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Abelmoschus esculentus, 95
abscisic acid, 76
Acaulospora scrobiculata, 92, 95
active transport, 31
adenosine triphosphate (ATP), 24, 31, 54, 73
aeration, 132
aflatoxins, 32
agricultural practices
beneficial, 86–87
agricultural seed, 83
Agrostis canina, 132
Agrostis stolonifera, 132, 133
alfalfa, 91–92
allelopathic chemicals, 81
Alliaria petiolata, 81
Allium sativum, 126
Allyn, Bruce, 68
almond, 118
Alnus spp., 62
aluminum, 109
amaranths, 62
Amaranthus, Mike, 68
Amaranthus retroflexus, 79
amino acids, 32
ammonium (NH4+), 32, 54, 55, 72
Amorphotheca resinae, 29
Andes, 96
Andropogon gerardii, 142
animals, 13
annual bluegrass, 132–133
annuals, 10
antibiotics, 68
Antirrhinum spp., 105
apical zone, 26
apple, 118–119
apple seedling growth, 43
appressorium, 52–53
arbuscular mycorrhizal fungi
agricultural practices and, 80–85
beneficial agricultural practices, 86–90
classification and naming, 38
crop studies, 90–97
drought tolerance, 77–79
fertilizers and, 102
fruits that form, 88
glomalin, 17
grasses that form, 128
greenhouse recipe for inoculum, 142
growing, 134–146
harvesting from field, 145
hormone production, 76
in horticulture, 98–105
in hydroponics, 124
hypha of, 51
interaction with parasitic nematodes, 75–76
for lawns and turfgrass, 127–133
multi-mycorrhizae, 62
nutrient uptake enhancement, 69–73
pathogen resistance, 73–76
plant root tip colonized by, 52
plant studies, 103–5
process of forming, 50–53
relationships with plants, 10, 39, 48–49
Rodale recipe for inoculum, 141
soil restoration, 76–77
staining for the microscope, 138, 139
temperature tolerance, 77–79
using inoculants, 87–90
vegetables and herbs that form, 88
vegetables that do not form, 88
weed control, 79–80
arbutoid mycorrhizal fungi, 58
Arbutus menziesii, 58
Arctostaphylos spp., 58
Armillaria ostoyae, 36
arsenic, 109
arthropods, 13
ascus, 38
asexual reproduction, 33
asparagus, 92
Asparagus officinalis, 92
athlete’s foot, 27
Auburn University, 135
autolysis, 26
Avena fatua, 79
Avena sativa, 95
avocado, 92
azaleas, 56
Bacillus thuringiensis (Bt), 85
bacteria, 66
banana, 92
bare-root inoculation, 90
bare-root soil inoculation, 90
Barrett, Victoria, 135
basidiomycetes, 59
Basidiomycota fungi, 21, 38–39, 58
basil, 93
Bassia scoparia, 79
bearberries, 58
beeches, 106
beets, 81
Bermuda grass, 133
Beta vulgaris, 81
big bluestem, 142
bird’s nest fungi, 39
black spruce, 121
black truffles, 117
black walnut, 119
blueberries, 56
Blue Mountains, 36
boron, 71
bread, 15
brie, 14
broccoli, 81
brown patch, 133
bryophytes, 43
bud dormancy, 76
cadmium, 109
Calocedrus decurrens, 120
Camponotus leonardi, 28
Canada thistle, 79
capillaroid plants, 63
carbohydrates, 55
carbon, 7, 13, 28, 46, 73, 146
carbon dioxide, 31, 36, 78, 129, 153
carbon storage, 46–47
carnations, 62
carrot, 126
cedars, 106
cedarwood, 50
cell division, 76
cellulase enzyme, 32
Cenococcum geophilum, 119
cesium, 109
chanterelles, 39
cheeses, 15
chemicals, applying, 83–84
Chenopodium album, 79
Chernobyl nuclear disaster, 115
chestnut blight, 38
chicken litter, 86
chickpeas, 93
chitosan, 18
chlorophyll, 13
chokecherry, 119
chromium, 109
Cicer arietinum, 93
Cirsium arvense, 79
Citrullus lanatus, 97
citrus, 93
Citrus spp., 93
Claroideoglomus claroideum, 125
Claroideoglomus etunicatum, 78, 92, 94, 96, 105, 118, 119, 125, 132
Claroideoglomus spp., 96
classification, 38
climate change, 153
