STORERIA DEKAYI
DEKAY’S BROWNSNAKE

(HALLOWELL, 1839)

ADULT LENGTH
8–153/4 in, rarely 201/2 in (200–400 mm, rarely 520 mm)

The petite DeKay’s Brownsnake is a very widely distributed species, occurring from Quebec and Ontario, Canada, through eastern and central USA, to eastern Mexico, with an isolated population from southern Mexico to Honduras. DeKay’s Brownsnake is found in almost every terrestrial or semi-wet habitat within its range, from marshland to urban areas, but especially woodland, and while it is often found around small lowland ponds it may also be found in montane cloud forest. It may occur anywhere where there is ground cover, whether fallen logs or urban trash. DeKay’s Brownsnakes feed on the earthworms and slugs that abound under such cover, but also take soft-bodied insects, small frogs, and tadpoles. The live-bearing females may produce more than one litter of neonates a year.

RELATED SPECIES

Seven subspecies of Storeria dekayi are recognized: the Northern Brownsnake (S. d. dekayi), Midland Brownsnake (S. d. wrightorum), Western Brownsnake (S. d. texana), Marsh Brownsnake (S. d. limnetes) on the Gulf of Mexico, Tamaulipas Brownsnake (S. d. temporalineata) and Veracuz Brownsnake (S. d. anomala) in Mexico, and the Tropical Brownsnake (S. d. tropica) from Chiapas to Honduras. The Florida Brownsnake (S. victa) was a former subspecies. There are also three other brownsnake species: the Red-bellied Snake (S. occipitomaculata), Mexican Brownsnake (S. storerioides), and Mexican Yellow-bellied Brownsnake (S. hidalgoensis).

FAMILY	Natricidae
RISK FACTOR	Nonvenomous
DISTRIBUTION	North and Central America: southeastern Canada, eastern USA, eastern Mexico, Guatemala, and Honduras
ELEVATION	0–6,680 ft (0–2,035 m) asl
HABITAT	Almost all terrestrial and semi-wetland habitats from marshes to urban areas, especially woodland
DIET	Earthworms, slugs, insects, small frogs, and tadpoles
REPRODUCTION	Viviparous, with litters of 3–31, occasionally 40 neonates
CONSERVATION STATUS	IUCN Least Concern

DeKay’s Brownsnake is a small gray or brown snake with markings comprising four rows of dark brown spots or two fine longitudinal stripes. Some specimens possess a white collar on the nape.

THAMNOPHIS BUTLERI
BUTLER’S GARTERSNAKE

(COPE, 1889)

ADULT LENGTH
15–20 in, rarely 27 in (380–510 mm, rarely 690 mm)

Named for the Indiana naturalist Amos William Butler (1860–1937), the diminutive Butler’s Gartersnake is found in the vicinity of the Great Lakes, in southeastern Ontario, Michigan, Ohio, and Indiana, with an isolated population in Wisconsin. It is an inhabitant of marshland, open grasslands, pastures, and shoreline areas, but is also found in urban areas where it may shelter under boards on abandoned industrial sites or vacant lots. It feeds primarily on earthworms but also eats leeches. Small frogs, toads, and salamanders are also reported as occasional prey. It is often found in sympatry with the Eastern Gartersnake (Thamnophis sirtalis sirtalis) and the Northern Ribbon Snake (T. sauritus septentrionalis). Although not thought threatened by the IUCN, Butler’s Gartersnake is considered Endangered in Ontario and Indiana.

RELATED SPECIES

The slightly smaller Short-headed Gartersnake (Thamnophis brachystoma), which also eats earthworms, occurs to the east of T. butleri, in the Allegheny Highlands of New York State and Pennsylvania.

FAMILY	Natricidae
RISK FACTOR	Nonvenomous
DISTRIBUTION	North America: Great Lakes of USA and Canada
ELEVATION	490–1,510 ft (150–460 m) asl
HABITAT	Marshland, Great Lakes coastal plains, open grasslands, and vacant urban lots or abandoned industrial sites
DIET	Earthworms, and also leeches, small frogs, toads, and salamanders
REPRODUCTION	Viviparous, with litters of 8–11 neonates
CONSERVATION STATUS	IUCN Least Concern, locally endangered

Butler’s Gartersnake is a small, slender, gracile snake with a small head. It may be brown to black in color, with three yellow longitudinal stripes, and a double row of black spots between the dorsal and lateral stripes.

THAMNOPHIS ELEGANS
WESTERN TERRESTRIAL GARTERSNAKE

(BAIRD & GIRARD, 1853)

ADULT LENGTH
153/4–351/2 in, rarely 3 ft 7 in (400–900 mm, rarely 1.1 m)

The Western Terrestrial Gartersnake is widely distributed across western USA and southwestern Canada, with small populations in northwestern Mexico. It is one of the more terrestrial gartersnakes, hence its common name, having adapted to live in xeric semidesert habitats and cool montane habitats up to 12,000 ft (3,660 m) asl. Habitats occupied by Western Terrestrial Gartersnakes range from lowland marshes to mountain lakes and coastal scrub, and the diets of the different populations also vary. Some populations of Wandering Gartersnake (Thamnophis elegans vagrans) are primarily piscivorous, while others are mainly amphibiophagous (amphibian eaters), and some populations of Coast Gartersnake (T. e. terrestris) are believed to prefer slugs, and to completely avoid amphibians. Other occasional prey items include leeches, small mammals, and small birds. Females may produce large litters of up to 27 neonates.

RELATED SPECIES

Across western USA and southwestern Canada, five subspecies are recognized: the Mountain Gartersnake (Thamnophis elegans elegans), Arizona Gartersnake (T. e. arizonae), Upper Basin Gartersnake (T. e. vascotanneri), Coast Gartersnake (T. e. terrestris), and Wandering Gartersnake (T. e. vagrans). The San Pedro Martir Gartersnake (T. e. hueyi) is a localized subspecies from northern Baja California. The Mexican Wandering Gartersnake (T. errans) of northwest Mexico is a former subspecies.

FAMILY	Natricidae
RISK FACTOR	Nonvenomous
DISTRIBUTION	North America: western USA, southwestern Canada, northwestern Mexico
ELEVATION	0–12,000 ft (0–3,660 m) asl
HABITAT	Marshes, meadows, mountain lakes, streams, springs, semidesert, and coastal scrub
DIET	Fish, slugs, leeches, earthworms, frogs, salamanders, lizards, small mammals, and birds
REPRODUCTION	Viviparous, with litters of 4–27 neonates
CONSERVATION STATUS	IUCN Least Concern

The Western Terrestrial Gartersnake is fairly variably patterned, ranging from black to dark gray, olive, pale gray, or even red on the flanks, with two rows of black spots visible on paler specimens, and three longitudinal yellow stripes. The Coast Gartersnake (Thamnophis elegans terrestris) is especially variable, occurring as black, brown, or red morphotypes, which could be mistaken for different species.

THAMNOPHIS GIGAS
GIANT GARTERSNAKE

FITCH, 1940

ADULT LENGTH
2 ft 7 in–4 ft, rarely 5 ft 4 in (0.8–1.2 m, rarely 1.62 m)

The largest gartersnake, the Giant Gartersnake was previously treated as a subspecies of the Aquatic Gartersnake (T. couchii). The Giant Gartersnake is confined to the Sacramento and San Joaquin valleys of northern and central California, where it inhabits marshes, ponds, sloughs, and lakes, but is rarely encountered in large rivers. It is now considered Vulnerable by the IUCN because it has been extirpated from a large part of its historical range, by habitat alteration and destruction. In places Giant Gartersnakes have been forced to inhabit rice fields that replaced their former habitats. It primarily preys on fish and frogs, but has adapted to feeding on introduced fish such as carp, with the loss of the native fish and frogs that made up its original diet.

RELATED SPECIES

Thamnophis gigas is related to the Aquatic Gartersnake (T. couchii), Santa Cruz Gartersnake (T. atratus atratus), and Oregon Gartersnake (T. a. hydrophilus), all of which occur in northern California.

FAMILY	Natricidae
RISK FACTOR	Nonvenomous
DISTRIBUTION	North America: western USA (northern and central California)
ELEVATION	0–400 ft (0–122 m) asl
HABITAT	Marshes, lakes, ponds, and rice fields
DIET	Fish and frogs
REPRODUCTION	Viviparous, with litters of up to 24 neonates
CONSERVATION STATUS	IUCN Vulnerable

The Giant Gartersnake occurs as two different color morphotype. The striped morphotype, which is the pattern of Sacramento Valley specimens, is black with three longitudinal yellow stripes. A spotted morphotype, found alongside the striped pattern in San Joaquin Valley specimens, is olive-green with a faint yellow-green dorsal stripe and two rows of black spots on the flanks.

THAMNOPHIS PROXIMUS
WESTERN RIBBONSNAKE

(SAY, 1823)

ADULT LENGTH
193/4–291/2 in, rarely 4 ft (500–750 mm, rarely 1.23 m)

Ribbonsnakes are more gracile than gartersnakes. They also feed on more amphibians, primarily frogs and toads, than their gartersnake relatives, which exhibit primarily fish-orientated diets, although the Western Ribbonsnake is also documented to occasionally take fish, or lizards such as skinks. This species has an extensive distribution, from the southern Great Lakes, through the Midwest and western Mexico to the Yucatán Peninsula, and, as a series of small, isolated populations, from southern Mexico to Costa Rica. The Western Ribbonsnake is an aquatic snake associated with bushy habitats that offer escape routes from predators. It even inhabits desert watercourses provided there is cover available. Marshes and swamps with dense growths of reeds or grasses are also popular. Being slender snakes, females produce relatively small litters of 8–12 neonates.

RELATED SPECIES

Despite its extensive and fragmented distribution only six subspecies are recognized, including the Western Ribbonsnake (Thamnophis proximus proximus) in the north, Red-striped Ribbonsnake (T. p. rubrilineatus) in the Midwest, and Gulf Coast Ribbonsnake (T. p. orarius) and Arid Land Ribbonsnake (T. p. diabolicus) in Texas and northern Mexico. The Lowland Tropical Ribbonsnake (T. p. rutiloris) accounts for all the scattered southern Mexico and Central American populations, except a montane population of Alpine Ribbonsnake (T. p. alpinus), in Chiapas. The Eastern Ribbonsnake (T. saurita) occurs in eastern USA and Canada, with four subspecies.

FAMILY	Natricidae
RISK FACTOR	Nonvenomous
DISTRIBUTION	North and Central America: central USA and western Mexico to Costa Rica
ELEVATION	0–8,000 ft (0–2,438 m) asl
HABITAT	Ponds, lakes, swamps, marshes, creeks, and desert springs
DIET	Frogs, toads, occasionally fish or lizards
REPRODUCTION	Viviparous, with litters of 8–12 neonates
CONSERVATION STATUS	IUCN Least Concern

The Western Ribbonsnake is a slender snake, which may be olive-green to black, with overlain rows of black spots, and three bright yellow stripes, except in the Red-striped Ribbonsnake of the Midwest, which has a dark red dorsal stripe.

THAMNOPHIS RUFIPUNCTATUS
NARROW-HEADED GARTERSNAKE

(COPE, 1875)

ADULT LENGTH
18–34 in, occasionally 371/2 in (460–860 mm, occasionally 950 mm)

This Arizona gartersnake resembles a watersnake (Nerodia) more than a gartersnake, given its complete lack of the yellow stripes that give gartersnakes their common name. Since no watersnakes occur as far west as Arizona, confusion is unlikely. The Narrow-headed Gartersnake is one of the most aquatic of the gartersnakes and may occupy the niche left vacant by the absent watersnakes. It prefers wooded, rocky lakes and shallow, fast-flowing streams with rocky bottoms. It is encountered more often in the water than out of it, but may be found sheltering under boulders on the bank or basking in overhanging riparian vegetation. In keeping with its aquatic lifestyle, this diurnal snake feeds primarily on small fish, but the larvae of tiger salamanders, small frogs, and tadpoles are also reported in its diet.

RELATED SPECIES

The closest relative to Thamnophis rufipunctatus is probably its former subspecies, the Mexican Narrow-headed Gartersnake (T. unilabialis) from Chihuahua and Coahuila. Other stripeless Mexican gartersnakes include the Mexican West Coast Gartersnake (T. valida), Durango Spotted Gartersnake (T. nigronuchalis), Black-bellied Gartersnake (T. melanogaster), Tamaulipan Montane Gartersnake (T. mendax), and Sumichrast’s Gartersnake (T. sumichrasti).

FAMILY	Natricidae
RISK FACTOR	Nonvenomous
DISTRIBUTION	North America: southwestern USA (Arizona) and New Mexico
ELEVATION	2,300–7,970 ft (700–2,430 m) asl
HABITAT	Lakes and streams in rocky, wooded habitats
DIET	Fish, salamander larvae, frogs, and tadpoles
REPRODUCTION	Viviparous, with litters of 8–17 neonates
CONSERVATION STATUS	IUCN Least Concern

The Narrow-headed Gartersnake is a slender species with an elongate, slightly pointed head. Its patterning is much more like a watersnake than a gartersnake, being dorsally brown or gray, with five to six rows of black or dark brown spots but no distinctive yellow stripes.

THAMNOPHIS SIRTALIS
COMMON GARTERSNAKE

(LINNAEUS, 1758)

ADULT LENGTH
173/4–26 in, females occasionally 4 ft 3 in (450–660 mm, females occasionally 1.3 m)

The most widely distributed gartersnake, and the northernmost snake in the Americas, the Common Gartersnake occurs from Nova Scotia to British Columbia in Canada. It is also found throughout much of the northwestern, eastern, and central United States, with scattered Midwest and northern Mexico populations. It inhabits both aquatic and terrestrial habitats, western populations being more aquatic than those in the east. Prey is equally varied, from frogs, tadpoles, earthworms, and fish, to occasional rodents or birds. Common Gartersnakes can be extremely common, and the Manitoba “snake pits,” with carpets of writhing Red-sided Gartersnakes (Thamnophis sirtalis parietalis), are a phenomenon of the natural world.

RELATED SPECIES

Eleven subspecies are recognized, the largest ranges being the Eastern Gartersnake (Thamnophis sirtalis sirtalis) in the east, Red-sided Gartersnake (T. s. parietalis) in the Midwest, Maritime Gartersnake (T. s. pallidulus) in the extreme northeast, and Valley Gartersnake (T. s. fitchi) in the northwest. Localized subspecies include the Blue-striped Gartersnake (T. s. similis) from the Florida Panhandle, Texas Gartersnake (T. s. annectens), Puget Sound Gartersnake (T. s. pickeringii), New Mexico Gartersnake (T. s. dorsalis), and Chicago Gartersnake (T. s. semifasciatus). Some western races are stunning, i.e. the Red-spotted Gartersnake (T. s. concinnus) and Californian Red-sided Gartersnake (T. s. infernalis).

FAMILY	Natricidae
RISK FACTOR	Nonvenomous
DISTRIBUTION	North America: Canada, USA, and northern Mexico
ELEVATION	0–8,330 ft (0–2,540 m) asl
HABITAT	Lakes, ponds, rivers, wooded swamps, bayous, marshes, woodland, prairies, and grasslands
DIET	Amphibians, fish, invertebrates, earthworms, small mammals, and birds
REPRODUCTION	Viviparous, with litters of 7–36 neonates
CONSERVATION STATUS	IUCN Least Concern

The Common Gartersnake is extremely variable in both coloration and patterning, ranging from olive-green with faint yellow-green stripes and black lateral spotting, to black with three bright yellow stripes and small red markings on the flanks. The spectacular western forms are dominated by red, from scattered spots between the yellow stripes to red stripes between white dorsal and pale blue lateral stripes.

TRACHISCHIUM FUSCUM
DARJEELING WORM-EATING SNAKE

(BLYTH, 1854)

ADULT LENGTH
173/4–26 in, females occasionally 4 ft 3 in (450–660 mm, females occasionally 1.3 m)

A Himalayan species, the Darjeeling Worm-eating Snake occurs from the Kashmir regions of Pakistan and India, through Nepal, to Darjeeling, Assam, and northeastern India. It is primarily an inhabitant of rocky hillsides and mountains with deciduous woodland cover, but is also found alongside humans, inhabiting rice paddies and even cow-dung heaps, drawn by the large numbers of earthworms in these habitats. Earthworms are the only prey known for this species, and its relatives, but the possibility remains that it may also take soft-bodied insects or their larvae. It is active during the evening and at night, sheltering under stones during the day. All the Himalayan worm-eating snakes are inoffensive and do not bite when handled.

RELATED SPECIES

There are four other species in the genus Trachischium: the Rosebelly Worm-eating Snake (T. guentheri), Olive Worm-eating Snake (T. laeve), Orange-bellied Worm-eating Snake (T. monticola), and Yellow-bellied Worm-eating Snake (T. tenuiceps). The alternative name of T. fuscum is Black-bellied Worm-eating Snake.

FAMILY	Natricidae
RISK FACTOR	Nonvenomous
DISTRIBUTION	South Asia: northern Pakistan, India, and Nepal
ELEVATION	3,020–8,500 ft (920–2,590 m) asl
HABITAT	Deciduous forested rocky hillsides and mountains, rice paddies, and cow dung heaps
DIET	Earthworms, and possibly soft-bodied insects or larvae
REPRODUCTION	Oviparous, with clutches of 3–6 eggs
CONSERVATION STATUS	IUCN not listed

The Darjeeling Worm-eating Snake is a small snake with a cylindrical body and a small head, which is indistinct from the neck. Its scales are mostly smooth, though males may have keels on the scales of the posterior body. The tail terminates as a short spine. This snake is dark brown to black, sometimes with fine black longitudinal stripes. The undersides are often black, resulting in its alternative name.

TROPIDOCLONION LINEATUM
LINED SNAKE

(HALLOWELL, 1856)

ADULT LENGTH
83/4–15 in, rarely 211/2 in (224–380 mm, rarely 544 mm)

The diminutive Lined Snake is found in the USA from South Dakota and Minnesota, south to the Gulf of Mexico coast of Texas, and as far east as Illinois and west to New Mexico. It was originally a member of the prairie fauna and is still found in grassland, woodland, and along creeks, but it has also adapted to live alongside humans in parks, gardens, cemeteries, and abandoned lots—anywhere providing ground cover, from rotten logs to urban trash. A nocturnal species, it feeds almost exclusively on earthworms, especially after rain when they are on the surface, but it also takes soft-bodied insect larvae. Lined Snakes are inoffensive and do not bite when handled.

RELATED SPECIES

The only snakes with which Tropidoclonion lineatum may be confused would be juvenile gartersnakes, such as the Plains Gartersnake (Thamnophis radix). Some authors recognize four subspecies: Northern Lined Snake (T. l. lineatum), Central Lined Snake (T. l. annectens), Texas Lined Snake (T. l. texanum), and New Mexico Lined Snake (T. l. mertensi).

