more distinctive yellow-brown stripe, no cross-bands, and a yellowish venter, throat, and lips.

MEIZODON SEMIORNATUS
SEMIORNATE SMOOTH SNAKE

(PETERS, 1854)

ADULT LENGTH
Male
153/4–173/4 in (400–450 mm)

Female
233/4–251/2 in, rarely 311/2 in (600–650 mm, rarely 800 mm)

The Semiornate Smooth Snake is a small, widely distributed species found from Ethiopia and Somalia to northeastern South Africa and Swaziland. It is also found farther west in South Sudan, Cameroon, and Chad. It inhabits arid and wet habitats, from desert, semidesert, dry woodland, and Sahel savannas, to montane grasslands, and around watercourses, both permanent and temporary. This species also inhabits coastal thickets and woodlands, which exhibit higher humidity than some of the inland habitats. The prey of the secretive, nonvenomous Semiornate Smooth Snake comprises frogs and lizards such as geckos. Although primarily terrestrial it can climb and it often shelters in hollow trees or behind tree bark, places where it may also encounter its preferred prey. It is inoffensive and does not bite when handled.

RELATED SPECIES

Two subspecies are recognized, the East and southern African populations belonging to the nominate subspecies (Meizodon semiornatus semiornatus), while the South Sudan, Cameroon, and Chad population is treated as a separate subspecies (M. s. tchadensis). There is also a possible record from Yemen. Meizodon contains four other species: the Western Crowned Smooth Snake (M. coronatus), Tana Delta Smooth Snake (M. krameri), Black-headed Smooth Snake (M. plumiceps), and Eastern Crowned Smooth Snake (M. regularis).

FAMILY	Colubridae: Colubrinae
RISK FACTOR	Nonvenomous
DISTRIBUTION	Sub-Saharan Africa: Ethiopia and Somalia to Chad and Cameroon, to Swaziland and northeastern South Africa; possibly Yemen
ELEVATION	0–7,220 ft (0–2,200 m) asl
HABITAT	Desert, semidesert, coastal thickets, woodland, savanna, low montane grassland, and riverine and seasonally flooded habitats
DIET	Frogs and lizards
REPRODUCTION	Oviparous, with clutches of 2–3 eggs
CONSERVATION STATUS	IUCN not listed

The Semiornate Smooth Snake is a small, smooth-scaled, glossy snake with a flattened head, distinct from the neck, and large eyes with round pupils. Coloration is olive-brown, gray, or gray-brown with a pattern of irregular black cross-bands on the anterior body, those on the nape being broader and more distinct. The dorsum of the head is black and the undersides are white.

MOPANVELDOPHIS ZEBRINUS
KUNENE RACER

(BROADLEY & SCHÄTTI, 2000)

ADULT LENGTH
271/2–311/2 in (700–800 mm)

The Kunene Racer is named for the Kunene River, which forms part of the border between Namibia and Angola, but is also known as the Zebra Racer due to its distinctive patterning. The holotype was accidentally run over by two herpetologists and the species is still only known from a few specimens. The habitat of the Kunune Racer comprises rocky, scrubby habitats and savanna woodland dominated by mopane trees, with scattered dolomite granite outcrops. It is diurnal and terrestrial and preys on geckos and skinks. It is also oviparous but the clutch size is unknown. The Kunene Racer’s patterning may mimic that of the highly venomous Zebra Spitting Cobra (Naja nigricincta), with which it occurs in sympatry, the racer possibly being afforded some protection from predators by this subterfuge.

RELATED SPECIES

This species was once contained in the genus Hemerophis with the endemic Socotran Racer (H. socotrae) from the Arabian Sea. Hemerophis zebrinus may also be related to the Flowered Racer (Platyceps florulentus) from north and northeastern Africa.

FAMILY	Colubridae: Colubrinae
RISK FACTOR	Nonvenomous
DISTRIBUTION	Southern Africa: northwest Namibia
ELEVATION	2,560 ft (780 m) asl
HABITAT	Rocky and scrubby riverine habitats, and savanna dominated by mopane trees, with scattered rocky outcrops
DIET	Lizards
REPRODUCTION	Oviparous, clutch size unknown
CONSERVATION STATUS	IUCN not listed

The Kunene Racer is a slender, smooth-scaled snake, with a long tail, a head just distinct from the neck, moderately large eyes, and round pupils. It is pale to olive-brown or gray, paler on the flanks and venter, with a dorsal pattern of broad, darker cross-bands and irregular spots on the flanks, the patterning fading on the tail. The head is gray-brown with yellowish labials.

OLIGODON ARNENSIS
BANDED KUKRI SNAKE

(SHAW, 1802)

ADULT LENGTH
133/4–271/2 in (350–700 mm)

The Banded Kukri Snake inhabits the Indian subcontinent, from Nepal to southern India, and the island of Sri Lanka. It occurs in a wide variety of habitats, both pristine and disturbed, from wet and dry forests to parks and gardens, and even human habitations. A nocturnal or crepuscular snake, it shelters during the day in tree holes, termite mounds, under logs, or in rocky crevices. At night it hunts lizards, small snakes, and mice in the leaf litter, but all kukri snakes also possess specialized sharp “kukri-blade” teeth to enable them to cut into the reptile eggs that form a major part of their diet. Juveniles also feed on insects and spiders. Although kukri snakes are generally inoffensive they can inflict deep slashing wounds with their bladelike teeth.

RELATED SPECIES

The genus Oligodon is the largest genus of the Colubridae, with 80 species. The species believed to be most closely related to O. arnensis is the Elegant Kukri Snake (O. venustus) from peninsular India. Other species occurring in sympatry include the White-barred Kukri Snake (O. albocinctus), Streaked Kukri Snake (O. taeniolatus), and Stripe-bellied Kukri Snake (O. sublineatus).