clove, 107
clover, 130
commercial applications, 117
common dandelion, 79
common earthball, 39
compost teas, 150
conifer forests, 64–65
conk, 27
contrary webcap, 39
cool-season grasses, 127–128
Cortinarius varius, 39
crabs, 13
cranberries, 56
Craterellus tubaeformis, 115
creosote, 29
crop plants, 10
crop rotation, 81–82
crop studies, 90–97
Cryptocline cyclaminis, 104
cyclamen, 104
Cyclamen spp., 104
Cynodon dactylon, 133
cypress, 106
cysteine-rich proteins, 19
cytokinins, 76
cytoplasm, 15, 18–19, 21, 25, 29, 55, 73
cytoskeleton, 24
daffodil, 104
Dalton (Da), 32
dauciform roots, 63
Daucus carota, 126
deciduous trees, 48
deoxyribonucleic acid (DNA), 23, 24, 31, 34, 37, 66, 153
digestion, 29–33
Diversispora versiformis, 92, 118
drought tolerance, 45–46, 77–79, 94, 118, 129
drought wilting, 93
Dutch elm disease, 38
dwarf willow, 119
earthworms, 81
ectendomycorrhizae, 61–62
ectomycorrhizal fungi
Albert Bernhard Frank and, 41
benefits of, 107
forest life and, 109–110
formation of, 110–114
growing, 144–146
hyphae of, 48
multi-mycorrhizae, 62
mushrooms, 34
overview, 58–61
pathogen resistance, 46
on pine root, 45
in silviculture, 106–121
spores, 69
trees and shrubs that form, 108
trees and shrubs that form arbuscular mycorrhizae and, 108
use in reforestation, 116–117
use in the field, 115–117
use in waste site reclamation, 115–116
ectotrophic mycorrhizal fungi, 42
eggplant, 94
embedded protein transporters, 31
endomycorrhizal fungi, 43, 48, 129
endoplasmic reticulum, 23
endotrophic mycorrhizal fungi, 42
energy, 13
ergosterol, 14
ericoid mycorrhizal fungi, 56–57, 61
ethylene, 76
eukaryotes, 24
eukaryotic organisms, 13
Euphorbia pulcherrima, 105
exoskeletons, 13
experiments, 150
extracellular digestion, 13, 30, 32, 45
extraradical hyphae, 53
Fagopyrum esculentum, 81
Fagus sylvatica, 119
Fallopia convolvulus, 79
fallowing, 82
fertilizers, 11, 68, 69, 83, 84, 102, 118
fescue, 140
Festuca rubra, 132
Festuca spp., 140
field burning, 84–85
flax, 81
food, 27
forest organic material, 27
Fragaria ananassa, 126
Frank, Albert Bernhard, 7, 41–42, 154
freesia, 104
Freesia spp., 104
fructose, 55
fumigants, 83
fungal genetics, 153–154
fungal hyphal membrane, 53, 73
fungi
categories, 33
characteristics with animals, 13–14
classification of, 37–39
complexity of, 14–15
definition of, 13–14
essential roles, 12
growth and decay, 25–26
heterotrophic categories, 27–29
hyphal fungal structure, 15–24
mycelium and hyphal growth, 36
nutrient absorption, 29–33
reclassification, 38
reproduction, 33–34
Funneliformis caledonium, 126
Funneliformis geosporum, 125
Funneliformis monosporus, 126
Funneliformis mosseae, 91, 92, 93, 94, 95, 96, 97, 104, 118, 119, 120, 125, 126, 133
Gaeumannomyces graminis, 133
garlic, 126
garlic mustard, 81
general rules, 147–151
genetically modified (GM) crops, 85
genome sequencing, 65
geographic location, 64
geranium, 104
gerbera, 104
Gerbera jamesonii, 104
Germany, 42
giant sequoia, 115
Gigaspora margarita, 48, 92, 93, 94, 105, 119
Gigaspora spp., 97
ginger, 94
Glomus, 119
D13, 95
R10, 92
T6, 95
ZAC-19, 96
Glomus aggregatum, 133
Glomus deserticola, 92, 94, 119, 120, 126
Glomus intraradices, 38
Glomus microaggregatum, 125
Glycine max, 97
glycogen, 13
golf courses, 132
golf greens, 131
Golgi, Camillo, 23
Gomphidius glutinosus, 115
goosefoot, 62
Gossypium hirsutum, 94
granular substances–fungi mix, 89
grape, 94
grasses
arbuscular mycorrhizal fungi for, 10–11, 127–133