FAMILY	Natricidae
RISK FACTOR	Nonvenomous
DISTRIBUTION	North America: USA (South Dakota and Minnesota to Texas and New Mexico)
ELEVATION	0–6,610 ft (0–2,015 m) asl
HABITAT	Prairie, grassland, woodland, creeks, ponds, parks and gardens, cemeteries, and abandoned lots
DIET	Earthworms and insect larvae
REPRODUCTION	Viviparous, with litters of 2–17 neonates
CONSERVATION STATUS	IUCN Least Concern

The Lined Snake is small and slender, and olive-brown above with three longitudinal stripes, those on the flanks being orange or yellow, while the dorsal stripe may be white. This species is often distinguished by a double row of black half-moon markings on the white underbelly.

TROPIDONOPHIS DORIAE
BARRED KEELBACK

(BOULENGER, 1897)

ADULT LENGTH
3 ft–3 ft 7 in (0.9–1.1 m)

The Barred Keelback is probably the largest of the 11 keelback species known to occur in New Guinea, and it is the only mainland species possessing 17 scale rows at midbody, with other mainland species having 15 scale rows, which means it is more heavily built than other mainland keelbacks. It inhabits rainforest rivers, and while it is not frequently encountered in the southern Trans-Fly, it is common along forested rivers in Central Province. It hunts fish, frogs, and frogs’ eggs. Along the Brown River, Central Province, this species can be found living in sympatry with the Common Keelback (Tropidonophis mairii), Long-tailed Keelback (T. multiscutellatus), and Painted Keelback (T. picturatus), which raises an interesting question as to how four species of diurnal keelbacks partition the resources and avoid competition.

RELATED SPECIES

The only other keelbacks in the region with 17 scale rows at midbody are two species from New Britain, to the east of New Guinea (Tropidonophis dahlii and T. hypomelas). Tropidonophis doriae is unlikely to be confused with any other New Guinea species.

FAMILY	Natricidae
RISK FACTOR	Nonvenomous
DISTRIBUTION	Melanesia: throughout New Guinea, except the west, and Aru Islands (Indonesia)
ELEVATION	0–4,270 ft (0–1,300 m) asl
HABITAT	Rainforest rivers
DIET	Frogs and their eggs, and fish
REPRODUCTION	Oviparous, with clutches of 2–8 eggs
CONSERVATION STATUS	IUCN not listed

The Barred Keelback is the most ruggedly built of the New Guinea keelbacks, and also the most variable in coloration. It may be brown, pink, orange, or yellow, and either unicolor, faintly banded, or strongly banded with darker pigment, which may also vary from brown to orange. Several distinct color morphotypes may be found within a short distance on the same river.

TROPIDONOPHIS MAIRII
COMMON KEELBACK

(GRAY, 1841)

ADULT LENGTH
311/2–361/2 in (800–930 mm)

The Common Keelback is the only member of the genus Tropidonophis in Australia, occurring from Arnhem Land, Northern Territory, to northern New South Wales. In New Guinea it occurs in the southern Trans-Fly region and the coastal strip either side of Port Moresby. It inhabits watercourses from forested rivers to savanna creeks, flooded grassland, and swamps, and feeds on fish, frogs, and tadpoles. When disturbed it will dive into the water and swim to the bottom or hide in yabbie (freshwater crayfish) holes in the bank. If handled, Australian specimens shed their tails, but it is not known if Papuan specimens also do this. This is one of the few Australian reptiles able to eat introduced cane toads, being immune to the bufotoxins (toxins found in the parotoid glands of toxic toads), because its Asiatic ancestor’s diet included toads.

RELATED SPECIES

Two subspecies are recognized, the nominate form (Tropidonophis mairii mairii) occurring in northern Australia and the southern coast of the Papuan Peninsula, with a Trans-Fly form (T. m. plumbea) occurring in Western Province, Papua New Guinea, and over the border into Indonesian New Guinea. In Australia the Common Keelback may be confused with the highly venomous Rough-scaled Snake (Tropidechis carinatus).

FAMILY	Natricidae
RISK FACTOR	Nonvenomous
DISTRIBUTION	Australasia: northern Australia (Arnhem Land to New South Wales) and southern New Guinea (Trans-Fly and Central Province)
ELEVATION	0–4,920 ft (0–1,500 m) asl
HABITAT	Shallow forest rivers, savanna creeks, swamps, and marshes
DIET	Fish, frogs, and tadpoles
REPRODUCTION	Oviparous, with clutches of 3–18 eggs
CONSERVATION STATUS	IUCN Least Concern

The Common Keelback is a relatively stout snake, with a rounded head and large eyes. It may be olive-brown to gray throughout, or gray on the head and neck, with a light brown body, flecked with black and white. The undersides are immaculate white.

TROPIDONOPHIS MULTISCUTELLATUS
LONG-TAILED KEELBACK

(BRONGERSMA, 1948)

ADULT LENGTH
311/2–371/2 in (800–950 mm)

The Long-tailed Keelback occurs throughout the island of New Guinea, from the southern tip of the Papuan Peninsula in the southeast, to the Vogelkop Peninsula in the northwest. It is also found both north and south of the Central Cordillera, and on islands to the west of New Guinea. The Long-tailed Keelback may eventually turn out to be more than one species, a species complex, but only molecular analysis will confirm this. An alert and fast-moving snake, this species feeds on frogs, which are captured during the day by hunting along rivers and creeks, both in the water and in the riparian vegetation. It also takes fish, but may not be as aquatic as some other Australo-Papuan keelbacks, since it is also found in piles of oil-palm debris in plantations or along forest or plantation tracks.

RELATED SPECIES

A slender species, Tropidonophis multiscutellatus may be mistaken for other slender snakes such as the East Papuan Keelback (T. aenigmaticus) or the Montane Keelback (T. statisticus), or possibly the slender, venomous Müller’s Crowned Snake (Aspidomorphus muelleri). The genus Tropidonophis currently contains 19 species in New Guinea, eastern Indonesia, the Philippines, and northern Australia.

FAMILY	Natricidae
RISK FACTOR	Nonvenomous
DISTRIBUTION	New Guinea: throughout New Guinea
ELEVATION	50–4,720 ft (15–1,440 m) asl
HABITAT	Shallow forest rivers, savanna creeks, forest, and plantations
DIET	Frogs and fish
REPRODUCTION	Oviparous, with clutches of 2–7 eggs
CONSERVATION STATUS	IUCN Least Concern

The Long-tailed Keelback is a slender, gracile snake with an elongate head, large eyes, and a long tail. It is usually uniform light brown, dark brown, or reddish brown, but some specimens are slightly greenish on the neck and anterior body. Faint transverse bands may be just visible. The head is the same color as the body, but it may have fine black suturing or flecking on the scales. The underside is immaculate white.

VIRGINIA VALERIAE
SMOOTH EARTHSNAKE

BAIRD & GIRARD, 1853

ADULT LENGTH
7–13 in, occasionally 15 in (180–330 mm, occasionally 380 mm)

Primarily a woodland species, the Smooth Earthsnake may also be found in open meadows close to woodland. It has adapted to living in suburban habitats too, sheltering under domestic trash just as it would under natural woodland cover. It is an inoffensive species that feeds almost exclusively on earthworms, although slugs and insect larvae have been reported in its diet. The Smooth Earthsnake has a wide range across eastern USA, from New Jersey and Delaware in the northeast, to Florida in the south, Iowa in the west, and Texas in the southwest, but it is curiously absent from much of the Mississippi Valley. Earthsnakes are live-bearing, like other American natricid snakes, and in contrast to Eurasian watersnakes.

RELATED SPECIES

The genus Virginia used to contain Virginia valeriae and also the Rough Earthsnake, but the latter is now placed in its own genus as Haldea striatula. There are three subspecies of V. valeriae: the nominate Eastern Earthsnake (V. v. valeriae), the Mountain Earthsnake (V. v. pulchra) from the Appalachians, and the Western Earthsnake (V. v. elegans).

FAMILY	Natricidae
RISK FACTOR	Nonvenomous
DISTRIBUTION	North America: eastern and southern USA (New Jersey and Delaware to Iowa, Florida, and Texas)
ELEVATION	0–2,900 ft (0–885 m) asl
HABITAT	Woodland and open areas shaded by trees, and also occasionally suburban habitats
DIET	Earthworms, and occasionally slugs or insect larvae
REPRODUCTION	Viviparous, with litters of 2–18 neonates
CONSERVATION STATUS	IUCN Least Concern

The Smooth Earthsnake is a smooth-scaled snake with a narrow, slightly pointed head that is only slightly wider than the neck. Coloration ranges from dirty orange to reddish brown or olive, the pigment being darkest dorsally and lighter on the lower flanks, and patterning, if present, confined to a faint vertebral stripe.

XENOCHROPHIS PISCATOR
CHECKERED KEELBACK

(SCHNEIDER, 1799)

ADULT LENGTH
2 ft–3 ft 3 in, occasionally 5 ft 9 in (0.6–1.0 m, occasionally 1.75 m)

Also known as the Olive Keelback, the Checkered Keelback is a large snake, and relatively common in parts of its range, which covers a considerable area from Afghanistan to Sri Lanka, southern China, Laos, and Thailand. Its habitat preferences comprise watercourses, from rivers to rice paddies. Its scientific name, piscator, means “fisherman,” an apt summation of this species’ prey preferences of fish and frogs. It hunts by both day and night. Checkered Keelbacks are large snakes and they react quickly to being handled, delivering painful bites that bleed profusely, though they are not dangerous to humans. Large females may lay as many as 100 eggs.

RELATED SPECIES

The genus Xenochrophis contains 13 species. The closest relatives of Xenochrophis piscator are its former subspecies, the Yellow-spotted Keelback (X. flavipunctatus), from India and Southeast Asia, and St. John’s Keelback (X. sanctijohannis), from the southern Himalayas from Pakistan to Myanmar. Other species include several island endemics, the Sri Lankan Keelback (X. asperrimus), the Andaman Keelback (X. tytleri), and the Javan Keelback (X. melanzostus).

FAMILY	Natricidae
RISK FACTOR	Nonvenomous
DISTRIBUTION	South and Southeast Asia: Afghanistan to Sri Lanka, China, Myanmar, Thailand, and Laos
ELEVATION	1,640–6,890 ft (500–2,100 m) asl
HABITAT	Ponds, lakes, rice paddies, marshes, and rivers in lowland and low montane habitats
DIET	Fish and frogs
REPRODUCTION	Oviparous, with clutches of 4–100 eggs
CONSERVATION STATUS	IUCN not listed

The Checkered Keelback is a stockily built snake, one of the largest Asian keelbacks, with a stout body and large head, although the head is often less broad than the body in large adults. Patterning usually comprises a multi-rowed checkerboard of black squares, hence the common name, over an olive to brown background. There is often a diagonal black stripe from the eye to the angle of the jaw, and the undersides are white or pale yellow.

PLAGIOPHOLIS NUCHALIS
COMMON MOCK COBRA

(BOULENGER, 1893)

ADULT LENGTH
Male
22 in (560 mm)

Female
203/4 in (525 mm)

Often referred to as the Assam Mountain Snake, this species does not appear to occur in Assam, its range being southern China, and neighboring Myanmar, Thailand, Vietnam, and possibly Laos. The Common Mock Cobra is a small snake that defends itself by mimicking a hooding cobra. Although rear-fanged and mildly venomous, it is not considered dangerous to humans. It inhabits submontane forest, where it occupies a terrestrial, possibly semi-fossorial niche, feeding on earthworms. The genus Plagiopholis is one of only two genera in the Pseudoxenodontidae. It can be distinguished from the related Pseudoxenodon by its lower midbody scale count (15), entire anal plate, and smaller size, the Common Mock Cobra being the largest member of the genus.

RELATED SPECIES

There are three other species in the genus Plagiopholis, all of which occur in the same geographical area as, and occupy similar montane forest habitats to, Plagiopholis nuchalis: Blakeway’s Mock Cobra (P. blakewayi), Delacour’s Mock Cobra (P. delacouri), and the Fujian Mock Cobra (P. styani).

FAMILY	Pseudoxenodontidae
RISK FACTOR	Rear-fanged, mildly venomous
DISTRIBUTION	Southeast Asia: southern China, eastern Myanmar, northwestern Thailand, and Vietnam; possibly Laos
ELEVATION	1,970–5,310 ft (600–1,620 m) asl
HABITAT	Submontane forest
DIET	Earthworms
REPRODUCTION	Oviparous, with clutches of 5–11 eggs
CONSERVATION STATUS	IUCN Least Concern

The Common Mock Cobra is dorsally dark brown to red-brown, with a series of dark spots and light cross-bars that break up the background color, but vary between specimens. A dark brown inverted chevron is usually present on the nape of the neck, a marking further emphasized when the hood is spread, and the white venter is boldly marked with transverse black spots, which are also more in evidence when the snake rears up and mimics a venomous cobra.

PSEUDOXENODON MACROPS
LARGE-EYED MOCK COBRA

(BLYTH, 1855)

ADULT LENGTH
3 ft 3 in–4 ft 7 in (1.0–1.4 m)

Also known as the Large-eyed Mountain or Bamboo Snake, this mock cobra occurs from northeast India to China, inhabiting evergreen forest and montane forest at elevations up to 10,800 ft (3,300 m), the highest elevation recorded within the Pseudoxenodontidae. Whereas the smaller Plagiopholis species feed on earthworms, the generally larger Pseudoxenodon, which often exceed 3 ft 3 in (1 m), prey on frogs and lizards. Pseudoxenodon can also be distinguished from Plagiopholis by its higher midbody scale count (17–19) and divided anal plate. Being large and rear-fanged these snakes are capable of delivering a snakebite, and although their venom is not known to be harmful to humans, large specimens should be treated with respect.

RELATED SPECIES

Most of the range is occupied by the nominate subspecies (Pseudoxenodon macrops macrops), but populations from southern and northern China are treated as separate subspecies (P. m. fukienensis and P. m. sinensis, respectively). Six congeners are recognized: the Bamboo Mock Cobra (P. bambusicola) and Karl Schmidt’s Mock Cobra (P. karlschmidti) from mainland Southeast Asia; the Sumatran Mock Cobra (P. jacobsonii); the Javan Mock Cobra (P. inornatus); the Baram Mock Cobra (P. baramensis) from Sarawak, Borneo; and the Taiwan Mock Cobra (P. stejnegeri).

FAMILY	Pseudoxenodontidae
RISK FACTOR	Rear-fanged, mildly venomous
DISTRIBUTION	Southeast Asia: northeast India, Nepal, China, Myanmar, Thailand, Vietnam, Laos, and West Malaysia
ELEVATION	1,640–10,800 ft (500–3,300 m) asl
HABITAT	Evergreen forest, and montane and submontane forest
DIET	Frogs and lizards
REPRODUCTION	Oviparous, with clutches of 6–10 eggs
CONSERVATION STATUS	IUCN Least Concern

The Large-eyed Mock Cobra may be brown, red, or yellowish, with a patterning of darker cross-bars and spots, and a dark inverted chevron on the nape of the neck. The venter is white with broken black cross-bars and spots. The markings further enhance the mock cobra display when this species is defending itself. As its name suggests, the eyes are large and distinctive.

ASPIDELAPS LUBRICUS
AFRICAN CORALSNAKE

(LAURENTI, 1768)

ADULT LENGTH
233/4–311/2 in (600–800 mm)

The African Coralsnake, sometimes called the Coral Cobra, can be a very attractive serpent, the nominate subspecies, from South Africa and southern Namibia, being strikingly banded. However, this is a highly variable species and the western form is weakly banded with a dull yellow background, while the Angolan form is uniform gray-brown with a black head. This small elapid will raise its anterior body and hood like a cobra; its venom is less toxic than that of the true cobras (Naja), although bites to children can be serious and fatalities are known. Inhabiting semiarid scrub habitats, it emerges from cover on cool nights to feed on rodents and reptiles.

RELATED SPECIES

Three subspecies are recognized: the Cape Coralsnake (Aspidelaps lubricus lubricus), the Western Coralsnake (A. l. infuscatus), and the Angolan Coralsnake (A. l. cowlesi). The only close relative of A. lubricus is the Shieldnose Snake (A. scutatus), also of southern Africa.

FAMILY	Elapidae: Elapinae
RISK FACTOR	Highly venomous: presynaptic neurotoxins, but otherwise unknown
DISTRIBUTION	Southern Africa: southern Angola, Namibia, and southern and eastern South Africa (Namaqualand and Cape)
ELEVATION	0–4,640 ft (0–1,415 m) asl
HABITAT	Semiarid scrubland and desert edges
DIET	Small mammals, lizards, reptile eggs
REPRODUCTION	Oviparous, with clutches of 3–11 eggs
CONSERVATION STATUS	IUCN not listed

The African Coralsnake may be banded black and salmon-pink, and pale yellow to white below with black bands across the throat, but its patterning varies considerably across its range (see above). When it feels threatened it may adopt a defensive display, elevating its anterior body like a true cobra, although the hood is much more narrowed.

ASPIDELAPS SCUTATUS
SHIELDNOSE SNAKE

SMITH, 1849

ADULT LENGTH
233/4–291/2 in (600–750 mm)

Shieldnose Snakes are stout, but relatively short, snakes of sandveld and savanna habitats across the north of southern Africa. They hide in burrows or under fallen logs during the day and venture out at night in search of amphibians around waterholes, but they will also take small mammals, lizards, and occasionally other snakes. The Shieldnose Snake is an accomplished burrower, using its enlarged rostral scale to excavate the loose soil or sand under logs or rocks in search of prey. When disturbed, a Shieldnose Snake will mimic a cobra, raising its body and hissing loudly. Little is known of its venom; some bites exhibit only mild symptoms, but there are also records of children having died from Shieldnose Snake bites.

RELATED SPECIES

Aspidelaps scutatus is related to the African Coralsnake (A. lubricus). Three subspecies are recognized. The nominate form (A. s. scutatus) occurs across most of the range, while the Eastern Shieldnose (A. s. fulafula) occurs in southern Mozambique. The Intermediate Shieldnose (A. s. intermedius) is found between these two ranges, in northeastern South Africa.

FAMILY	Elapidae: Elapinae
RISK FACTOR	Highly venomous: presynaptic neurotoxins, but otherwise unknown
DISTRIBUTION	Southern Africa: Namibia, Botswana, Zimbabwe, Zambia, Mozambique, and northeastern South Africa
ELEVATION	0–5,480 ft (0–1,670 m) asl
HABITAT	Savanna, sandveld, and shallow pans
DIET	Frogs, lizards, small mammals, reptile eggs, and snakes
REPRODUCTION	Oviparous, with clutches of 4–11 eggs
CONSERVATION STATUS	IUCN not listed

The Shieldnose Snake is stout-bodied and brown, orange, or pinkish, with black mottling to every scale and black bands around the throat and neck. The short, rounded head may be black or brown, and terminates in a large shield-shaped rostral scale that earns the snake its common name. The scales of the tail may be strongly keeled.