FAMILY	Colubridae: Colubrinae
RISK FACTOR	Nonvenomous
DISTRIBUTION	South Asia: India, Nepal, Pakistan, Bangladesh, and Sri Lanka
ELEVATION	330–6,560 ft (100–2,000 m) asl
HABITAT	Wet and dry forests, parks, and gardens
DIET	Lizards, snakes, small mammals, reptile eggs, and insects
REPRODUCTION	Oviparous, with clutches of 3–9 eggs
CONSERVATION STATUS	IUCN not listed

The Banded Kukri Snake is a short, stocky snake with smooth scales, a short tail, and a rounded head with a blunt snout that terminates with a broad, shield-shaped rostral scale. The eyes are large with round pupils. The dorsum is pale brown with a series of light-edged, regularly spaced black cross-bands and a series of three inverted black chevrons on the head and neck. The undersides are white.

OLIGODON OCTOLINEATUS
EIGHT-STRIPED KUKRI SNAKE

(SCHNEIDER, 1801)

ADULT LENGTH
233/4–271/2 in (600–700 mm)

The Eight-striped Kukri Snake occurs on the Malay Peninsula, on Singapore and the Greater Sunda Islands: Borneo, Sumatra, and Java. It inhabits pristine lowland and low montane dipterocarp forest but also occurs in secondary growth and disturbed or human-altered habitats such as gardens. It is nocturnal and terrestrial in habit, but can climb into bushes and hunt aloft. Prey is varied, from frogs and lizards to other snakes, and reptile and birds’ eggs. The leathery shells of snake or lizard eggs are slit open by the Eight-striped Kukri Snake’s remarkably sharp, specialized teeth. Although this is a generally inoffensive snake it will bite if handled and is capable of delivering a painful, bloody bite with the same teeth it uses to slice eggs.

RELATED SPECIES

Oligodon octolineatus does not appear to be closely related to any other species, but other Southeast Asian kukri snakes occurring in sympatry include the Jewelled Kukri Snake (Oligodon everetti), Spotted Kukri Snake (O. annulifer), and Purple Kukri Snake (O. purpurascens).

FAMILY	Colubridae: Colubrinae
RISK FACTOR	Nonvenomous
DISTRIBUTION	Southeast Asia: Malay Peninsula, Singapore, Borneo, Sumatra, and Java
ELEVATION	0–3,280 ft (0–1,000 m) asl.
HABITAT	Lowland and low montane dipterocarp forests, also disturbed habitats and gardens
DIET	Frogs, lizards, snakes, and reptile and birds’ eggs
REPRODUCTION	Oviparous, with clutches of 4–5 eggs
CONSERVATION STATUS	IUCN Least Concern

The Eight-striped Kukri Snake is a slender, smooth-scaled snake with a short tail, a rounded head with an enlarged rostral scale, and eyes with round pupils. The dorsum is pale brown with three pairs of dark brown longitudinal stripes and an orange-brown vertebral stripe. Despite its name, the number of stripes may not necessarily number eight. Two dark brown inverted chevrons are present on the dorsum of the head, and the venter is pinkish white.

OLIGODON PURPURASCENS
PURPLE KUKRI SNAKE

(SCHLEGEL, 1837)

ADULT LENGTH
311/2–371/2 in (800–950 mm)

The Purple Kukri Snake is found from southern Thailand, through Peninsular Malaysia to Singapore, Sumatra, Java, and Borneo, where it has been found on the slopes of Mt. Kinabalu in Sabah. It is an inhabitant of lowland or low montane primary dipterocarp forest, secondary forest, and also peat swamp forest, where it lives a nocturnal, terrestrial existence. Unlike some other kukri snakes, which are distinctly marked with dark bands, the Purple Kukri Snake exhibits a subdued, cryptic pattern that helps it blend into the leaf litter of its forest habitats. It feeds on amphibian and reptile eggs but also takes frogs and tadpoles. In common with all kukri snakes, it is oviparous. Although generally inoffensive, like other kukri snakes it is capable of swiftly delivering a painful and bloody bite.

RELATED SPECIES

The patterning of Oligodon purpurascens is reminiscent of the venomous Mount Kinabalu Pitviper (Garthius chaseni), Javanese Flat-nosed Palm-pitviper (Trimeresurus puniceus), or Bornean Palm-pitviper (T. borneensis). Oligodon purpurascens occurs in sympatry with the Eight-striped Kukri Snake (O. octolineatus) and Rusty-banded Kukri Snake (O. signatus).

FAMILY	Colubridae: Colubrinae
RISK FACTOR	Nonvenomous
DISTRIBUTION	Southeast Asia: southern Thailand, Malay Peninsula, Singapore, Borneo, Sumatra, and Java
ELEVATION	0–6,040 ft (0–1,840 m) asl
HABITAT	Primary dipterocarp forest, secondary forest, and peat-swamp forests
DIET	Frogs, tadpoles, frogs’ eggs, and lizard eggs
REPRODUCTION	Oviparous, with clutches of 8–13 eggs
CONSERVATION STATUS	IUCN Least Concern

The Purple Kukri Snake is a medium-sized, smooth-scaled, stocky snake with a short tail, a squarish head that is slightly distinct from the neck, an enlarged rostral scale, and eyes with round pupils. The main coloration is more brown than purple, with a series of irregular, dorsal, darker brown, yellow-edged saddles or blotches. The venter is yellow or pinkish white, bright red in juveniles, while the throat and lips are yellow. Inverted chevrons are present on the head, but often obscured.