benefits of arbuscular mycorrhizal fungi for, 128
mycorrhizal grass studies, 132–133
physiological groups, 127–128
that form arbuscular mycorrhizae, 128
using inoculants, 131–132
water management, 129
weed control, 129–131
grasslands, 65
green foxtail, 79
growing mixes, 102–3
growth auxins, 76
guava, 107
gymnosperms, 43
hardwood forests, 64–65
Hartig, Theodor, 42
hazelnut, 117
heavy tillage, 68
Hebeloma arenosum, 115
Hebeloma longicaudum, 119, 121
herbicide application, 83
homokaryotic, 21
hops, 94
Hordeum vulgare, 92
hormone production, 76
horticulture, 98–105
hosta, 104
Hosta spp., 104
host plants
arbuscular mycorrhizal fungi, 48, 50
arbutoid mycorrhizal associations, 58
drought tolerance, 45–46
grasslands, 65
monotropoid mycorrhizal associations, 58
multi-mycorrhizae, 62
nutrient transfer, 45
nutrient transporters, 54
nutrient uptake enhancement, 70–71
pathogen resistance, 36, 42, 46
protectionism, 48
secondary metabolites, 32
semidependent, 64
symbiotic relationships with mycorrhizal fungi, 7, 28, 40, 41, 46–47, 73, 74
Humulus lupulus, 94
Humus Theory, 64
hydrogen ions (H+), 54
hydrogen peroxide (H2O2), 22
hydroponics
benefits of mycorrhizal fungi, 122–123
mycorrhizal considerations for, 123–124
mycorrhizal hydroponic plant studies, 125–126
using inoculants, 124–125
hyphal fungal structure, 15–24
hyphal tubes, 15–16
incense cedar, 120
Indian pipes, 58
inoculants
application methods, 90
applying, 83
field culturing inoculum, 143–144
for grasses, 131–132
greenhouse recipe for arbuscular mycorrhizal inoculum, 142
in hydroponics, 124
inoculated soil, 7
methods, 89
nursery plants, 99–102
placing propagules in nursey plants, 101–2
pot culturing inoculum, 142–143
Rodale method of inoculum production, 138–140
Rodale recipe for arbuscular mycorrhizal inoculum, 141
types of formulations of arbuscular mycorrhizal propagules, 89
using, 87–90
Inocybe, 115
isozymes, 30
jack pine, 121
Japanese black pine, 121
jasmonic acid, 76
Juglans nigra, 119
Juglans spp., 118
kales, 62
kerosene fungus, 29
knotweed, 62
kochia, 79
Konza Prairie, 91
kudzu, 143
Laccaria amethystina, 115
Laccaria laccata, 115
Lactarius subdulcis, 119
Lactuca sativa, 94
lamb’s quarters, 79
lawn mixes, 132
lawns, 127–133
lead, 109
leaf detachment, 76
Leccinum scabrum, 115
lettuce, 94
Leucospermum cordifolium, 63
lichens, 12
lignin, 28
lipids, 73
lipo-chitooligosaccharides, 52
liquid formulation, 89
liverworts, 49
lobsters, 13
lowland rainforest trees, 107
lupines, 62
Lupinus spp., 62
Lycopersicon esculentum, 97, 126
lysis, 22
lysosomes, 22
madrone, 58
magnesium, 71
Malus spp., 118–119
manganese, 71
manzanitas, 58
maple trees, 81
marigold, 104
marijuana. See cannabis
Medicago sativa, 91–92
melanin, 18
Mendel, Gregor, 43
Mentha arvensis, 95
mercury, 109
mesh dividers, 71
metalaxyl, 83
microtubules, 24
mint, 95
mitochondria, 24
mitosis, 24
monocots, 63
monocultures, 130
monomers, 19–20
Monotropa spp., 68
monotropoid mycorrhizal fungi, 58
mosses, 49
mugo pine, 121
mulches, 86
multicellular organisms, 14
multi-mycorrhizae, 62
Musa spp., 92
mushrooms, 14, 34–37, 38, 39, 115, 117
mutualistic fungi, 28
mycelium, 36
Myc factors, 52
mycorrhiza, 41
mycorrhizae, 41
mycorrhizal, 41
mycorrhizal fungi
arbuscular mycorrhizae, 48–56
arbutoid mycorrhizae, 58
benefits of, 43–48
colonization, 129
container-grown, 101
drought tolerance, 45
ectendomycorrhizae, 61
ectomycorrhizae, 58–61