BUNGARUS CAERULEUS
COMMON KRAIT

(SCHNEIDER, 1801)

ADULT LENGTH
3 ft 3 in–5 ft 9 in (1.0–1.75 m)

Kraits are highly venomous snakes. Of the 14 known species, half are implicated in the very high annual death rate across Asia. Although shy and retiring during the day, often hiding their heads under their coils, they become lethal and dangerous at night, a true serpentine “Jekyll and Hyde.” The Common Krait is found in many habitats but is especially at home in habitats altered by humans, such as rice paddies, where it hunts other snakes. It is one of the “Big Four” lethal snakes of South Asia, entering houses in search of prey, and biting sleeping villagers at night, many of its victims never waking up again. Because kraits rarely climb, many krait bites could be avoided by simply sleeping off the ground or using a mosquito net.

RELATED SPECIES

Bungarus caeruleus appears most similar to the Andaman Krait (B. andamanensis), the Sri Lankan Krait (B. ceylonicus), the Black Krait (B. niger), and the Sind Krait (B. sindanus), but many harmless snakes mimic its patterning for protection, such as the Travanacore Wolfsnake (Lycodon travancoricus) and Zaw’s Wolfsnake (L. zawi).

FAMILY	Elapidae: Elapinae
RISK FACTOR	Highly venomous: pre- and postsynaptic neurotoxins
DISTRIBUTION	South Asia: Pakistan, India, Nepal, Bangladesh, and Sri Lanka
ELEVATION	0–5,580 ft (0–1,700 m) asl
HABITAT	Low-lying and low montane open habitats and woodland, especially rice paddies and villages
DIET	Snakes, including other kraits
REPRODUCTION	Oviparous, with clutches of 8–12 eggs
CONSERVATION STATUS	IUCN Least Concern

The Common Krait is either black with narrow or broad white broken bands around the body, or uniform gray to black, with a pale underside. The absence of a loreal scale and the presence of an enlarged vertebral scale row distinguish it from most nonvenomous mimics.

BUNGARUS FASCIATUS
BANDED KRAIT

(SCHNEIDER, 1801)

ADULT LENGTH
5–7 ft 5 in (1.5–2.25 m)

Many kraits have enlarged scales along the vertebral row, presenting a ridge down the back, but this appearance reaches its most extreme in the Banded Krait, which is almost triangular in cross section. Although a large and dangerous snake, the Banded Krait features less frequently in snakebites than its relatives the Common Krait (Bungarus caeruleus) or the Malayan Krait (B. candidus). In common with other kraits, it primarily preys on elongate vertebrates such as snakes or eels, but frogs, lizards, other fish, and small mammals are also taken. It spends the day in mammal burrows or termite mounds, emerging to hunt after dark. Despite its less truculent attitude, compared to its congenerics, bites are serious and there are fatalities on record.

RELATED SPECIES

The patterning of Bungarus fasciatus is so characteristic it is unlikely to be confused with any other species, and even though the mildly venomous Mangrove Snake (Boiga dendrophila) is also banded black and yellow, it is obviously cylindrical, rather than triangular, in cross section, and has a long prehensile tail with divided subcaudal scales.

FAMILY	Elapidae: Elapinae
RISK FACTOR	Highly venomous: pre- and postsynaptic neurotoxins
DISTRIBUTION	South and Southeast Asia: India, Nepal, and China to Malaysia, Sumatra, Java, and Borneo
ELEVATION	0–8,200 ft (0–2,500 m) asl
HABITAT	Coastal lowland and low montane forest, swamps, and cultivated habitats
DIET	Snakes, lizards, small mammals, frogs, and fish, including eels
REPRODUCTION	Oviparous, with clutches of 3–12 eggs
CONSERVATION STATUS	IUCN Least Concern

The Banded Krait is broadly banded with yellow, or cream, and black and is triangular in cross section with an enlarged, raised vertebral scale row. The head is broad and flattened. Its tail terminates in a blunt, rounded tip and the subcaudal scales are undivided.

BUNGARUS FLAVICEPS
RED-HEADED KRAIT

REINHARDT, 1843

ADULT LENGTH
3 ft 3 in–6 ft 7 in (1.0–2.0 m)

The Red-headed Krait is also known as the Yellow-headed Krait, flaviceps meaning “yellow-headed.” Populations in mainland Southeast Asia are usually red-headed, while those from Borneo are often yellow-headed, so either name is applicable. Although highly dangerous it features in snakebite statistics much less frequently than other species of krait, and it is relatively understudied in nature. It is a forest species that inhabits lowland and low montane rainforest, especially close to water, where it shelters in leaf litter or under logs during the day. At night it emerges to hunt and it is believed to prey on other snakes, and elongate lizards such as skinks. Although it is believed to be oviparous, like other kraits, its clutch size is unknown.

RELATED SPECIES

Bungarus flaviceps is unlike any other krait species, but its patterning is remarkably similar to that of the Blue Long-glanded Coralsnake (Calliophis bivirgata), with which it occurs in sympatry. Two subspecies are recognized, the nominate form, which has an unmarked red tail, and the Mt. Kinabalu Krait (B. f. baluensis) from Sabah, Borneo, which exhibits a series of black and white rings around the red tail.

FAMILY	Elapidae: Elapinae
RISK FACTOR	Highly venomous: pre- and postsynaptic neurotoxins
DISTRIBUTION	Southeast Asia: Myanmar, Thailand, Cambodia, Vietnam, Malaysia, Indonesia, Sumatra, Java, and Borneo
ELEVATION	1,800–5,090 ft (550–1,550 m) asl
HABITAT	Lowland and low montane rainforest
DIET	Snakes and lizards
REPRODUCTION	Oviparous, clutch size unknown
CONSERVATION STATUS	IUCN Least Concern

The Red-headed Krait is triangular in cross section and brightly colored. The head is red or yellow, the anterior half of the body is blue-black with three longitudinal white stripes either present or absent, and the posterior body and short tail are bright coral red and ringed with black and white in Mt. Kinabalu specimens.

BUNGARUS MULTICINCTUS
MANY-BANDED KRAIT

BLYTH, 1861

ADULT LENGTH
3 ft 3 in–4 ft 5 in (1.0–1.35 m)

A highly dangerous snake, it was a Many-banded Krait that claimed the life of the respected American herpetologist Joe Slowinski in 2001, when he mistook a juvenile krait for a harmless wolfsnake (Lycodon), one of several mimics of this lethal species. The Many-banded Krait is found in lowland habitats over a wide range, from southern and southeastern China to Vietnam, Laos, and Myanmar, and it is also present on the island of Taiwan. Within its range this species, which feeds on snakes and other vertebrates, is a serious public health risk because it is very commonly encountered in agricultural habitats, such as rice paddies, or around buildings.

RELATED SPECIES

Many snakes resemble Bungarus multicinctus, including several harmless mimics and a new species of krait, the Red River Krait from Vietnam, which was named B. slowinskii, in honor of the fallen herpetologist. Wanghaoting’s Krait (B. wanghaotingi) was formerly a subspecies of B. multicinctus.

FAMILY	Elapidae: Elapinae
RISK FACTOR	Highly venomous: pre- and postsynaptic neurotoxins
DISTRIBUTION	Southeast Asia: southern China, Taiwan, Myanmar, Vietnam, and Laos
ELEVATION	0–4,920 ft (0–1,500 m) asl
HABITAT	Low-lying wetland areas, including rice paddies
DIET	Snakes, lizards, small mammals, frogs, and eels
REPRODUCTION	Oviparous, with clutches of 3–12 eggs
CONSERVATION STATUS	IUCN Least Concern

The Many-banded Krait is blue-black to brown with a series of regularly spaced, broad pale bands around the body and tail, a common pattern mimicked by many harmless wolfsnakes (Lycodon).

CALLIOPHIS BIVIRGATA
BLUE LONG-GLANDED CORALSNAKE

(BOIE, 1827)

ADULT LENGTH
3 ft 3 in–6 ft (1.0–1.85 m)

Blue Long-glanded Coralsnakes possess extremely long venom glands that extend for one-third of the body length, and given that a bite may deliver a large quantity of venom of unknown composition, they must be considered highly dangerous. A Southeast Asian lowland and low montane rainforest species, it may also be encountered on cultivated land. Nocturnal and semi-fossorial, it hunts other snakes. If disturbed it will bury its head under its coils, and raise its bright red tail in the air as a decoy, inviting attack away from the head. If handled it will bite. At least two deaths are thought to have been caused by this species, with death occurring in under two hours.

RELATED SPECIES

Calliophis bivirgata comprises three subspecies depending on the presence or absence of stripes, from mainland Southeast Asia and Sumatra (C. b. flaviceps), Borneo (C. b. tetrataenia), and Java (C. b. bivirgata). This coralsnake may easily be confused with the sympatric Red-headed Krait (Bungarus flaviceps) but its closest relative is the Striped Long-glanded Coralsnake (C. intestinalis). These two species were previously placed in genus Maticora. Calliophis bivirgatus is also closely related to the recently described Dinagat Island Banded Coralsnake (C. salitan) from the Philippines.

FAMILY	Elapidae: Elapinae
RISK FACTOR	Highly venomous: composition unknown
DISTRIBUTION	Southeast Asia: southern Thailand, Malaysia, Sumatra, Borneo, and Java
ELEVATION	0–4,510 ft (0–1,375 m) asl
HABITAT	Lowland and low montane rainforest, also edges of cultivated land
DIET	Small snakes
REPRODUCTION	Oviparous, with clutches of 1–3 eggs
CONSERVATION STATUS	IUCN Least Concern

The Blue Long-glanded Coralsnake is an elongate snake that is blue or blue-black above with a series of longitudinal stripes, which may be white or pale blue. The head, entire tail, and underbelly are bright coral red.

CALLIOPHIS INTESTINALIS
STRIPED LONG-GLANDED CORALSNAKE

(LAURENTI, 1768)

ADULT LENGTH
233/4–28 in (600–710 mm)

The Striped Long-glanded Coralsnake is a small, secretive snake that hides in leaf litter or under logs, and burrows in the subsoil. Although a lowland and low montane rainforest species, it also evades detection in city parks and gardens. Its prey consists of the many small snake species that occur in similar habitats across its wide Southeast Asian range. The Striped Long-glanded Coralsnake is an inoffensive species. If uncovered it will raise its tail to expose the red underside, to distract attention from the head, or roll its entire body upside down to expose the checkerboard patterning underneath. Despite its small mouth, this species has extremely long venom glands that extend one-third of the length of the body, and it demands respect. Serious snakebites are known.

RELATED SPECIES

Six subspecies are recognized, from Sumatra and Java (Calliophis intestinalis intestinalis), mainland Southeast Asia and Sumatra (C. i. lineata), Borneo (C. i. thepassi), Palawan (C. i. bilineata), the Philippines (C. i. philippina), and the Sulu Archipelago (C. i. suluensis).

FAMILY	Elapidae: Elapinae
RISK FACTOR	Venomous: composition unknown
DISTRIBUTION	Southeast Asia: southern Thailand, Malaysia, Sumatra, Borneo, and the Philippines
ELEVATION	0–5,000 ft (0–1,525 m) asl
HABITAT	Lowland and low montane rainforest, also parks and gardens
DIET	Small snakes
REPRODUCTION	Oviparous, with clutches of 1–3 eggs
CONSERVATION STATUS	IUCN Least Concern

The Striped Long-glanded Coralsnake is an extremely elongate snake with a rounded head, which is indistinct from the neck, and a short tail. The dorsum is brown, with or without a longitudinal orange or scarlet vertebral stripe, while the underside is black and white, except for the tail, which is red underneath.

DENDROASPIS INTERMEDIUS
EASTERN GREEN MAMBA

(GÜNTHER, 1865)

ADULT LENGTH
4 ft 3 in–6 ft 7 in (1.3–2.0 m)

The Eastern Green Mamba inhabits coastal scrub and forests, but has a patchy distribution from Kenya to Mozambique. Until recently it was included in the species Dendroaspis angusticeps, which is now confined to KwaZulu-Natal, South Africa. A highly alert, diurnal snake, it relies on camouflage to avoid detection, and prefers flight to fight, but if cornered will defend itself. Its venom contains highly toxic presynaptic neurotoxins (see shown here), and fatalities have occurred, albeit rarely. Unusually for an elapid, Eastern Green Mamba bites cause rapid swelling of the bitten limb. Eastern Green Mambas prey on birds and their nestlings, and also small mammals, ranging from bats to rats. Chameleons feature in the diet of juveniles. In pristine habitat this species may be very common, with up to five sometimes being found in the same tree.

RELATED SPECIES

There are three other green mambas: the Southern Green Mamba (Dendroaspis angusticeps) from KwaZulu-Natal, South Africa; West African Green Mamba (D. viridis) from Senegal to Benin; and Jameson’s Mamba (D. jamesoni) from Guinea to Sudan and Kenya, and south to Angola and Zambia. Green mambas are often confused with the common and totally harmless bushsnakes (Philothamnus), which are often killed as a result.

FAMILY	Elapidae: Elapinae
RISK FACTOR	Highly venomous: presynaptic neurotoxins
DISTRIBUTION	East and southeast Africa: Kenya, Tanzania, Zimbabwe, and Mozambique
ELEVATION	0–5,580 ft (0–1,700 m) asl
HABITAT	Coastal bush, woodlands, thickets, and hill forests
DIET	Birds, lizards, bats, and other small mammals
REPRODUCTION	Oviparous, with clutches of up to 10 eggs
CONSERVATION STATUS	IUCN not listed

The Eastern Green Mamba is bright green above, sometimes with every scale of the head edged with yellow, and yellow-green on the belly. The eye may have an orange or green iris.

DENDROASPIS POLYLEPIS
BLACK MAMBA

GÜNTHER, 1864

ADULT LENGTH
9 ft–11 ft 6 in (2.7–3.5 m)

This is probably the most feared snake in Africa, yet from its vantage point in the trees the alert Black Mamba usually avoids confrontations with humans. However, if it feels threatened it will advance and deliver several bites in quick succession, the highly toxic presynaptic neurotoxic venom causing rapid respiratory arrest and death unless antivenom is administered. The venom is designed to kill rats, squirrels, hyraxes, and elephant shrews. Black Mambas inhabit open wooded habitats across sub-Saharan Africa, but they do not enter rainforest. Popular habitats include overgrown rocky outcrops with an abundance of prey. Mambas are diurnal, but crepuscular in hot weather, and although primarily arboreal are equally at home on the ground. They move quickly, often in a straight line with the anterior body raised, but stories of them overtaking horses are exaggerations.

RELATED SPECIES

There are four other mambas, but none resemble Dendroaspis polylepis, which is more likely to be mistaken for the Yellow-throated Black Treesnake (Thrasops flavigularis) or a black Boomslang (Dispholidus typus). The northeast African D. polylepis is sometimes treated as a separate subspecies, D. p. antinorii.

FAMILY	Elapidae: Elapinae
RISK FACTOR	Highly venomous: powerful presynaptic neurotoxins
DISTRIBUTION	East and southern Africa: Eritrea and Ethiopia, to Angola, Namibia, and South Africa, with isolated West African records from Senegal, The Gambia, and Burkina Faso
ELEVATION	6,000 ft (1,830 m) asl
HABITAT	Coastal bush, savanna woodland, and riverine forest
DIET	Small mammals, and occasionally birds or other snakes
REPRODUCTION	Oviparous, with clutches of 6–17 eggs
CONSERVATION STATUS	IUCN Least Concern

The Black Mamba is not generally black, it is more often gunmetal gray or brown. The inside of its mouth is black and this can be seen during the threat display, which involves neck-flattening and gaping widely before the strike. This is a slender-bodied snake with a long tail and a long, somewhat aptly coffin-shaped head.

ELAPSOIDEA BOULENGERI
ZAMBESI GARTERSNAKE

BOETTGER, 1895

ADULT LENGTH
193/4–271/2 in (500–700 mm)

The Zambesi Gartersnake is a slow-moving, wet savanna inhabitant that preys on small snakes, including its own species, and smooth-scaled lizards such as skinks, but it will also take frogs, geckos, and small mammals. Inactive in animal burrows or under logs during the day, it generally emerges at night, especially after rain. This species occurs from southern Tanzania, to Limpopo and KwaZulu-Natal, South Africa, and it has been found at high elevations (4,920 ft/1,500 m). The usual defense adopted by the Zambesi Gartersnake is to inflate and compress its body, hiss loudly, and jerk suddenly, especially if touched. Generally unwilling to bite, it will if molested, and although its venom composition is a mystery, snakebites are on record as only causing localized pain and swelling, and, curiously, nasal congestion.

RELATED SPECIES

This species closely resembles the Angolan Gartersnake (Elapsoidea semiannulata), which occurs farther west, but it may also be confused with Sundevall’s Gartersnake (E. sundevalli) of southern Africa.

FAMILY	Elapidae: Elapinae
RISK FACTOR	Venomous: composition unknown
DISTRIBUTION	East and southeast Africa: Tanzania, Burundi, eastern DRC, Botswana, and South Africa
ELEVATION	0–4,920 ft (0–1,500 m) asl
HABITAT	Wet savannas
DIET	Snakes, lizards, frogs, and small mammals
REPRODUCTION	Oviparous, with clutches of 4–8 eggs
CONSERVATION STATUS	IUCN not listed

The Zambesi Gartersnake is a stocky, glossy-scaled snake with a short tail. Patterning is variable, from uniform black above and white below, to a ringed pattern comprising pairs of fine pale bands. Banding is more distinctive in juveniles, with broad off-white bands alternating with the black bands.

ELAPSOIDEA NIGRA
USAMBARA GARTERSNAKE

GÜNTHER, 1888

ADULT LENGTH
153/4–233/4 in (400–600 mm)

Also known as the Black Gartersnake, the Usambara Gartersnake is endemic to the Usambara and Uluguru mountains of northeastern Tanzania. It may also inhabit the Udzungwa Mountains of Tanzania, or the Taita Hills, Kenya. A secretive inhabitant of leaf litter and rotten logs in montane evergreen forests, it burrows in soft soil or under logs, assisted by a spike on its tail that serves as an anchorage for pushing the body forward. It hunts primarily caecilians (legless elongate amphibians), but whether it takes other cylindrical prey like amphisbaenians (worm-lizards), limbless skinks, or small snakes is unknown. Usambara Gartersnakes are active at night, especially after rain, but may be diurnal on overcast days. Generally inoffensive, this species will bite if handled, but nothing is known of its venom composition.

RELATED SPECIES

Elapsoidea nigra is most likely to be confused with other banded gartersnakes, such as the Zambesi Gartersnake (E. boulengeri), Central African Gartersnake (E. laticincta), or East African Gartersnake (E. loveridgei), although only the last of these occurs close to the range of the Usambara Gartersnake.

FAMILY	Elapidae: Elapinae
RISK FACTOR	Venomous, composition unknown
DISTRIBUTION	East Africa: northeast Tanzania (Usambara and Uluguru mountains)
ELEVATION	985–6,230 ft (300–1,900 m) asl
HABITAT	Montane evergreen forest
DIET	Caecilians
REPRODUCTION	Oviparous, with clutches of 2–5 eggs
CONSERVATION STATUS	IUCN Endangered

The Usambara Gartersnake is a small snake with a short head and tail and smooth, glossy scales. Adults may be uniform gray or exhibit a series of alternating white-edged black bands and light gray interspaces, but juveniles are more vividly patterned with a pale orange head and the anterior gray interspaces replaced by pale orange.

HEMACHATUS HAEMACHATUS
RINKHALS

(GÜNTHER, 1865)

ADULT LENGTH
2 ft 7 in–3 ft 9 in (0.8–1.15 m)

The Rinkhals is a spitting cobra that differs from the true cobras (Naja) in possessing keeled scales and giving birth to live young. It inhabits the grasslands of South Africa, to elevations of 8,200 ft (2,500 m), with an isolated population on the Zimbabwean border with Mozambique. Rinkhals are nocturnal and terrestrial, although they may be active on overcast or wet days, venturing out to hunt toads, which comprise the majority of their diet. If confronted, a Rinkhals will spread its hood and spit venom into the eyes of the enemy. The venom causes pain and temporary blindness, during which time the cobra will attempt to flee. Its final defense is “thanatosis,” rolling onto its back and playing dead, like the hognose snakes (Heterodon) or Western Grass Snake (Natrix helvetica).

RELATED SPECIES

Hemachatus haemachatus could be confused with its closest relatives, the true cobras (Naja), but for its strongly keeled scales.

FAMILY	Elapidae: Elapinae
RISK FACTOR	Highly venomous: possibly neurotoxins, hemorrhagins, or cytotoxins
DISTRIBUTION	Southern Africa: South Africa and Zimbabwe
ELEVATION	0–8,200 ft (0–2,500 m) asl
HABITAT	Lowveld and highveld grasslands
DIET	Toads and small mammals
REPRODUCTION	Viviparous, with litters of 20–30 neonates
CONSERVATION STATUS	IUCN Least Concern

The Rinkhals is usually banded black and pale yellow or gray, although specimens from higher elevations are often uniform gray, brown, or black. Rinkhals have several broad black cross-bands on the throat, visible when they rise up to hood, and it is these markings that earn them the Afrikaans name of “rinkhals,” meaning “ring neck.”

HEMIBUNGARUS CALLIGASTER
PHILIPPINE BARRED CORALSNAKE

(WIEGMANN, 1834)

ADULT LENGTH
153/4–213/4 in (400–550 mm)

The Philippine Barred Coralsnake is an inhabitant of low- to medium-elevation rainforest in the northern and central Philippines, but is most common at lower elevations. It shelters in leaf litter or under logs, where it also hunts other snakes, although whether it takes other prey is unknown. Neither is it known how many eggs it lays, although it is assumed to be oviparous, in common with other terrestrial Asian elapids. If uncovered, the Philippine Barred Coralsnake will expose the red on the underside of its tail, drawing attention away from its head. A reported snakebite caused intense pain, swelling, blistering, fever, and vomiting, but the victim eventually recovered without treatment.

RELATED SPECIES

Three subspecies are recognized, from Luzon (Hemibungarus calligaster calligaster), Polillo (H. c. mcclungi), and Negros, Masbate, Cebu, and Panay (H. c. gemianulis). Hemibungarus may be more closely related to African gartersnakes (Elapsoidea) than other Asian coralsnakes.

FAMILY	Elapidae: Elapinae
RISK FACTOR	Venomous: composition unknown
DISTRIBUTION	Southeast Asia: Philippines
ELEVATION	0–2,620 ft (0–800 m) asl
HABITAT	Lowland and low to mid-montane rainforest
DIET	Small snakes
REPRODUCTION	Presumed oviparous, clutch size unknown
CONSERVATION STATUS	IUCN Least Concern

The Philippine Barred Coralsnake is brown above, with broad black bands, edged with white, while the underside is bright red with black bands that are contiguous with the dorsal bands, each with a white center. The head is black above with a pale snout and a pale or red band on the nape.

MICRUROIDES EURYXANTHUS
SONORAN CORALSNAKE

(KENNICOTT, 1860)

ADULT LENGTH
113/4–153/4 in, rarely 22 in (300–400 mm, rarely 560 mm)

One of the smallest American coralsnakes, the Sonoran Coralsnake is the only coralsnake in southwestern USA and northwestern Mexico, although there are a number of nonvenomous snakes in the genera Chilomeniscus (shown here), Chionactis (shown here), Lampropeltis (shown here), and Rhinocheilus (shown here) that may mimic its patterning for protection. Unlike most other coralsnakes, this is a desert species that is most common in sandy areas around rocky outcrops, such as arroyos. It feeds on a variety of small snakes. It is generally inoffensive, being a small species with a small mouth. Snakebites are said to have produced only local pain and mild effects. When molested, the Sonoran Coralsnake will invert its tail and produce a curious sound, known as “cloacal popping.” How this is accomplished is not known, but it may involve forced expulsion of air from the gut.

RELATED SPECIES

Micruroides euryxanthus is placed in its own genus because it exhibits differences in scalation that separate it from all other American coralsnakes (Micrurus). Three subspecies are recognized, from Arizona to Sonora and Isla Tiburon (Micruroides e. euryxanthus), southern Sonora (M. e. australis), and Sinaloa (M. e. neglectus).

FAMILY	Elapidae: Elapinae
RISK FACTOR	Highly venomous: postsynaptic neurotoxins, and probably myotoxins
DISTRIBUTION	North America: southwest USA (Arizona, New Mexico) and northwest Mexico (Sonora, Sinaloa)
ELEVATION	0–5,910 ft (0–1,800 m) asl
HABITAT	Desert, thorn scrub, tropical dry forest, and rocky areas with sandy soil, such as arroyos
DIET	Small snakes
REPRODUCTION	Oviparous, with clutches of 2–6 eggs
CONSERVATION STATUS	IUCN Least Concern

The Sonoran Coralsnake is a small, banded snake with a black snout and a white band across the back of the head. The bands follow the pattern red, white, black, white, red, which means the famous rhyme “red to yellow [or white], kill a fellow, red to black, venom lack” does work for this species.

MICRURUS CORALLINUS
PAINTED CORALSNAKE

(MERREM, 1820)

ADULT LENGTH
233/4–331/2 in, rarely 381/2 in (600–850 mm, rarely 980 mm)

The Painted Coralsnake occurs down South America’s Atlantic coast from Rio Grande do Norte, Brazil, to Uruguay, and northern Argentina, and on a number of Brazilian islands, including São Sebastião, Alcatrazes, and Vitória, in a variety of lowland and low montane forest habitats. Like other coralsnakes it feeds on elongate vertebrates, and seems to prefer amphisbaenians (worm-lizards) and caecilians (legless amphibians), but the Painted Coralsnake also takes leaf-litter-dwelling lizards and other snakes, and cannibalism has been documented. They appear very good at locating and excavating their fossorial prey. Painted Coralsnakes are said to react nervously to human contact, and given that they are large enough to deliver a snakebite they must be considered extremely dangerous.

RELATED SPECIES

Three coralsnakes occur in sympatry with Micrurus corallinus, the South American Coralsnake (M. lemniscatus), Decorated Coralsnake (M. decoratus), and Cerrado Coralsnake (M. frontalis), but they are unlikely to be confused with M. corallinus as it is a monadal (single black ring) species, while the other three species exhibit triad patterns of three black rings, separated from each other by white rings, between each pair of red interspaces.

FAMILY	Elapidae: Elapinae
RISK FACTOR	Highly venomous: postsynaptic neurotoxins, and probably myotoxins
DISTRIBUTION	South America: southern and eastern Brazil, Uruguay, Paraguay, and northern Argentina
ELEVATION	0–1,970 ft (0–600 m) asl
HABITAT	Tropical and subtropical deciduous forest, and evergreen forest
DIET	Amphisbaenians, caecilians, lizards, and other snakes
REPRODUCTION	Oviparous, with clutches of 4–10 eggs
CONSERVATION STATUS	IUCN not listed

The Painted Coralsnake exhibits a monadal (single black rings) pattern of black rings, each of which is sandwiched between a pair of white rings, between broad red interspaces. The head is black-snouted, with a white band over the nape that extends forward onto the lips. The tail is banded black and white without any red.

MICRURUS FULVIUS
EASTERN CORALSNAKE

(LINNAEUS, 1766)

ADULT LENGTH
233/4–311/2 in, rarely 4 ft (600–800 mm, rarely 1.2 m)

The only coralsnake endemic to the USA, the Eastern Coralsnake occurs throughout the Florida Peninsula, north to the Carolinas, and west as far as Louisiana, and possibly extreme eastern Texas. It inhabits dry hammocks in the Everglades and dry woodland habitats throughout the southeast. A secretive, nocturnal species, it may be encountered abroad after rain. Prey comprises elongate vertebrates, such as small snakes, including its own species, the Floridian amphisbaenian, and small lizards. Although most Eastern Coralsnakes are small, they are capable of delivering a serious and fast-acting snakebite and there are deaths on record. Before the advent of antivenom there was a 20 percent death rate following Eastern Coralsnake bites. This species is reported to have caused the first Confederate casualty of the American Civil War.

RELATED SPECIES

A close relative is the Texas Coralsnake (Micrurus tener), which was formerly a subspecies of M. fulvius. The only snakes within its range with which M. fulvius may be confused are the harmless Scarlet Kingsnake (Lampropeltis elapsoides) and Scarletsnake (Cemophora coccinea).

FAMILY	Elapidae: Elapinae
RISK FACTOR	Highly venomous: postsynaptic neurotoxins, and probably myotoxins
DISTRIBUTION	North America: southeastern USA (Florida to Carolinas, Louisiana, and eastern Texas)
ELEVATION	0–1,310 ft (0–400 m) asl
HABITAT	Scrub and live oak hammocks, flatwoods, and pinelands
DIET	Small snakes, lizards, and amphisbaenians
REPRODUCTION	Oviparous, with clutches of 1–13 eggs
CONSERVATION STATUS	IUCN Least Concern

The Eastern Coralsnake is a relatively small, slender snake with a black snout and a broad yellow band over the back of the head. The body bands follow the order black, yellow, red, yellow, black, yellow, red, with the “red to yellow, kill a fellow” combination indicating a dangerous species.

MICRURUS HEMPRICHII
HEMPRICH’S CORALSNAKE

(JAN, 1858)

ADULT LENGTH
193/4–233/4 in, rarely 351/2 in (500–600 mm, rarely 900 mm)

An alternative name for Hemprich’s Coralsnake is Worm-eating Coralsnake, but this is inaccurate. The primary prey sought by Hemprich’s Coralsnake are not earthworms, but “velvet worms” (Onychophora), a curious group of tube-footed invertebrates that inhabit rotten logs and are closely related to the Arthropoda. Although Hemprich’s Coralsnake specializes in velvet worms it will also prey on elongate vertebrates such as amphisbaenians (worm-lizards) and small snakes. It occurs throughout the Amazon Basin countries from French Guiana to Bolivia, in lowland and low montane tropical forests, and riverine forest. It lives and hunts in the damp leaf litter or under fallen logs, and reacts quickly to being uncovered by writhing and burrowing down into the substrate. Wilhelm Friedrich Hemprich (1796–1825) was a German naturalist.

RELATED SPECIES

Three subspecies of Micrurus hemprichii are recognized, from the lower and middle Amazon (Micrurus h. hemprichii), upper Amazon (M. h. ortonii), and Rôndonia (M. h. rondonianus). No other coralsnake resembles this species, with its broad triads, orange rings, and undivided cloacal plate.

FAMILY	Elapidae: Elapinae
RISK FACTOR	Highly venomous: postsynaptic neurotoxins, and probably myotoxins
DISTRIBUTION	South America: Amazonia, in the Guianas, Brazil, Venezuela, Colombia, Ecuador, Peru, and Bolivia
ELEVATION	0–3,940 ft (0–1,200 m) asl
HABITAT	Primary lowland and low montane rainforest and gallery forest
DIET	Onychophorans, also amphisbaenians and small snakes
REPRODUCTION	Oviparous, with clutches of 1–8 eggs
CONSERVATION STATUS	IUCN not listed

Hemprich’s Coralsnake has a black snout and dorsum to its head, followed by an orange ring across the nape and onto the lips. The body is marked with a repeating pattern of three extremely broad black bands, separated from each other by fine white bands that form a “triad,” each triad being separated from the next by an orange band. Not all coralsnakes are black, red, and yellow.

MICRURUS LEMNISCATUS
SOUTH AMERICAN CORALSNAKE

(LINNAEUS, 1758)

ADULT LENGTH
193/4–351/2 in, rarely 4 ft 7 in (500–900 mm, rarely 1.4 m)

The South American Coralsnake is found from Trinidad and Ilha de Marajó in the mouth of the Amazon to the headwaters in Peru, Ecuador, and Bolivia, but it is absent from upper Amazonian Brazil. Populations of South American Coralsnakes also occur on the Brazilian Atlantic coast and in Paraguay. This may be the most widely distributed coralsnake in the Americas. Its prey preferences are equally wide, ranging from swamp eels and knifefish to small snakes, leaf-litter lizards, amphisbaenians (worm-lizards), and caecilians. The South American Coralsnake has also been documented as cannibalistic. Its habitat preferences are also broad, from lowland rainforest to rocky habitats, open savanna, and disturbed areas with cultivation. Documented snakebites are few and symptoms have been mild, but as a coralsnake it should not be underestimated.

RELATED SPECIES

With its wide but punctuated distribution, several subspecies are recognized: in eastern Brazil and the Guianas (Micrurus lemniscatus lemniscatus); Venezuela, Trinidad, and the Guianas (M. l. diutius); upper Amazon (M. l. helleri); Bolivia (M. l. frontifasciatus); and the Brazilian Atlantic Forest, Argentina, and Paraguay (M. l. carvalhoi). Many other triad-marked coralsnakes resemble this species, but so also do several mildly venomous mimics such as the Aesculapian False Coralsnake (Erythrolamprus aesculapii).

FAMILY	Elapidae: Elapinae
RISK FACTOR	Highly venomous: postsynaptic neurotoxins, and probably myotoxins
DISTRIBUTION	South America: across the Amazon, in Trinidad, the Guianas, Brazil, Venezuela, Colombia, Ecuador, Peru, Bolivia, Paraguay, and Argentina
ELEVATION	0–1,460 ft (0–445 m) asl
HABITAT	Lowland and low montane rainforest, savannas, floodplains, rocky habitats, and cultivated areas
DIET	Swamp eels and knifefish, small snakes, amphisbaenians, elongate lizards, and caecilians
REPRODUCTION	Oviparous, with clutches of 3–8 eggs
CONSERVATION STATUS	IUCN not listed

The South American Coralsnake has a black head with a white band over the snout. The body is marked with wide black triads, with white rings, between narrow red interspaces. The contact between red and black might suggest “venom lack,” but this species is dangerous and the rhyme (see here), useful in the USA, should not be used in South America.

MICRURUS NIGROCINCTUS
CENTRAL AMERICAN CORALSNAKE

(GIRARD, 1854)

ADULT LENGTH
233/4–291/2 in, rarely 3 ft 7 in (600–750 mm, rarely 1.1 m)

The Central American Coralsnake is the most widely distributed coralsnake in Central America, with six subspecies recognized from southern Mexico to northwest Colombia, and on Big Corn Island, Nicaragua, in the Caribbean and Coiba Island, Panama, in the Pacific. This moderately large coralsnake inhabits lowland and montane rainforest and dry forests, where it feeds on a wide range of prey species, including snakes, lizards, caecilians, and even reptile eggs. Snakebites from this species are thought to have caused human fatalities. Although it is not considered threatened by the IUCN, Honduras have placed the Central American Coralsnake on CITES Appendix III to control trade.

RELATED SPECIES

Micrurus nigrocinctus possesses four mainland subspecies, and two island endemics, on Big Corn Island (M. n. babaspul) and Coiba Island (M. n. coibensis). Several harmless mimics resemble this species, including the Variegated False Coralsnake (Pliocercus elapoides) and the Central America Milksnake (Lampropeltis polyzona). Several other coralsnakes also occur in sympatry with this species, but the species believed closely related is the Endangered Roatán Coralsnake (M. ruatanus), formerly treated as a subspecies, from the Islas de la Bahía off the Caribbean coast of Honduras.

FAMILY	Elapidae: Elapinae
RISK FACTOR	Highly venomous: postsynaptic neurotoxins, and probably myotoxins
DISTRIBUTION	North and Central America: southern Mexico, Guatemala, El Salvador, Honduras, Nicaragua, Costa Rica, and Panama, to northwest Colombia
ELEVATION	0–5,250 ft (0–1,600 m) asl
HABITAT	Lowland and low to mid-montane rainforest, and lowland dry forest
DIET	Snakes, lizards, reptile eggs, and caecilians
REPRODUCTION	Oviparous, with clutches of 5–15, occasionally 23, eggs
CONSERVATION STATUS	IUCN Least Concern, CITES Appendix III (Honduras)

The Central American Coralsnake is a monadal species with single black bands between narrow white or yellow bands, between broad red interspaces. Its head is black with a white band across the center. Beyond this description this is a very variable species, sometimes even lacking any white or yellow bands.

MICRURUS PSYCHES
CARIB CORALSNAKE

(DAUDIN, 1803)

ADULT LENGTH
213/4–233/4 in, rarely 353/4 in (550–600 mm, rarely 910 mm)

At first glance the Carib Coralsnake might not be thought a coralsnake, so dark are its red rings, but this species demonstrates the diversity of patterning found through the approximately 80 species of Micrurus. It occurs from eastern Venezuela, through the Guianas to Amapá, Brazil, in lowland and low montane rainforest, gallery forest, and along the edges of savannas. The only prey recorded for the Carib Coralsnake are the small, slender, short-legged, leaf-litter-dwelling gymnophthalmid lizards of the genus Bachia. The Carib Coralsnake is a poorly known species; even the number of eggs it produces is unknown. At one time a number of isolated populations of coralsnakes across northern South America were treated as subspecies of M. psyches, but they have since been elevated to valid species in their own rights.

RELATED SPECIES

South American coralsnakes that exhibit similar patterning to Micrurus psyches include Medem’s Coralsnake (Micrurus medemi) from Colombia, and the Speckled Coralsnake (M. margaritiferus) from Peru, while the Red-tailed Coralsnake (M. mipartitus) of Colombia is banded black and white, but with a distinct red head and tail.

FAMILY	Elapidae: Elapinae
RISK FACTOR	Highly venomous: postsynaptic neurotoxins, and probably myotoxins
DISTRIBUTION	South America: eastern Venezuela, Guyana, Suriname, French Guiana, and northeastern Brazil
ELEVATION	0–1,640 ft (0–500 m) asl
HABITAT	Low-lying tropical rainforest, low montane wet forest, gallery forest, and savanna–forest edge situations
DIET	Small gymnophthalmid lizards
REPRODUCTION	Oviparous, clutch size unknown
CONSERVATION STATUS	IUCN not listed

The Carib Coralsnake is a monadal species with single black rings alternating with slightly wider red rings and separated by fine white rings only one scale wide. On the dorsum the red rings are so heavily infused with black they are almost black themselves, but they are usually visible on the venter. Not all coralsnakes have visible red rings.