ericoid mycorrhizae, 56–57
general locations of, 63–65
general rules for best results, 147–151
grasses and, 129
harvesting from field, 136
importance of, 8
improved soil structure and carbon storage, 46–47
increased nutrient supply, 44–45
match fungi to plant, 147–148
monotropoid mycorrhizae, 58
as mutualistic fungi, 28–29
mycelium of, 36
mycorrhizal behavior, 65–66
myths, 8
orchid mycorrhizae, 57–58
plants without mycorrhizal associations, 62–63
protection from pathogens, 46
protectionism, 47–48
realities, 9–10
relationships with plants, 40, 43
spores, 68–69
testing for and introducing, 86–87
tree and shrub studies, 118–121
use of viable propagules, 148–149
myrrh, 50
myrtle, 107
Nägeli, Carl Wilhelm von, 43
naming, 38
Narcissus spp., 104
nematodes, 73–76, 92, 93, 94, 95, 97, 130
nitrates (NO3), 32, 54, 55, 65, 72
nitrogen, 11, 32, 45, 55, 65, 71, 72, 84, 94, 95
nitrogen, phosphorus, and potassium (N-P-K), 102, 130
Nod genes, 51
nodulation, 51
non-mycorrhizal associations, 62
nopal cactus, 12
nucleus, 23
nurseries, 99
nursery plants, 99–102
nutrient absorption, 29–33, 44–45
nutrient transporters, 54–55
Ocimum basilicum, 93
okra, 95
On-Farm Arbuscular Fungus Inoculum Production System, 140
Ophiocordyceps unilateralis, 27, 28
Opuntia spp., 12
orchids, 62
Oregon, 36
organic amendments, 86
organic farmers, 84
organic fertilizers, 102
organic mulches, 86
oxygen, 31
palms, 120
Paspalum notatum, 128
pathogen resistance, 36, 46, 73–76
pear, 120–121
peat moss, 85
Pelargonium spp., 104
pencilflower, 143
peroxisomes, 22
Persea spp., 92
petunia, 104–5
Petunia ×atkinsiana, 104–5
pH, 124
phloem vessels, 25
phosphate fertilizers, 84
phospholipid molecules, 21
phosphorus, 8, 11, 31, 32, 45, 50, 63, 70–71, 84, 86, 92, 94, 95, 97, 149
phosphorus pentoxide (P2O5), 102
Picea glauca, 121
Picea mariana, 121
Picea rubens, 121
Picea sitchensis, 121
pinks, 62
Pinus banksiana, 121
Pinus mugo, 121
Pinus ponderosa, 121
Pinus resinosa, 121
Pinus spp., 121
Pinus thunbergii, 121
Piriformospora indica, 61–62
Pisolithus arhizus, 115, 119, 120, 121
plant cell walls, 16
plant–fungus interactions, 50
plant–insect interactions, 50
plasma membrane, 18–19, 21–22, 31, 48, 73
Poa annua, 132–133
pod rot, 95
poinsettia, 105
ponderosa pine, 121
Populus spp., 62
Populus tremuloides, 62
potassium, 31
potassium oxide (K2O), 102
potato, 96
potting mixes, 102–3
powdery mildew, 38
adding to compost teas, 150
adding to soil mixes, 149
bare-root soil inoculation, 90
benefits of adding mycorrhizal propagules, 98–99
collecting fruiting bodies of ectomycorrhizal fungi to use as, 144–145
commercial, 128
commercial planting soils, 117
compost and, 103
establishing ectomycorrhizal colonies, 146
lawn soils, 131–132
manufacturing, 11
mixed in soil, 89
mixed with granular substances, 89
natural peat mosses to create ericaceous mycorrhizae, 85
placing, 101
reforestation planting, 117
storing, 150
types of formulations of arbuscular mycorrhizal, 89
using inoculants, 100–102, 117–118, 131–132
using viable, 148–149
proteas, 62
protectionism, 47–48
Prunus spp., 118
Prunus virginiana, 119
Pseudotsuga menziesii, 119
pteridophytes, 43
Pueraria phaseoloides, 143
puffballs, 39
purslane, 62
Pyrus spp., 120–121
Quercus spp., 120
radioactive materials, 109, 115, 153
radishes, 81
Radopholus citrophilus, 92
rapeseed, 81
raspberry, 96–97
red cedar, 115
red fescue, 132
red pincushion protea, 63
red pine, 121
redroot pigweed, 79