MICRURUS RUATANUS
ROATÁN CORALSNAKE

(GÜNTHER, 1895)

ADULT LENGTH
233/4–291/2 in, rarely 3 ft 7 in (600–750 mm, rarely 1.1 m)

The Roatán Coralsnake is endemic to the island of Roatán, in the Honduran Islas de la Bahía, 40 miles (64 km) off the Caribbean coast. Due to habitat destruction and alteration it is now considered Endangered by the IUCN. Roatán is a relatively small island (60 sq miles/156 sq km) with a high point of 1,100 ft (335 m) asl, the coralsnake being found between sea-level and 66 ft (20 m), where there has been much disturbance. Semi-fossorial and both diurnal and nocturnal, this snake feeds on diurnal whiptail lizards (Cnemidophorus) and small snakes. Local people believe venomous snakes sequester the poison of toads taken as prey, and since toads are absent from Roatán they believe the coralsnake is nonvenomous. There is an anecdotal account of a fatality following a snakebite from this species.

RELATED SPECIES

The closest relative of Micrurus ruatanus is the widely distributed mainland Central American Coralsnake (M. nigrocinctus), of which the Roatán Coralsnake was formerly a subspecies. Other insular endemics include coralsnakes on Nicaragua’s Isla del Maíz (M. n. babaspul) and Panama’s Coiba Island (M. n. coibensis). There are no snakes on Roatán with which M. ruatanus could be confused.

FAMILY	Elapidae: Elapinae
RISK FACTOR	Highly venomous: probably postsynaptic neurotoxins, and myotoxins
DISTRIBUTION	Central America: Roatán (Islas de la Bahía, Honduras)
ELEVATION	0–66 ft (0–20 m) asl
HABITAT	Low-lying tropical moist forest and disturbed areas
DIET	Whiptail lizards and small snakes
REPRODUCTION	Presumed oviparous, otherwise undocumented
CONSERVATION STATUS	IUCN Endangered

The Roatán Coralsnake is usually bicolored red and black, lacking white or yellow bands. Its head is bright red with a black snout tip.

MICRURUS SPIXII
AMAZONIAN CORALSNAKE

WAGLER, 1824

ADULT LENGTH
2 ft 7 in–3 ft 7 in, rarely 4 ft 7 in (0.8–1.1 m, rarely 1.4 m)

The Amazonian Coralsnake is also known as Spix’s Coralsnake, named in honor of the German naturalist Johann Baptist von Spix (1781–1826). It is distributed through the Amazonian countries, but is absent from the Rio Negro watershed of Venezuela and northeastern Brazil, and the Guianas. It is equally at home in primary rainforest and secondary growth and may be found in cultivated gardens or around houses. It is reportedly often associated with leaf-cutter ant nests but the reasons why are unclear. It preys on a wide range of lizards and snakes and even preys on dangerous species like lancehead pitvipers (Bothrops). Caecilians are also taken in the upper Amazon. Although reportedly inoffensive, such a large species must be considered extremely dangerous, even though there are apparently no snakebites on record.

RELATED SPECIES

Four subspecies are recognized, from the lower Amazon (Micrurus spixii martiusi), middle Amazon south to Paraguay (M. s. spixii), upper Amazon (M. s. obscurus), and central Bolivia (M. s. princeps). Micrurus spixii closely resembles the Venezuelan Coralsnake (M. isozonus), although that species occurs in the Orinoco watershed of Colombia and Venezuela to the north.

FAMILY	Elapidae: Elapinae
RISK FACTOR	Highly venomous: postsynaptic neurotoxins, and probably myotoxins
DISTRIBUTION	South America: Amazonian Brazil, Venezuela, Colombia, Ecuador, Peru, Bolivia, and Paraguay
ELEVATION	165–3,940 ft (50–1,200 m) asl
HABITAT	Primary rainforest, secondary growth, gallery forest, and savanna
DIET	Lizards and snakes, including pitvipers, and caecilians
REPRODUCTION	Oviparous, with clutches of 6–12 eggs
CONSERVATION STATUS	IUCN not listed

The Amazonian Coralsnake has a gray and red banded head, the pattern heavily infused with black. Its body exhibits typical coralsnake triads, but the usual narrow white bands are broad, with every scale tipped with black. The scales of the red bands may also be black tipped.

MICRURUS SURINAMENSIS
AQUATIC CORALSNAKE

(CUVIER, 1817)

ADULT LENGTH
2 ft 7 in–3 ft 3 in, rarely 4 ft (0.8–1.0 m, rarely 1.2 m)

Found throughout the Amazonian countries, the Aquatic Coralsnake is one of the largest coralsnake species. Although it is a snake of lowland and lower montane rainforest, the distribution of the most aquatic of all coralsnakes is dominated by creeks and rivers. It swims well and can remain submerged for long periods. Clues to its aquatic habits can be seen in its relatively dorsally positioned nostrils and eyes. Prey comprises mostly fish, from swamp eels and knifefish to catfish and other bony fish. The Aquatic Coralsnake is unlikely to be confused with any other coralsnake, and it is the only species where only the fourth supralabial scale contacts the eye. Several harmless aquatic snakes in the genera Hydrops (shown here), Helicops (shown here), and Hydrodynastes (shown here) may mimic the Aquatic Coralsnake’s patterning for protection.

RELATED SPECIES

Two subspecies of Micrurus surinamensis are recognized: the widespread Amazonian–Guianan form (M. surinamensis surinamensis), and an upper Orinoco and Rio Negro form (M. s. nattereri).

FAMILY	Elapidae: Elapinae
RISK FACTOR	Highly venomous: postsynaptic neurotoxins, and probably myotoxins
DISTRIBUTION	South America: upper Orinoco in Venezuela, and Amazonian Venezuela, Colombia, the Guianas, Brazil, Ecuador, Peru, and Bolivia
ELEVATION	98–1,890 ft (30–575 m) asl
HABITAT	Lowland and low montane rainforest, especially near water
DIET	Swamp eels, knifefish, catfish, and other bony fish
REPRODUCTION	Oviparous, with clutches of 5–13 eggs
CONSERVATION STATUS	IUCN not listed

The Aquatic Coralsnake is characterized by its red head, each scale edged with black. The body is patterned with black-white-black-white-black triads between red interspaces, each scale of the interspaces being black-edged.

NAJA ANNULATA
BANDED WATER COBRA

PETERS, 1876

ADULT LENGTH
4 ft 7 in–7 ft 3 in, rarely 9 ft (1.4–2.2 m, rarely 2.7 m)

A truly aquatic snake, the Banded Water Cobra is more at home in the water than on land, swimming gracefully, diving rapidly to 82 ft (25 m), and remaining submerged for 20 minutes at a time. It is believed to subsist entirely on a diet of fish, although amphibians may also be taken. Active by day or night, the Banded Water Cobra sleeps in caves under boulders on rocky shores, emerging with first light to hunt. At night it explores underwater crevices for sleeping fish. Although Banded Water Cobras are not considered endangered in general, Storm’s Water Cobra (Naja annulata stormsi), the subspecies endemic to Lake Tanganyika, may be threatened because of local fishermen who set their gill nets along rocky shores and many cobras become ensnared and drown as a result. Human snakebites are rare.

RELATED SPECIES

For a long time placed in the genus Boulengerina, Naja annulata is closely related to the Congo Water Cobra (N. christyi), a little-known species from the mouth of the Congo River, and the Forest Cobra (N. melanoleuca).

FAMILY	Elapidae: Elapinae
RISK FACTOR	Highly venomous: postsynaptic neurotoxins
DISTRIBUTION	Central and East Africa: Cameroon and Gabon to Rwanda, Tanzania, and Zambia
ELEVATION	0–3,490 ft (0–1,065 m) asl
HABITAT	Lakes and rivers, fringing woodland, or rocky shores
DIET	Fish, and possibly amphibians
REPRODUCTION	Oviparous, with clutches of 22–24 eggs
CONSERVATION STATUS	IUCN Least Concern

The Banded Water Cobra is pale brown, orange, or reddish brown, with a series of bold black rings around the body, these rings becoming more expanded on the flanks to encompass areas of paler background color. The rings are especially in evidence on the throat when the cobra rears up and spreads its narrow hood. In the Lake Tanganyika subspecies (Naja annulata stormsi) the rings are present only on the neck and anterior body.

NAJA ANNULIFERA
SNOUTED COBRA

PETERS, 1876

ADULT LENGTH
Male
7 ft (2.1 m)

Female
6 ft 3 in (1.9 m)

The Snouted Cobra is an inhabitant of arid grassland habitats across southeastern Africa, from southern Zambia to KwaZulu-Natal. This species often spends the day sleeping inside termitaria, before emerging at night to hunt toads, other snakes, including venomous species like Puff Adders (Bitis arietans), and small mammals, or to raid chicken coops for eggs. If confronted, the Snouted Cobra will spread a broad hood and hiss loudly, and as a non-spitting species its other options include escape, thanatosis (playing dead), or biting. Snakebites from this species, like those from any cobra, are serious medical emergencies; death within hours due to respiratory paralysis is a likely outcome without treatment with antivenom.

RELATED SPECIES

The Angolan cobra (Naja anchietae) was a former subspecies of N. annulifera, and both were originally subspecies of the northeast African Egyptian Cobra (N. haje), but physically N. annulifera is very different from the Egyptian Cobra, with different head and hood shapes.

FAMILY	Elapidae: Elapinae
RISK FACTOR	Highly venomous: postsynaptic neurotoxins, cytotoxins, and possibly cardiotoxins
DISTRIBUTION	Southern Africa: southern Zambia, Zimbabwe, eastern Botswana, southern Mozambique, northwestern South Africa, and Swaziland
ELEVATION	0–4,510 ft (0–1,375 m) asl
HABITAT	Savanna, bushveld, and lowveld
DIET	Small mammals, snakes, toads, and birds’ eggs
REPRODUCTION	Oviparous, with clutches of 8–33 eggs
CONSERVATION STATUS	IUCN not listed

The Snouted Cobra may be uniform brown, light brown with darker brown speckling, or it may occur as a banded morphotype, with distinctive broad pale brown and dark purple-brown bands along the body. It has a large rostral scale on the snout and may possess a pointed snout in profile, though not as pointed as in the related Angolan Cobra.

NAJA ARABICA
ARABIAN COBRA

SCORTECCI, 1932

ADULT LENGTH
4–5 ft, rarely 6 ft 3 in (1.2–1.5 m, rarely 1.9 m)

The Arabian Cobra is the only true cobra on the Arabian Peninsula, a representative of an African clade of cobras in western Asia. It is primarily an inhabitant of highland areas, away from the lowland sandy desert, where it adopts a diurnal lifestyle, but avoids the heat of the day, and is most often encountered in habitats near water or within monsoon areas. Although it shows a preference for feeding on toads, it will take other snakes, lizards, birds, small mammals, and even fish as prey. Snakebites to humans are rare but are serious medical emergencies due to the high risk of neuromuscular paralysis and death. In common with its close relative, the Egyptian Cobra (Naja haje), this cobra does not spit venom.

RELATED SPECIES

A former subspecies of the Egyptian Cobra (Naja haje) of northeast Africa, N. arabica is most likely to be confused with racers of the genus Platyceps (shown here), which share its body shape, coloration, patterning, and activity cycle, though they do not grow as large as the cobra.

FAMILY	Elapidae: Elapinae
RISK FACTOR	Highly venomous: postsynaptic neurotoxins
DISTRIBUTION	Arabia: southeastern Oman, Yemen, and southeastern Saudi Arabia
ELEVATION	3,280–7,870 ft (1,000–2,400 m) asl
HABITAT	Highland wadis and streams, especially in monsoon areas
DIET	Toads, snakes, lizards, fish, birds, and small mammals
REPRODUCTION	Oviparous, with clutches of 8–20 eggs
CONSERVATION STATUS	IUCN Least Concern

The Arabian Cobra may be yellow, brown, reddish, or jet black. When it raises a hood it lacks any black collar or bands across the neck.

NAJA HAJE
EGYPTIAN COBRA

(LINNAEUS, 1758)

ADULT LENGTH
4 ft 3 in–6 ft, rarely 8 ft 2 in (1.3–1.8 m, rarely 2.5 m)

The probable means of Cleopatra’s suicide, and the cobra that adorned the headdress of the Pharaohs, the Egyptian Cobra is not confined to Egypt. It has an extremely fragmented distribution around but not into the Sahara, with populations from Western Sahara, Morocco, and Algeria; along the coast from Tunisia to Egypt; in the Sahel from Senegal to Cameroon; South Sudan; and Uganda, Eritrea, Ethiopia, Somalia, Kenya, and Tanzania. It inhabits arid grassland, woodland, and semidesert, but never enters rainforest. It feeds on a variety of vertebrates, from other snakes and toads, to small mammals, birds, and their eggs. A terrestrial species, it is active by day or night. A non-spitter, when confronted it will hood and hiss, before biting. Snakebites from this species cause death through respiratory paralysis.

RELATED SPECIES

Naja haje was once a pan-African species, but most former subspecies are now treated as distinct species, including the Arabian Cobra (N. arabica), Snouted Cobra (N. annulifera), and Angolan Cobra (N. anchietae) from southwestern Africa, and a recently described West African species (N. senegalensis) that could be called the Sahel Cobra because it occurs between the West African rainforests and the Sahara. The Moroccan population of N. haje, sometimes referred to as N. h. legionis, is no longer recognized as distinct enough to warrant taxonomic recognition.

FAMILY	Elapidae: Elapinae
RISK FACTOR	Highly venomous: postsynaptic neurotoxins, cytotoxins, and possibly cardiotoxins
DISTRIBUTION	North and East Africa: Western Sahara to Egypt north of the Sahara, and Senegal to Somalia, Kenya, and Tanzania south of the Sahara
ELEVATION	0–6,560 ft (0–2,000 m) asl
HABITAT	Arid savanna, woodland, and semidesert
DIET	Small mammals, birds and their eggs, toads, and snakes
REPRODUCTION	Oviparous, with clutches of 8–20 eggs
CONSERVATION STATUS	IUCN not listed

The Egyptian Cobra is usually light brown in color, often with dorsal speckling of dark brown or black. It has a narrow hood with a broad black band across the throat. Moroccan specimens are often jet black.

NAJA MELANOLEUCA
FOREST COBRA

HALLOWELL, 1857

ADULT LENGTH
Male
7 ft 3 in (2.2 m)

Female
5 ft 2 in (1.6 m)

The Forest Cobra is an arboreal, non-spitting cobra that inhabits rainforest, woodland, and oil-palm plantations. It climbs with ease, but is also active on the ground. It has a wide distribution, from Senegal to Uganda and Zambia, with isolated populations in Ethiopia, Kenya, Tanzania, Malawi, and Zimbabwe to South Africa. With this distribution, and differences in coloration between the West African rainforest specimens and the matte brown, black-tailed specimens from southeastern Africa, it is probable that N. melanoleuca is a species complex, containing several species that are yet to be defined. Its prey includes rodents, elephant shrews, birds, snakes, toads, and fish. Alert Forest Cobras avoid confrontation with humans and snakebites are rare, but fatalities are known.

RELATED SPECIES

The closest relative of the Forest Cobra is probably the Banded Water Cobra (Naja annulata) of Central Africa. The recently described São Tomé cobra (N. peroescobari) from the Gulf of Guinea is also a close relative.

FAMILY	Elapidae: Elapinae
RISK FACTOR	Highly venomous: postsynaptic neurotoxins, cytotoxins, and possibly cardiotoxins
DISTRIBUTION	Sub-Saharan Africa: Senegal to Ethiopia, south to Angola, Zambia, Mozambique, Zimbabwe, and South Africa
ELEVATION	0–8,860 ft (0–2,700 m) asl
HABITAT	Tropical and subtropical rainforest, gallery forest, coastal thicket, arid woodland, and oil-palm plantations
DIET	Small mammals, birds, snakes, amphibians, and fish
REPRODUCTION	Oviparous, with clutches of 15–26 eggs
CONSERVATION STATUS	IUCN not listed

The Forest Cobra of West and Central Africa is a glossy black snake with a pale yellow underbelly and black bands across the throat, although some specimens are broadly banded on the back, with the lips banded black and white, the source of the old name Black and White-lipped Cobra. Southern and eastern populations are matte brown on the head and anterior body and matte black on the posterior body and tail.

NAJA MOSSAMBICA
MOZAMBIQUE SPITTING COBRA

PETERS, 1854

ADULT LENGTH
2 ft 7 in–4 ft 3 in, rarely 5 ft (0.8–1.3 m, rarely 1.5 m)

The Mozambique Spitting Cobra is a common cause of snakebites, and although deaths are rare, the cytotoxic effects of the venom are severe and can lead to necrosis (tissue death), loss of tissue, limb deformity, and long recovery periods. An inhabitant of lowland and coastal savanna, woodland, and semidesert, it hunts toads and other vertebrates by day or night. This cobra is often associated with termitaria, in which it shelters. Spitting cobras have evolved a form of defense from a distance, propelling jets of venom up to 6 ft 7 in (2 m) into the face of a perceived enemy, causing intense pain and temporary blindness if it contacts the eyes, at which point the cobra makes its escape. Spitting cobras can spit many times in quick succession. The Zulu name for this cobra is “M’fezi.”

RELATED SPECIES

This cobra is a member of a clade that also contains the Zebra Spitting Cobra (Naja nigricincta) of southwest Africa, Black-necked Spitting Cobra (N. nigricollis) of West and Central Africa, the recently described Ashe’s Spitting Cobra (N. ashei) of northeast Africa, and possibly the West African Spitting Cobra (N. katiensis).

FAMILY	Elapidae: Elapinae
RISK FACTOR	Highly venomous: postsynaptic neurotoxins, cytotoxins, and possibly cardiotoxins
DISTRIBUTION	Southeastern Africa: Tanzania to South Africa, west to northeastern Namibia
ELEVATION	0–5,910 ft (0–1,800 m) asl
HABITAT	Savanna, woodland, coastal forest, semidesert, and highland areas (Zimbabwe)
DIET	Toads, snakes, lizards, and small mammals
REPRODUCTION	Oviparous, with clutches of 10–22 eggs
CONSERVATION STATUS	IUCN not listed

The Mozambique Spitting Cobra is a relatively small species that is greenish brown dorsally, with black interstitial skin presenting a lightly reticulate appearance, and white, pale yellow, or pinkish below, with heavy black infusions on all the ventral scales, and a broad black band across the throat when it hoods.

NAJA MULTIFASCIATA
BURROWING COBRA

(WERNER, 1902)

ADULT LENGTH
193/4–311/2 in (500–800 mm)

One of the least known African snake species, the Burrowing Cobra is a terrestrial or semi-fossorial inhabitant of tropical forest and savanna woodland from Cameroon and Gabon to the Democratic Republic of the Congo. Like most other elapids it is probably oviparous, though there are no records of its reproductive strategy. Even its diet is unknown, and although it is expected to feed on either amphibians or small snakes, there is no data to support either possibility. There is also no data regarding the venom of the Burrowing Cobra, and no snakebites on record. This is a rarely encountered species in dire need of study in nature.

RELATED SPECIES

In the past this species was placed in the monotypic genus Paranaja and three dubious subspecies were recognized. Although now in Naja, it does not resemble other cobras but in appearance being more like the African gartersnakes (Elapsoidea).

FAMILY	Elapidae: Elapinae
RISK FACTOR	Highly venomous: venom composition unknown
DISTRIBUTION	Central Africa: southern Cameroon, Equatorial Guinea, Gabon, Congo, and DRC
ELEVATION	985–2,620 ft (300–800 m) asl
HABITAT	Tropical forest and savanna woodland
DIET	Unknown, possibly snakes or amphibians
REPRODUCTION	Unknown, probably oviparous; clutch size unknown
CONSERVATION STATUS	IUCN Least Concern

The Burrowing Cobra is a small snake that is pale green with every scale tipped with black, presenting a reticulate appearance. The head is yellow with a black cap, the darker pigment extending downward through the eye and to the angle of the jaw, with a black band across the nape of the neck.

NAJA NAJA
INDIAN COBRA

(LINNAEUS, 1758)

ADULT LENGTH
3 ft–3 ft 3 in, rarely 7 ft 3 in (0.9–1.0 m, rarely 2.2 m)

The Indian Cobra, also called the Spectacled Cobra, bears a “spectacle” marking on its hood. Sri Lankan Buddhists believe this is the mark of Buddha’s two fingers, made after the cobra sheltered him from the rain. Thai Buddhists have the Monocled Cobra (Naja kaouthia), which has a single round “monocle” marking, made by Buddhas’s thumb. Even though Hindus and Buddhists revere the Indian Cobra, it is still a major contributory factor in thousands of snakebite fatalities each year, being one of the “Big Four” snakebite killers. But it also plays an important role, ridding rice paddies of rats that would spoil the crop and spread disease, so while cobras take lives, they also save them. Found in most habitats, with a catholic vertebrate diet, Indian Cobras are one of South Asia’s commonest snakes.

RELATED SPECIES

The closest relatives of Naja naja are likely to be the non-spitting Asian cobras, the Transcaspian Cobra (N. oxiana), Monocled or Thai Cobra (N. kaouthia), Andaman Cobra (N. sagittifera), and Chinese Cobra (N. atra). At one time all Asian Naja were treated as subspecies of Naja naja.

FAMILY	Elapidae: Elapinae
RISK FACTOR	Highly venomous: postsynaptic neurotoxins, cytotoxins, and possibly cardiotoxins
DISTRIBUTION	South Asia: India (except the northeast), Pakistan, Nepal, Bangladesh, Bhutan, and Sri Lanka
ELEVATION	0–6,560 ft (0–2,000 m) asl
HABITAT	Forests, woodland, open country, and especially cultivated rice paddies
DIET	Small mammals, amphibians, snakes, and birds
REPRODUCTION	Oviparous, with clutches of 12–30 eggs
CONSERVATION STATUS	IUCN not listed, CITES Appendix II

The Indian Cobra is a fairly variable snake. Indian specimens are usually brown with the characteristic spectacle marking on the hood, while Sri Lankan specimens are often banded. Specimens from Nepal and Pakistan are often melanistic, being all black with only the faintest of hood markings visible.

NAJA NIGRICINCTA
ZEBRA SPITTING COBRA

BOGERT, 1940

ADULT LENGTH
2 ft 7 in–4 ft 3 in, rarely 6 ft (0.8–1.3 m, rarely 1.8 m)

Also known as the Western Barred Spitting Cobra, this is a relatively small cobra that occurs as two subspecies, the southern subspecies achieving a slightly larger size (6 ft/ 1.8 m) than the northern subspecies (5 ft/1.5 m). Inhabiting semidesert, with a preference for rocky outcrops, the two subspecies both hunt toads, lizards, and small mammals by day. Although most specimens are small, they can produce large venom yields and are potentially capable of causing a fatality, but tissue loss due to necrosis is the more likely result of a snakebite and even bites treated with antivenom require a long recovery period and skin grafts. The preferred defense of these snakes is to hood as a warning, and if that is not heeded, to spit venom into the face of their enemy. The cobra then drops its hood and escapes.

RELATED SPECIES

The closest relatives of Naja nigricincta are the Black-necked Spitting Cobra (N. nigricollis) of West and Central Africa, of which it was once a subspecies, the Mozambique Spitting Cobra (N. mossambica) of southeast Africa, and Ashe’s Spitting Cobra (N. ashei) of northeast Africa. Two subspecies are recognized, the zebra-striped nominate form (N. n. nigricincta) from Namibia and southern Angola, and the Black Spitting Cobra (N. n. woodi) from southern Namibia and Namaqualand, South Africa.

FAMILY	Elapidae: Elapinae
RISK FACTOR	Highly venomous: postsynaptic neurotoxins, cytotoxins, and possibly cardiotoxins
DISTRIBUTION	Southwest Africa: Angola, Namibia, and northwest South Africa
ELEVATION	0–5,350 ft (0–1,630 m) asl
HABITAT	Arid rocky habitats, and semidesert
DIET	Toads, lizards, and small mammals
REPRODUCTION	Oviparous, clutch size unknown
CONSERVATION STATUS	IUCN not listed

The Zebra Spitting Cobra is usually banded with alternating black and white bands, with a totally black head, hood, neck, and throat. Its southern subspecies, the Black Spitting Cobra (Naja nigricincta woodi), is jet black throughout. These cobras spread a broad hood.

NAJA NIVEA
CAPE COBRA

(LINNAEUS, 1758)

ADULT LENGTH
Male
5 ft 7 in (1.7 m)

Female
4 ft 7 in (1.4 m)

The Cape Cobra is also known as the Yellow Cobra, although not all specimens are yellow. It is an inhabitant of relatively arid open habitats throughout southwestern Africa, from the Cape, South Africa, to Namaqualand and Namibia, Botswana, and Lesotho. It is also found in southern coastal fynbos habitats. Although a terrestrial species, the Cape Cobra is an extremely agile climber, and it is known to climb into weaver bird nests to steal eggs and chicks. Small mammals, snakes, lizards, frogs, and toads are also eaten. Cape Cobras possess one of the most toxic of all African cobra venoms and in some parts of the Cape they are responsible for killing sheep and other domesticated animals. Human snakebites, though rare, are extremely serious and may end tragically without antivenom therapy.

RELATED SPECIES

Naja nivea is not closely related to other African cobras and is unlikely to be confused with any other species. It occurs in sympatry with the Black Spitting Cobra (N. nigricincta woodi) and the Rinkhals (Hemachatus haemachatus), both of which spit venom, while the Cape Cobra is a non-spitter.

FAMILY	Elapidae: Elapinae
RISK FACTOR	Highly venomous: postsynaptic neurotoxins, cytotoxins, and possibly cardiotoxins
DISTRIBUTION	Southern Africa: eastern, southern, and central South Africa, Lesotho, southern Namibia, and Botswana
ELEVATION	0–8,200 ft (0–2,500 m) asl
HABITAT	Arid grassland, desert, semidesert, rocky hills, riverbeds, and coastal fynbos
DIET	Small mammals, snakes, lizards, amphibians, and weaverbirds
REPRODUCTION	Oviparous, with clutches of 8–20 eggs
CONSERVATION STATUS	IUCN not listed

The Cape Cobra is a variable species that may be bright yellow, orange, brown, or reddish in color, often speckled with black. Some specimens are heavily mottled with black, almost obscuring the paler pigment, and totally black specimens are not rare, especially at higher elevations.

NAJA OXIANA
TRANSCASPIAN COBRA

(EICHWALD, 1831)

ADULT LENGTH
3 ft 3 in–5 ft, rarely 5 ft 7 in (1–1.5 m, rarely 1.7 m)

The Transcaspian Cobra is a fairly uniform snake that is sometimes called the Black Cobra, not to be confused with melanistic specimens of the Indian Cobra (Naja naja), which may be much darker in Pakistan. It is found in the states to the east of the Caspian Sea, from Turkmenistan and northern Iran, through Afghanistan and northern Pakistan, to northwest India (Jammu and Kashmir). Although there are few records of snakebites it must be assumed to possess venom equally as toxic as the Indian Cobra, and therefore to be a snakebite risk. Transcaspian Cobras inhabit arid, rugged hillsides, mountains, and valleys and exhibit a very catholic vertebrate diet.

RELATED SPECIES

The closest relative to Naja oxiana is probably the Indian or Spectacled Cobra (N. naja) of South Asia, with which it may occur in sympatry in northwest India and Pakistan.

FAMILY	Elapidae: Elapinae
RISK FACTOR	Highly venomous: postsynaptic neurotoxins, cytotoxins, and possibly cardiotoxins
DISTRIBUTION	Western Asia: Turkmenistan, Uzbekistan, Tajikistan, Kyrgyzstan, northern Iran, Afghanistan, northern Pakistan, and northeast India
ELEVATION	805–6,890 ft (245–2,100 m) asl
HABITAT	Arid hills, mountains, and rocky valleys
DIET	Amphibians, lizards, snakes, birds, and small mammals
REPRODUCTION	Oviparous, clutch size unknown
CONSERVATION STATUS	IUCN Data Deficient, CITES Appendix II

The Transcaspian Cobra is usually gray or brown, often banded with subdued bands. Unlike its Asian relatives, it does not usually bear any hood markings, but it does expose broad dark gray bands across its throat when it hoods.

NAJA PALLIDA
RED SPITTING COBRA

BOULENGER, 1896

ADULT LENGTH
3 ft–3 ft 3 in, rarely 5 ft (0.9–1.0 m, rarely 1.5 m)

This small cobra is found in the Horn of Africa, from Somalia to Djibouti, and south through eastern Ethiopia and Kenya to northern Tanzania. It inhabits savanna habitats but also occurs in desert and semidesert. Red Spitting Cobras are mostly active at night, when they emerge to hunt toads, frogs, small mammals, birds, and reptiles. Although terrestrial, this cobra is an agile climber, an individual being observed aloft in a thorn tree eating foam-nest tree frogs. It shelters in brush piles or under logs during the day and if disturbed will defend itself by spitting venom, in common with other spitting cobras. The venom is not thought to be as toxic as that of other African species and snakebites are rare.

RELATED SPECIES

The closest relative of Naja pallida is the Nubian Spitting Cobra (N. nubiae), which occurs in isolated pockets of distribution in Eritrea, Egypt, Sudan, South Sudan, Chad, and Niger, and is distinguished from N. pallida by the presence of more than one black band across the throat.

FAMILY	Elapidae: Elapinae
RISK FACTOR	Highly venomous: postsynaptic neurotoxins
DISTRIBUTION	Northeast Africa: Somalia, Djibouti, Ethiopia, Kenya, and northern Tanzania
ELEVATION	0–4,920 ft (0–1,500 m) asl
HABITAT	Savanna, semidesert, and desert
DIET	Amphibians, small mammals, birds, and reptiles
REPRODUCTION	Oviparous, with clutches of 6–15 eggs
CONSERVATION STATUS	IUCN not listed

The Red Spitting Cobra is salmon red or pink, or sometimes reddish brown, with a broad black band across its throat.

NAJA SAMARENSIS
SOUTHEASTERN PHILIPPINE COBRA

PETERS, 1861

ADULT LENGTH
311/2–361/2 in, rarely 4 ft 7 in (800–930 mm, rarely 1.4 m)

Also known as the Samar or Visayan Cobra, the Southeastern Philippine Cobra is a common spitting cobra from Mindanao, Bohol, Leyte, and Samar, where it occurs at low or medium elevations. It inhabits rainforest and open grasslands, including cultivated rice paddies, where it comes into contact with humans. It feeds on snakes, lizards, frogs, toads, and small mammals, and is drawn toward human habitations by high populations of rodents. Although a nervous snake, observers suggest it is more reluctant to spit venom than its relative, the Northern Philippine Cobra (Naja philippinensis). It is a highly venomous snake that has been documented killing large pigs within a few hours.

RELATED SPECIES

The closest relative of Naja samarensis is the Northern Philippine Cobra (N. philippinensis) from Luzon, Mindoro, Masbate, and Catanduanes. The yellow and black N. samarensis may be more slender than this brown northern relative, having only 17–19 scale rows at midbody, compared to 21–23 in the northern species.

FAMILY	Elapidae: Elapinae
RISK FACTOR	Highly venomous: postsynaptic neurotoxins, cytotoxins, and possibly cardiotoxins
DISTRIBUTION	Southeast Asia: southeastern Philippines (Mindanao, Bohol, Leyte, and Samar)
ELEVATION	0–3,280 ft (0–1,000 m) asl
HABITAT	Lowland grassland and cultivated areas to low montane rainforest
DIET	Snakes, lizards, amphibians, and small mammals
REPRODUCTION	Oviparous, with clutches of up to 8 eggs
CONSERVATION STATUS	IUCN Least Concern, CITES Appendix II

The Southeastern Philippine Cobra is usually an iridescent, black-scaled snake with yellow interstitial skin, combining to present a reticulate pattern. The undersides of the head and throat are also yellow, while the venter is slate-gray or black.

NAJA SPUTATRIX
INDONESIAN SPITTING COBRA

BOIE, 1827

ADULT LENGTH
3 ft–3 ft 3 in, rarely 5 ft (0.9–1.0 m, rarely 1.55 m)

The Indonesian Spitting Cobra is found in Java and Bali, and through the Inner Banda Arc of the Lesser Sunda Islands, from Lombok to Alor. The name sputatrix means “the spitter.” It inhabits low-lying monsoon forest, tropical dry forest, grassland, and cultivated rice paddies, feeding on rodents, frogs, toads, snakes, and lizards. This species is quick to raise a hood and spit venom at its enemy, making a quick getaway while the recipient is struggling with the pain and temporary blindness. Few human fatalities are on record, but this snake must be considered a highly dangerous species. Although not considered threatened by the IUCN, hundreds of thousands of Asian cobras are collected for the skin trade, and are placed on Appendix II of CITES to monitor and control the trade.

RELATED SPECIES

Naja sputatrix is the southernmost in a series of Southeast Asian spitting cobras, including the Equatorial Spitting Cobra (N. sumatrana) in Sumatra, Borneo, and Malaysia, the Thai Spitting Cobra (N. siamensis) of Thailand, Cambodia, and Vietnam, and the Burmese Spitting Cobra (N. mandalayensis), from Myanmar.

FAMILY	Elapidae: Elapinae
RISK FACTOR	Highly venomous: postsynaptic neurotoxins, cytotoxins, and possibly cardiotoxins
DISTRIBUTION	Southeast Asia: Java, Bali, and Lesser Sunda Islands
ELEVATION	0–2,300 ft (0–700 m) asl
HABITAT	Monsoon forest, tropical dry forest, grassland, and cultivated rice paddies
DIET	Small mammals, snakes, lizards, frogs, and toads
REPRODUCTION	Oviparous, with clutches of 6–25 eggs
CONSERVATION STATUS	IUCN Least Concern, CITES Appendix II

The Indonesian Spitting Cobra is light brown, reddish brown, or dark brown, without any distinctive hood markings.

OPHIOPHAGUS HANNAH
KING COBRA

(CANTOR, 1836)

ADULT LENGTH
Male
16 ft 5 in (5.0 m)

Female
10 ft (3.0 m)

The King Cobra is the longest venomous snake, with large males achieving almost 16 ft 5 in (5 m) in length. A snake of undisturbed rainforest, it also enters plantations and mangrove swamps. King Cobras are primarily snake-eaters, Ophiophagus meaning “snake-swallower,” and favored species include keelbacks (Xenochrophis), Dharman Ratsnakes (Ptyas mucosa), and Reticulated Pythons (Malayopython reticulatus), although some eat monitor lizards or mammals. Female King Cobras are the only snakes to build a nest for their eggs, gathering leaves with their coils, and they will guard them against all threats, even confronting and killing elephants. This species’ venom is not as toxic as that of other cobras (Naja); it is quantity, not quality, that kills, and they can inject a very large amount, possibly more than 1/3 fl oz (10 ml).

RELATED SPECIES

There are numerous cobra species in Asia but Ophiophagus hannah is not closely related to any of them, being placed in its own genus, and recent research suggests it may be closer, in relationship, to African mambas. Ophiophagus hannah is probably a species complex containing several species.

FAMILY	Elapidae: Elapinae
RISK FACTOR	Highly venomous: postsynaptic neurotoxins, and cardiotoxins
DISTRIBUTION	Asia: northeast and southwest India to south China, Southeast Asia, the Philippines, Malaysia, and Indonesia, to Sulawesi
ELEVATION	0–7,150 ft (0–2,180 m) asl
HABITAT	Pristine rainforest, plantations, mangrove swamps
DIET	Snakes, monitor lizards, mammals
REPRODUCTION	Oviparous, with clutches of 20–50 eggs
CONSERVATION STATUS	IUCN Vulnerable, CITES Appendix II

The King Cobra is an imposing sight when it spreads its hood, raising one third of its length off the ground. King Cobras may be black or brown, and faintly banded, and they often have a series of inverted chevrons on the rear of their relatively narrow hoods. The narrower hood and the presence of two scales called “occipitals” on the back of the head help distinguish this species from common cobras (Naja).

PSEUDOHAJE NIGRA
BLACK TREE COBRA

GÜNTHER, 1858

ADULT LENGTH
5 ft 2 in–7 ft 3 in (1.6– 2.2 m)

Due to its arboreal canopy-dwelling habits, the Black Tree Cobra is very poorly known and rarely seen, and it has only been recorded from Sierra Leone to Togo, with the Nigeria record considered dubious. It inhabits a variety of forested habitats, but is mostly associated with pristine rainforest and riverine forests, although it is also found in isolated hill forests and savanna woodland. The Black Tree Cobra is believed to feed on amphibians, but it is also possible that it takes small arboreal mammals. Almost nothing is known about its venom, but it is thought to contain a very powerful neurotoxin similar to that found in its closest relative, Goldie’s Tree Cobra (Pseudohaje goldii). Tree cobras may be the most venomous cobras in Africa, and there is no antivenom.

RELATED SPECIES

The closest relative is Goldie’s Tree Cobra (Pseudohaje goldii), which also occurs in West Africa, although the two species only occur in sympatry in Ghana. Black Tree Cobras may be confused with the Black Treesnakes (Thrasops), male Blanding’s Treesnakes (Toxicodryas blandingii), or the glossy black morphotype of the Forest Cobra (Naja melanoleuca).