redwood, 115
research, 150
rhizobia bacteria, 51
Rhizoctonia solani, 133
Rhizophagus, 135
Rhizophagus clarus, 92, 93, 97, 125
Rhizophagus fasciculatus, 91, 92, 93, 94, 95, 96, 97, 104
Rhizophagus intraradices, 38, 92, 93, 94, 95, 96, 104, 105, 115, 118, 119, 120, 125, 126, 132, 133
Rhizophagus irregularis, 38, 96, 105
Rhizophagus vesiculiferus, 104, 126
Rhizopogon roseolus, 121
rhododendrons, 56
Rhododendron spp., 56
ribonucleic acid (RNA), 23, 153
ribosomes, 23
rice hulls, 86
ringworm, 27
root-eater, 43
root galling, 93
root hairs, 63
root inoculation, 90
Roquefort, 14
Rosa spp., 105
rose, 105
Rothamsted Experimental Station, 135
Rubus spp., 96–97
rushes, 63
Russian steppe, 90
rye, 140
sac fungi, 38
salicylic acids, 76
Salix reinii, 119
sandalwood, 50
sand-binding roots, 63
saprobes, 27–28
saprophytic fungi, 27
Schlicht, Albert, 42
sclerotia, 33
Scott, Robert, 12
Scutellospora gilmorei, 93
Scutellospora heterogama, 92
sebacinoid fungi, 61–62
Secale spp., 140
secondary metabolites, 32–33
sedges, 63
seed dormancy, 76
seed germination mix inoculation, 90
seed inoculation, 90
septa, 20–21
septate hyphae, 21
sesquiterpenes, 50
Setaria viridis, 79
sewage sludge, 86
sexual reproduction, 34
Shackleton, Ernest, 12
shelf fungi, 39
shrubs
mycorrhizal tree and shrub studies, 118–121
that form arbuscular mycorrhizae only, 108
that form ectomycorrhizae and arbuscular mycorrhizae, 108
that form ectomycorrhizae only, 108
signaling molecules, 21, 51, 65–66, 76
silviculture, 106–121
Sitka spruce, 121
skin problems, 27
smuts, 39
snapdragon, 105
soil compaction, 131–132
soil disturbance, 82–83
soil–fungi mix, 89
soil microbiota, 68
soil restoration, 76–77
soil sterilization, 67
soil structure, 46–47
Solanum melongena, 94
Solanum tuberosum, 96
Gold Rush, 96
LP899221, 96
sorghum, 142
Sorghum spp., 142
sphingolipids, 21
sporangia, 33
spores, 10, 33, 49, 50, 53–56, 68–69, 103, 136–138
spraying, 83
spruce, 121
Stamets, Paul, 74
St. Augustine grass, 133
Stellaria media, 79
stem diseases, 75
Stenotaphrum secundatum, 133
sterilized soil, 7
sterols, 21
stinkhorns, 39
stinkweed, 79
storage, 150
Stylosanthes spp., 143
subarctic regions, 64
sulfur, 71
symbiont fungi, 28
Tagetes erecta, 104
take-all, 133
Taraxacum officinale, 79
Taxus spp., 121
temperature tolerance, 77–79
Thelephora terrestris, 115
Thlaspi arvense, 79
tobacco plants, 42
transplant inoculation, 90
transport proteins, 31–32
tree nurseries, 115
trees
arbuscular mycorrhizal fungi and, 10, 106–121
matching fungi to, 114–115
mycorrhizal tree and shrub studies, 118–121
that form arbuscular mycorrhizae only, 108
that form ectomycorrhizae and arbuscular mycorrhizae, 108
that form ectomycorrhizae only, 108
Trichoderma spp., 124
Triticum spp., 97
Tuber melanosporum, 117
tundra mycorrhizal fungi, 64
unicellular organisms, 14
University of Vermont, 85
urea, 55
U.S. Department of Agriculture (USDA), 17
Vaccinium spp., 56
vascular systems, 13
veils, 37
velvet bentgrass, 132
vitamin D, 14
Vitis spp., 94
walnut, 118
warm-season grasses, 127–128
waste site reclamation, 115
watering systems, 117
water management, 129
watermelon, 97
water storage structures, 46
Western Australia, 63
wet-sieving spores, 136–138
white spruce, 121
wild buckwheat, 79
wild oat, 79
Wissotzky, G. N., 90
Woronin bodies, 21
Wright, Sarah, 17
xylem tubes, 25
yew, 121
Zingiber officinale, 94
zinnia, 104
Zinnia elegans, 104
zoysia, 133
Zoysia spp., 133