FAMILY	Elapidae: Elapinae
RISK FACTOR	Highly venomous, presumed to contain neurotoxins
DISTRIBUTION	West Africa: Sierra Leone, Liberia, Ivory Coast, Ghana, and Togo, possibly Nigeria
ELEVATION	Elevation unknown
HABITAT	Pristine rainforest, riverine forest, and savanna woodland
DIET	Amphibians, possibly small arboreal mammals
REPRODUCTION	Oviparous, clutch size unknown
CONSERVATION STATUS	IUCN not listed

The Black Tree Cobra has a short head and very large eyes. It scales are smooth, the body being glossy black above and yellow below, and on the side of the head, where the supralabials (upper lip scales) are edged with black.

SINOMICRURUS MACCLELLANDI
MACCLELLAND’S CORALSNAKE

(REINHARDT, 1844)

ADULT LENGTH
271/2–33 in (700–840 mm)

MacClelland’s Coralsnake, the most widely distributed member of its genus, is found in lowland and low montane rainforest and evergreen forest, across a large part of Asia from India to the Ryukyu Islands. It inhabits leaf litter and subsoil, where it adopts a semi-fossorial existence, hunting small snakes and lizards, especially skinks, at night. Although it is generally inoffensive, with a small head, the toxicity of its venom and its ability to bite should not be underestimated. Fatalities have been recorded, including that of the Swiss herpetologist Hans Schnurrenberger (1925–64), who ignored a bite from a 113/4 in (300 mm) specimen and died eight hours later.

RELATED SPECIES

Four subspecies are recognized, the nominate form (Sinomicrurus macclellandi macclellandi) occurring across China to Bangladesh and south to Vietnam and Laos, and others in northern India and Nepal (S. m. univirgatus), on Taiwan (S. m. swinhoei), and on the southern Ryukyu Islands (S. m. iwasakii). In Vietnam and Laos it occurs in sympatry with an extremely similar-looking species (S. kelloggi), on Taiwan it occurs with two other species (S. sauteri and S. hatori), and in the Ryukyus with a fourth species (S. japonicus).

FAMILY	Elapidae: Elapinae
RISK FACTOR	Venomous: venom composition unknown, presumed neurotoxic
DISTRIBUTION	Asia: India, Nepal, Bangladesh, Myanmar, Thailand, Vietnam, Laos, China, Taiwan, and the Ryukyu Islands
ELEVATION	150–8,200 ft (45–2,500 m) asl
HABITAT	Lowland and low montane rainforest, and evergreen forest
DIET	Snakes and lizards
REPRODUCTION	Oviparous, with clutches of 6–14 eggs
CONSERVATION STATUS	IUCN Least Concern

MacClelland’s Coralsnake is a very slender, red or red-brown species with a pattern comprising thin black bands, edged with even narrower yellow or white bands. The head is white with a black snout tip and nape band.

WALTERINNESIA AEGYPTIA
SINAI DESERT BLACKSNAKE

LATASTE, 1887

ADULT LENGTH
3 ft–3 ft 3 in, rarely 4 ft 7 in (0.9–1.0 m, rarely 1.4 m)

Also known as the Sinai Desert Cobra, the Sinai Desert Blacksnake occurs from Israel to the Sinai of Egypt, and northwestern Saudi Arabia. It inhabits desert or semidesert habitats, in wadis, on gravel pans, and on rocky hillsides, but it may also be found around cultivated areas and habitations. Although it has been known for around 130 years it is still largely unstudied in the wild, possibly because it spends much of its time underground in animal burrows, and is nocturnal. Prey includes lizards, including dabb lizards, small mammals, and toads. Although sometimes called a “cobra” the Sinai Desert Blacksnake does not spread a hood, its defensive posture involving turning its snout to the ground, from where it will strike sideways if its loud hissing goes unheeded. Fatalities have been recorded.

RELATED SPECIES

The more widely distributed eastern population of desert blacksnake from Iraq, Iran, and central Saudi Arabia is treated as a separate species (Walterinnesia morgani). Sympatric snake species with which W. aegyptia could be confused include the highly venomous Israeli Burrowing Asp (Atractaspis engaddensis).

FAMILY	Elapidae: Elapinae
RISK FACTOR	Highly venomous: postsynaptic neurotoxins
DISTRIBUTION	Middle East: northeast Egypt, Israel, Jordan, and northwestern Saudi Arabia
ELEVATION	1,640–3,940 ft (500–1,200 m) asl
HABITAT	Desert and semidesert, arid hills, gravel pans, scrubland, and also in cultivated areas
DIET	Lizards, small mammals, and toads
REPRODUCTION	Oviparous, clutch size unknown
CONSERVATION STATUS	IUCN Least Concern

The Sinai Desert Blacksnake is glossy black to black-brown, without patterning. It has a relatively long head with a large rostral scale for burrowing.

ACANTHOPHIS LAEVIS
SMOOTH-SCALED DEATH ADDER

MACLEAY, 1878

ADULT LENGTH
113/4–193/4 in, rarely 231/4 in (300–500 mm, rarely 590 mm)

Vipers are absent from Australo-Papua, so the death adders, which closely resemble them as short, stout, sit-and-wait ambushers, with vertical pupils, nocturnal habits, live-bearing, and the caudal luring of prey, have evolved to occupy their vacant niche, a classic case of convergent evolution. The Smooth-scaled Death Adder is the most widely distributed venomous snake in New Guinea and eastern Indonesia, being present almost everywhere, in all habitats, including cultivated gardens and highland coffee plantations. Prey comprises lizards, small mammals, and probably frogs, which are ambushed at night. During the day death adders sleep under trash or along trails and bite anyone who steps on them. Fortunately, the effects of bites can be reversed with antivenom. Stories of 3 ft 3 in (1 m) death adders are probably misidentified New Guinea Ground Boas (Candoia aspera).

RELATED SPECIES

Acanthophis laevis is most similar in appearance to the equally smooth-scaled Common Death Adder (A. antarcticus) of Australia, but the only other death adder occurring in New Guinea is the easily distinguished Rough-scaled Death Adder (A. rugosus), from the southern Trans-Fly region.

FAMILY	Elapidae: Hydrophiinae
RISK FACTOR	Highly venomous: presynaptic and postsynaptic neurotoxins, also myotoxins and anticoagulants
DISTRIBUTION	Indo-Australia: New Guinea, Australia (northern Torres Strait Islands), and eastern Indonesia (Seram, Maluku)
ELEVATION	0–6,560 ft (0–2,000 m) asl
HABITAT	Tropical lowland and montane rainforest, kunai grasslands, cultivated gardens, monsoon forest, sago swamps, and coffee plantations
DIET	Lizards, small mammals, and frogs
REPRODUCTION	Viviparous, with litters of 8–15 neonates
CONSERVATION STATUS	IUCN Least Concern

The Smooth-scaled Death Adder may be gray, olive, brown, or reddish, with darker banding, a fine yellow tail tip ending in a spine, for luring prey, and bold black and white lip scales. The body is short and squat like that of a viper, and the head angular with raised, hornlike supraocular scales, and vertically elliptical pupils.

ACANTHOPHIS PYRRHUS
DESERT DEATH ADDER

BOULENGER, 1898

ADULT LENGTH
153/4–233/4 in, rarely 291/2 in (400–600 mm, rarely 750 mm)

The Desert Death Adder inhabits arid habitats across Western and Central Australia, in contrast to moister habitat preferences exhibited by the Smooth-scaled Death Adder (Acanthophis laevis) of New Guinea and eastern Indonesia, or the Common Death Adder (A. antarcticus) in eastern Australia. Being keel-scaled is useful for a desert snake because the ridges on the scales collect early morning dew and provide a drink. Habitats range from sandy desert to rocky outcrops and spinifex grasslands, in which this desert-camouflaged snake appears to vanish. Prey comprises lizards and small mammals, ambushed at night when the snake lies in wait on deserted sandy roads and tracks. Its defense involves flattening the body, hiding the head under the coils, hissing, and, if still approached, launching a rapid jabbing strike.

RELATED SPECIES

The closest relatives of Acanthophis pyrrhus are the Pilbara Death Adder (A. wellsi) and the recently described Kimberley Death Adder (A. cryptamydros). These three species can be distinguished by their differing midbody scale row count and the condition of their prefrontal scales (divided or entire).

FAMILY	Elapidae: Hydrophiinae
RISK FACTOR	Highly venomous: presynaptic and postsynaptic neurotoxins, and also anticoagulants
DISTRIBUTION	Australia: Western and Central Australia
ELEVATION	0–2,940 ft (0–895 m) asl
HABITAT	Desert, spinifex sandplains, acacia scrub, sand ridges, stony flats, and rocky outcrops
DIET	Lizards and small mammals
REPRODUCTION	Viviparous, with litters of 10–13 neonates
CONSERVATION STATUS	IUCN not listed, considered Vulnerable in South Australia

The Desert Death Adder has strongly keeled scales, a squat body shape, a thin, tapering tail, and an angular head. Its banded red or orange dorsal coloration enables it to blend in perfectly with its desert habitat.

AIPYSURUS APRAEFRONTALIS
SHORT-NOSED SEASNAKE

SMITH, 1926

ADULT LENGTH
193/4–233/4 in (500–600 mm)

The Short-nosed Seasnake is believed to be endemic to Ashmore and Hibernia reefs, in the Timor Sea, north of Western Australia, although it may also occur in suitable shallow coral reef flats on the Western Australian coast. Since 2000 there has been a steep decline in the number of seasnakes occurring on these reefs, with the frequency of encountered snakes dropping from at least 40 snakes of nine species a day, to under seven snakes of two species a day. This decline has raised fears for those species believed endemic to these reefs, resulting in this species and others being listed as Critically Endangered by the IUCN. Its biology is almost unknown, other than that it is a live-bearer, and there is one record of a specimen containing an eel.

RELATED SPECIES

Two of the closest relatives of Aipysurus apraefrontalis, the Leaf-scaled Seasnake (A. foliosquama) and Dusky Seasnake (A. fuscus), are also endemic to Ashmore and Hibernia Reefs, and are respectively listed as Critically Endangered and Endangered due to the sudden and inexplicable decline in seasnake numbers and diversity.

FAMILY	Elapidae: Hydrophiinae
RISK FACTOR	Highly venomous: postsynaptic neurotoxins, and possibly also myotoxins, with secondary nephrotoxicity and cardiotoxicity
DISTRIBUTION	Timor Sea: Western Australia (Ashmore and Hibernia reefs, possibly Western Australia coastline)
ELEVATION	Sea-level to 33 ft (10 m) bsl
HABITAT	Shallow coral reef flats and coral sand
DIET	Fish (eels)
REPRODUCTION	Viviparous, litter size unknown
CONSERVATION STATUS	IUCN Critically Endangered

The Short-nosed Seasnake is dark brown or purple-brown with pale bands of cream or olive-brown, which may be obscured dorsally. It has a small, short, pointed head and small eyes. All seasnakes have paddle-shaped tails.

AIPYSURUS DUBOISII
REEF SHALLOWS SEASNAKE

BAVAY, 1869

ADULT LENGTH
2 ft 7 in–3 ft 3 in, rarely 5 ft (0.8–1.0 m, rarely 1.5 m)

The Reef Shallows Seasnake, also known as Dubois’ Seasnake, is a small species with short fangs and a low venom yield, yet its venom is extremely toxic, comparable to that of the Eastern Brownsnake (Pseudonaja textilis) or Inland Taipan (Oxyuranus microlepidotus), making it one of the most venomous snakes in the world. It occurs from the Timor Sea, west of Australia, to New Caledonia in the Coral Sea, east of Australia, where it inhabits shallow coral flat platforms and the upper levels of coral bommies, diving to depths of 165 or 260 ft (50 or 80 m). It also inhabits seaweed beds and is often camouflaged by a growth of seaweed on its scales. It is a generalist feeder, feeding on a variety of fish that are ambushed or actively hunted on the reef.

RELATED SPECIES

Several related seasnakes occur in the same locality as Aipysurus duboisii on Ashmore and Hibernia Reefs in the Timor Sea: the Short-nosed Seasnake (Aipysurus apraefrontalis), Leaf-scaled Seasnake (A. foliosquama), and Dusky Seasnake (A. fuscus).

FAMILY	Elapidae: Hydrophiinae
RISK FACTOR	Highly venomous: postsynaptic neurotoxins, and possibly also myotoxins, with secondary nephrotoxicity and cardiotoxicity
DISTRIBUTION	Timor, Arafura, and Coral seas: Australia, New Guinea, and New Caledonia
ELEVATION	Sea-level to 260 ft (80 m) bsl
HABITAT	Shallow reef flats, coral bommies, and seaweed beds
DIET	Fish (moray eels, gobies, blennies, parrotfish, and surgeonfish)
REPRODUCTION	Viviparous, with litters of 2 neonates
CONSERVATION STATUS	IUCN Least Concern

The Reef Shallows Seasnake may be either uniform dark brown, black-brown with pale markings, or pale yellow-brown with darker bands, although this patterning may be obscured by a growth of seaweed.

AIPYSURUS LAEVIS
OLIVE SEASNAKE

LACÉPÈDE, 1804

ADULT LENGTH
2 ft 7 in–4 ft, occasionally 6 ft 7 in (0.8–1.2 m, occasionally 2.0 m)

The nine species of seasnakes in genus Aipysurus are known as the pipe seasnakes. The Olive Seasnake is the largest species in the genus. It is widely distributed from the Timor Sea to the Coral Sea, where it inhabits coral flats and bommies (coral stacks), to depths of 165 ft (50 m) bsl. Olive Seasnakes are generalist feeders, taking a variety of fish, including highly venomous stonefish, and crustaceans such as shrimps. Olive Seasnakes demonstrate “site fidelity,” being associated with one coral bommie for long periods. They are also curious snakes that investigate divers closely. Although inoffensive and disinclined to bite, unless roughly handled, this is one of the few seasnakes capable of biting through a wetsuit. As it is highly venomous, this presents a serious scenario.

RELATED SPECIES

Probably the closest relative of Aipysurus laevis is its former subspecies, the Shark Bay Seasnake (A. pooleorum), from southwestern Australia.

FAMILY	Elapidae: Hydrophiinae
RISK FACTOR	Highly venomous: postsynaptic neurotoxins, and possibly also myotoxins, with secondary nephrotoxicity and cardiotoxicity
DISTRIBUTION	Timor, Arafura, and Coral seas: eastern Indonesia, Timor-Leste, northern and eastern Australia, New Guinea, and New Caledonia
ELEVATION	Sea-level to 165 ft (50 m) bsl
HABITAT	Coral flats and bommies
DIET	Fish (snappers, catfish, surgeonfish, cardinalfish, damselfish, groupers, sweepers, parrotfish, and stonefish), and shrimps
REPRODUCTION	Viviparous, with litters of 2–5 neonates
CONSERVATION STATUS	IUCN Least Concern

The Olive Seasnake is a large, stocky snake, with variable patterning, from dark brown to purple-brown or olive-brown markings that fade on the flanks, and with cream or yellow undersides and lower flanks.

AIPYSURUS MOSAICUS
MOSAIC SEASNAKE

SANDERS, RASMUSSEN, ELMBERG, MUMPUNI, GUINEA, BLIAS, LEE & FRY, 2012

ADULT LENGTH
191/4–36 in (490–915 mm)

While other members of the genus Aipysurus inhabit the clear waters found over coral reefs and substrates of coral sand, the Mosaic Seasnake, and the related Eydoux’s Seasnake (A. eydouxii), occur in the turbid water found offshore and at estuary mouths, over mangrove mud substrates that cloud the water considerably. Also in common with Eydoux’s Seasnake, the Mosaic Seasnake feeds on the eggs of benthic gobies, extracted from their seabed burrows. Neither species has any requirement for venom, and both are evolving toward a potentially nonvenomous state, through the atrophy of the venom glands and reduction in fang size. Mosaic Seasnakes are encountered at night, resting on the surface in the waters offshore from large estuaries, or are trawled up from deeper waters during the day.

RELATED SPECIES

Aipysurus mosaicus was only recently described for the southern population of the widely distributed Eydoux’s Seasnake (A. eydouxii), which is its closest relative. Aipysurus eydouxii is the only known Aipysurus species to occur in Southeast Asian waters.

FAMILY	Elapidae: Hydrophiinae
RISK FACTOR	Venomous: postsynaptic neurotoxins, and possibly also myotoxins, but venom almost depleted
DISTRIBUTION	Arafura and Coral seas: northern Australia and southern Papua
ELEVATION	Sea-level to 165 ft (50 m) bsl
HABITAT	Deep water, river mouths, and turbid estuaries over mangrove mud
DIET	Benthic goby eggs
REPRODUCTION	Viviparous, with litters of fewer than 4 neonates
CONSERVATION STATUS	IUCN Least Concern

The Mosaic Seasnake is cream or salmon-colored dorsally, with irregular dark brown cross-bands, while the head is brown. The hexagonal scales are black-edged, presenting a mosaic pattern throughout.

ASPIDOMORPHUS MUELLERI
MÜLLER’S CROWNED SNAKE

(SCHLEGEL, 1837)

ADULT LENGTH
233/4–281/2 in (600–725 mm)

The crowned snake genus Aspidomorphus is endemic to the New Guinea region. Müller’s Crowned Snake is the most widely distributed species, from New Ireland and New Britain in the Bismarck Archipelago, throughout New Guinea, onto the islands of Milne Bay Province, and in Indonesian New Guinea, on the Schouten and Raja Ampat islands, and as far west as Seram. These relatively small elapids can be fairly common, hiding under logs in rainforest, in plantations, or in garden trash, where they hunt primarily skinks. Although small, these snakes are tenacious and will bite easily. Fortunately those few bites on record have resulted in only localized pain and nausea, but like any small elapid this species should be treated with respect. Salomon Müller (1804–64) was a German naturalist who collected in the Dutch East Indies.

RELATED SPECIES

The Striped Crowned Snake (Aspidomorphus lineaticollis) occurs in northern Papua New Guinea, east of the Sepik River and onto the islands of Milne Bay Province, while Schlegel’s Crowned Snake (A. schlegelii) inhabits northwestern New Guinea, and Papua New Guinea west of the Sepik. Both have much shorter tails than A. muelleri.

FAMILY	Elapidae: Hydrophiinae
RISK FACTOR	Venomous: venom composition unknown
DISTRIBUTION	New Guinea: New Ireland, New Britain, New Guinea and its satellite islands, and Seram
ELEVATION	0–3,280 ft (0–1,000 m) asl
HABITAT	Lowland and montane rainforest, plantations, and gardens
DIET	Lizards
REPRODUCTION	Oviparous, with clutches of 3–5 eggs
CONSERVATION STATUS	IUCN Least Concern

Müller’s Crowned Snake can be quite variable in patterning, most specimens being light or dark brown, with white lips and collar, a dark throat, and a “humbug” marbled pattern on the crown, which earns them their common name. Some specimens lack any markings.

AUSTRELAPS SUPERBUS
LOWLANDS COPPERHEAD

(GÜNTHER, 1858)

ADULT LENGTH
4 ft–5 ft 7 in, rarely 6 ft (1.2–1.7 m, rarely 1.8 m)

Australian copperheads are not related to the American Copperhead (Agkistrodon contortrix), which is a pitviper. The Lowlands Copperhead occurs in southern Victoria and on both Tasmania and the islands of the Bass Strait, the largest specimens occurring on King Island. Tasmania only has three species of snakes, and they have two things in common: they are all elapids, and they are all live-bearers, an adaptation for living in cooler conditions. Lowlands Copperheads are powerful snakes that inhabit swamps, marshes, damp areas in woodlands, coastal heathland, and tussock grassland. In Tasmania they are often found in sympatry with Tigersnakes (Notechis scutatus). They are active both by day and night and hunt lizards and frogs. Snakebites are rare occurrences, but are serious given the high toxicity of the venom.

RELATED SPECIES

Southeastern Australia is home to both of the other Australian copperheads, the Highlands Copperhead (Austrelaps ramsayi), which also occurs in New South Wales, and the Pygmy Copperhead (A. labialis), which is confined to Kangaroo Island and extreme southern South Australia and is listed as Vulnerable by the IUCN.

FAMILY	Elapidae: Hydrophiinae
RISK FACTOR	Highly venomous: postsynaptic neurotoxins, also cytotoxins, and possibly myotoxins and anticoagulants
DISTRIBUTION	Australia: Victoria, Tasmania, and Bass Strait islands
ELEVATION	0–6,970 ft (0–2,125 m) asl
HABITAT	Moist habitats, marshes, woodland, coastal heath, and tussock grassland
DIET	Lizards and frogs
REPRODUCTION	Viviparous, with litters of up to 15 neonates
CONSERVATION STATUS	IUCN not listed

The Lowlands Copperhead is a powerful, muscular snake with strong neck muscles and a pointed snout. It varies from uniform light brown to red-brown or chocolate-brown in color, and white or pale brown below.

BRACHYUROPHIS SEMIFASCIATUS
SOUTHERN SHOVEL-NOSED SNAKE

GÜNTHER, 1863

ADULT LENGTH
113/4–133/4 in, rarely 153/4 in (300–350 mm, rarely 400 mm)

Shovel-nosed snakes are nocturnal and semi-fossorial, with a wedge-shaped snout specially adapted for burrowing. The Southern Shovel-nosed Snake, also known as the Half-girdled Snake because the markings only extend part way down its flanks, inhabits both arid and mesic habitats, ranging from coastal dunes and heaths to inland grassland and scrubland, where it shelters during the day under logs or stumps. Some species feed on skinks but the Southern Shovel-nosed Snake feeds entirely on reptile eggs. It has specialized bladelike teeth at the rear of the jaw with which it slits the soft-shelled eggs open, before devouring both contents and shell. Although an elapid, this is an inoffensive snake. Shovel-nosed snakes are an example of an elapid evolving to occupy a niche that elsewhere would be occupied by a nonvenomous colubrid snake, like a kukri snake (Oligodon).

RELATED SPECIES

There are eight species of shovel-nosed snakes distributed across most of Australia, except the southeast. Some are banded like Brachyurophis semifasciatus, including the related Einasleigh Shovel-nosed Snake (B. campbelli) and the Northern Shovel-nosed Snake (B. roperi), but the Unbanded Shovel-nosed Snake (B. incinctus) and Arnhem Shovel-nosed Snake (B. morrisi) have unicolor bodies and only neck and nape markings.

FAMILY	Elapidae: Hydrophiinae
RISK FACTOR	Venomous: venom composition unknown
DISTRIBUTION	Australia: Western Australia and South Australia
ELEVATION	0–2,640 ft (0–805 m) asl
HABITAT	Arid and mesic habitats, hummock grassland, scrub, coastal heath, and dunes
DIET	Reptile eggs
REPRODUCTION	Oviparous, with clutches of 3 eggs
CONSERVATION STATUS	IUCN not listed

The Southern Shovel-nosed Snake is a smooth-scaled snake with a pointed, shovel-shaped snout for burrowing. The head bears a black cap while the body is orange to red with regular dark brown bands that extend halfway down the flanks.

CACOPHIS CHURCHILLI
NORTHERN DWARF CROWNED SNAKE

WELLS & WELLINGTON, 1985

ADULT LENGTH
113/4–173/4 in (300–450 mm)

The Northern Dwarf Crowned Snake is one of the smallest members of its genus, and also the one with the smallest range, being confined to the coastal strip of tropical and subtropical Queensland, from Mossman to Townsville, inland to the Atherton Tableland and Bluewater Range, and offshore on Lindeman and Magnetic Islands. This diminutive snake feeds on skinks, which it hunts in the leaf litter or under logs in its rainforest or eucalypt forest habitat. Secretive and nocturnal, the Northern Dwarf Crowned Snake defends itself vigorously when uncovered, elevating its body and making wild strikes or thrashing its body about, but strikes are often with the mouth closed, and it is reluctant to bite. However, as its venom composition remains unstudied, caution is advised and bites should be avoided.

RELATED SPECIES

Three other species of small crowned snakes are found along the coast of southern Queensland and New South Wales, the White-crowned snake (Cacophis harriettae), the Southern Dwarf Crowned Snake (C. krefftii), and, at up to 291/2 in (750 mm), the largest species, the Golden-crowned Snake (C. squamulosus). The fact that they share a common name does not mean that they are closely related to the New Guinea crowned snakes (Aspidomorphus).

FAMILY	Elapidae: Hydrophiinae
RISK FACTOR	Venomous: venom composition unknown
DISTRIBUTION	Australia: eastern tropical Queensland
ELEVATION	0–2,810 ft (0–855 m) asl
HABITAT	Rainforest and eucalypt forest
DIET	Lizards
REPRODUCTION	Oviparous, with clutches of up to 5 eggs
CONSERVATION STATUS	IUCN not listed

The Northern Dwarf Crowned Snake is a small, smooth-scaled snake, blue-gray to brown above, pale gray underneath, and with a narrow cream, light gray, or yellowish collar.

CRYPTOPHIS INCREDIBILIS
PINK SNAKE

(WELLS & WELLINGTON, 1985)

ADULT LENGTH
153/4 in (400 mm)

One of the least known Australian elapids, and also one with an extremely limited distribution, the Pink Snake is only recorded from Prince of Wales Island in the southern Torres Strait, Queensland. It is possible that a search of similar habits on other islands in the southern Torres Strait may extend its known range. The Pink Snake is thought to inhabit open eucalypt and paperbark woodlands, on sandy soils, but the few specimens known were found under flotsam in the upper strand zone between the woodland and the beach. It is probably nocturnal, and a live-bearer that feeds on skinks, like other members of the Australian small-eyed snake genus Cryptophis. This is the smallest species known within the genus.

RELATED SPECIES

The ranges of two Australo-Papuan relatives, the Carpentaria Snake (Cryptophis boschmai) and the Black-striped Snake (C. nigrostriatus), overlap the range of C. incredibilis, but it is not known if they occur in sympatry with those species.

FAMILY	Elapidae: Hydrophiinae
RISK FACTOR	Venomous: venom composition unknown
DISTRIBUTION	Australia: Queensland (Prince of Wales Island, Torres Strait)
ELEVATION	Sea-level
HABITAT	Open eucalypt and paperbark woodland
DIET	Unknown, presumably lizards
REPRODUCTION	Viviparous, litter size unknown
CONSERVATION STATUS	IUCN not listed

The Pink Snake is a small, uniform coral pink snake with no additional markings. Its small, protruding black eyes stand out against this background color.

CRYPTOPHIS NIGROSTRIATUS
BLACK-STRIPED SNAKE

(KREFFT, 1864)

ADULT LENGTH
113/4–22 in, rarely 241/4 in (300–560 mm, rarely 615 mm)

The Black-striped Snake occurs in coastal Queensland, and also in southern Papua New Guinea, in the southern Trans-Fly region of Western Province, although it is relatively rare here and much more commonly encountered in Queensland. In Queensland it inhabits sclerophyll forest and woodland, but in Papua New Guinea it has been collected in savanna woodland in association with termite mounds, and also in cleared gardens. This is a semi-fossorial species, secretive and usually active nocturnally, although specimens are also found in the daytime. Prey seems to consist entirely of skinks, which abound in all these habitats. Although the Black-striped Snake is inoffensive and disinclined to bite, it should be noted that other Cryptophis species have caused bites, with the similar-sized Eastern Small-eyed Snake (C. nigrescens) causing a fatality, due to kidney failure.

RELATED SPECIES

The genus Cryptophis, sometimes called Rhinoplocephalus, contains five species. Most species occur in eastern Australia, although two also occur in southern New Guinea, including the Carpentaria Snake (C. boschmai), and one species, the Northern Small-eyed Snake (C. pallidiceps), occurs from the Kimberley of Western Australia to Arnhem Land, Northern Territory.

FAMILY	Elapidae: Hydrophiinae
RISK FACTOR	Venomous: myotoxins
DISTRIBUTION	Australo-Papua: Australia (Queensland) and Papua New Guinea (Western Province)
ELEVATION	0–2,810 ft (0–855 m) asl
HABITAT	Sclerophyll forest, woodland, savanna woodland, and gardens
DIET	Lizards
REPRODUCTION	Viviparous, with litters of 4–9 neonates
CONSERVATION STATUS	IUCN not listed

The Black-striped Snake is a slender snake with smooth scales and small, protruding eyes. It is red in color with a black cap to its head and a broad black stripe down the back to the tail. The undersides are pale cream.

DEMANSIA PSAMMOPHIS
YELLOW-FACED WHIPSNAKE

(SCHLEGEL, 1837)

ADULT LENGTH
2 ft 7 in–3 ft 3 in (0.8–1.0 m)

The Yellow-faced Whipsnake has a fragmented distribution from coast to coast across much of southern and central Australia, ranging north to the Pilbara, Western Australia, and southeastern Cape York Peninsula, Queensland. It inhabits a wide variety of habitats from eucalypt forest to coastal heath, and grasslands to woodland and scrub. Fast-moving diurnal predators of lizards such as agamids and skinks, whipsnakes are frequently seen dashing about in the middle of the day. The eastern population of the Yellow-faced Whipsnake is known to nest communally, with nest sites containing several hundred eggs. The small and localized Victorian population is considered Near Threatened, although this species is not currently listed by the IUCN.

RELATED SPECIES

The eastern population is the nominate subspecies (Demansia psammophis psammophis), while the western population is treated as a separate subspecies (D. p. cupreiceps). The Reticulated Whipsnake (D. reticulata), from southwestern Western Australia, was once also a subspecies of D. psammophis.

FAMILY	Elapidae: Hydrophiinae
RISK FACTOR	Venomous: venom composition unknown
DISTRIBUTION	Australia: southern Australia, north to southern Cape York, and also Pilbara, Western Australia
ELEVATION	0–3,590 ft (0–1,095 m) asl
HABITAT	Coastal heath and forest, eucalypt forest, hummock grassland, dry woodland, and arid scrubland
DIET	Lizards
REPRODUCTION	Oviparous, with clutches of 5–20 eggs
CONSERVATION STATUS	IUCN not listed, Near Threatened (Victoria)

The Yellow-faced Whipsnake varies across its range. The brightest patterned western specimens have brown heads, yellow cheeks with a black spot under the large eye, greenish to olive bodies, every scale edged black, and a reddish-brown tail. Eastern specimens are usually olive to gray, often with two brown stripes down the back.

DEMANSIA VESTIGIATA
LESSER BLACK WHIPSNAKE

(DE VIS, 1884)

ADULT LENGTH
2 ft 7 in–3 ft 3 in, rarely 4 ft (0.8–1.0 m, rarely 1.2 m)

The Lesser Black Whipsnake is a highly alert diurnal predator of lizards, from skinks to agamids, and also frogs. It inhabits savanna and savanna woodland in southern New Guinea, and northern Australia from the Kimberley to Arnhem Land. It is one of the few snakes seen abroad during the heat of the day, when it carries itself with head and anterior body raised, large eyes alert for prey and predators alike. It moves extremely quickly, rushing across roads in the blink of an eye. Whipsnakes avoid humans and escape rather than bite, but if handled they will bite freely. Although the venom is believed to be weakly coagulant, rather than neurotoxic, it causes localized pain and should be treated with caution as there is at least one fatality on record.

RELATED SPECIES

Demansia vestigiata is just one of 14 species of Australian whipsnake, but the only species known to occur in New Guinea. It is related to the larger Greater Black Whipsnake (D. papuensis), which, despite its scientific name, is an Australian endemic.

FAMILY	Elapidae: Hydrophiinae
RISK FACTOR	Venomous: weakly coagulant, otherwise venom composition unknown
DISTRIBUTION	Australo-Papua: Australia (Western Australia and Northern Territory) and southern New Guinea
ELEVATION	0–1,670 ft (0–510 m) asl
HABITAT	Savanna and savanna woodland
DIET	Lizards and frogs
REPRODUCTION	Oviparous, with clutches of 4–13, rarely 20, eggs
CONSERVATION STATUS	IUCN not listed

The Lesser Black Whipsnake is a slender-bodied, black or olive-brown snake, each scale edged with dark pigment to present a reticulate pattern, and with a very long, reddish-brown, whiplike tail. The undersides are white anteriorly and gray posteriorly, and the head is elongate and the eyes are large.

DRYSDALIA CORONOIDES
WHITE-LIPPED SNAKE

(GÜNTHER, 1858)

ADULT LENGTH
153/4–173/4 in (400–450 mm)

One of only three snakes occurring on Tasmania, the White-lipped Snake, which also inhabits the southeastern corner of mainland Australia, is a cold-adapted species. Being a live-bearer is an adaptation that permits the species to inhabit latitudes where eggs would perish. Being active during the day is also important as night-time temperatures may be too cold for reptiles to function. Being small is also useful, as the snake can warm quickly in the sun and easily hide away. Feeding primarily on diurnal skinks, but also taking skink eggs, frogs, and occasionally small mammals, the White-lipped Snake inhabits tussock grasslands and mossy habitats, often in relatively wet areas, where it shelters under fallen logs or within the tussocks. Its venom composition is unknown, but bites are known to cause pain.

RELATED SPECIES

There are two other species of Drysdalia, Master’s Snake (D. mastersii), found along the south coast of Australia, and the Rose-bellied Snake (D. rhodogaster) from southeastern New South Wales.

FAMILY	Elapidae: Hydrophiinae
RISK FACTOR	Venomous: venom composition unknown
DISTRIBUTION	Australia: southeastern South Australia, New South Wales, southern Victoria, and Tasmania
ELEVATION	0–6,970 ft (0–2,125 m) asl
HABITAT	Tussock grassland and mossy wetlands
DIET	Skinks, and also skink eggs, frogs, and small mammals
REPRODUCTION	Viviparous, with litters of 2–10 neonates
CONSERVATION STATUS	IUCN not listed

The White-lipped Snake is a small snake, brown to black above, and cream to yellow or pink below. It has a black stripe along the side of the head, and underneath the bold white stripe that earns it its common name.

ECHIOPSIS CURTA
BARDICK

(SCHLEGEL, 1837)

ADULT LENGTH
153/4–233/4 in, rarely 28 in (400–600 mm, rarely 710 mm)

The Bardick, an Aboriginal name, is a cool-adapted, live-bearing snake. It occurs in three separate southern populations from Western Australia to New South Wales. It inhabits heathland, mallee woodland, and spinifex grassland, a combination of semiarid eucalypt woodland with grassland that experiences seasonal rain. A primarily nocturnal, occasionally diurnal, species, it shelters under logs, emerging to hunt a wide variety of vertebrate and invertebrate prey, which is largely captured from ambush rather than actively foraged. In many ways it is similar in its biology to the death adders (Acanthophis). The venom composition of the Bardick is poorly known, but is probably neurotoxic and may be potentially dangerous. Threats to the Bardick include fires, overgrazing, and heathland clearance.

RELATED SPECIES

The closest relative of Echiopsis curta is probably the rare Lake Cronin Snake (Paroplocephalus atriceps) from south-central Western Australia.

FAMILY	Elapidae: Hydrophiinae
RISK FACTOR	Venomous: probably neurotoxins, otherwise unknown
DISTRIBUTION	Australia: southern Western Australia, South Australia, New South Wales, and Victoria
ELEVATION	0–2,100 ft (0–640 m) asl
HABITAT	Heathland, mallee woodland, and spinifex grassland
DIET	Lizards, frogs, birds, small mammals, and insects
REPRODUCTION	Viviparous, with litters of 3–14 neonates
CONSERVATION STATUS	IUCN Near Threatened, Vulnerable (Victoria), Endangered (New South Wales)

The Bardick is short and stout, hence the name curta. It is a uniform reddish-brown or gray-brown snake with a broad head, sometimes with white lateral flecks, and vertically elliptical pupils.

EMYDOCEPHALUS ANNULATUS
SOUTHERN TURTLE-HEADED SEASNAKE

KREFFT, 1869

ADULT LENGTH
28–353/4 in (715–910 mm)

The Southern Turtle-headed Seasnake gets its name from the enlarged second supralabial scale on the lip, which resembles the sharp lip of a sea turtle. This scale is used to scrape the eggs of coral-nesting gobies, blennies, clownfish, and damselfish off the coral. This species is a diurnal inhabitant of shallow coral reefs on Ashmore Reef and neighboring Timor Sea reefs in Western Australia, and eastern Queensland to New Caledonia in the Coral Sea. It can be very common, with males often seen following and courting females. Although the Southern Turtle-headed Seasnake is technically venomous, its diet has led to atrophy of its venom glands, low venom yield and toxicity, and the shrinking of the fangs as the species slowly evolves toward becoming nonvenomous. These snakes are extremely inoffensive.

RELATED SPECIES

Turtle-headed seasnakes are related to the pipe seasnakes (Aipysurus). Two other species are known, the Japanese Turtle-headed Seasnake (Emydocephalus ijimae) and the Vietnamese Turtle-headed Seasnake (E. szczerbaki).

FAMILY	Elapidae: Hydrophiinae
RISK FACTOR	Venomous: postsynaptic neurotoxins, and possibly myotoxins, but venom almost depleted
DISTRIBUTION	Timor and Coral seas: Ashmore and Hibernia Reefs (Western Australia), eastern Queensland, and New Caledonia
ELEVATION	Sea-level to 82 ft (25 m) bsl
HABITAT	Shallow, clear coral reefs
DIET	Eggs of coral-dwelling and benthic fish
REPRODUCTION	Viviparous, with litters of 2–5 neonates
CONSERVATION STATUS	IUCN Least Concern

The Southern Turtle-headed Seasnake is sexually dichromatic and dimorphic. Females are yellow or banded with irregular black or brown rings, while males are melanistic jet black. The male also has a spine on its snout that it uses to stroke the female’s back during courtship (see here), similar to the way male pythons and boas use their spurs. The second supralabial scale is greatly enlarged for scraping fish eggs from coral.