Abbott, Carl, 151, 154, 160, 163
absolutism, royal, 51, 222 n.8
African Americans, 28, 29, 138, 142; in Seattle, 140, 142; in slavery, 30, 34; in Tampa, 204
agriculture, 96, 97; California, 109–10, 111; environmental effects of, 118; mechanized, 116
air travel, 119
Albany (N.Y.), town of, 80, 156; fur trade at, 69;
Iroquois traders and, 51, 69; Lamoureux in, 62, 64; liquor smuggling and, 51, 62, 64
Albuquerque, Afonso de, 16
Algonquian-speakers, 50, 56, 59–60, 62, 63, 75; Great Peace of Montreal and, 67–68, 69, 72; multi-ethnic and multilingual communities, 70
Alton (Ill.), town of, 154, 155
American Revolution, 39, 52, 84, 96, 231 n.17
Anchorage (Alaska), town of, 162, 163
Anderson, John, 91
Anglicans, 96
Anglo-Americans, 87, 171, 183; British empire
and, 93; Catholicism and, 165; Indians and, 87–88, 93–95, 95; as majority, 189. See also whites
Anishinaabe language, 59
Apache Indians, 59
Appalachian Mountains, 87, 89, 92
Arapaho Indians, 132
Arrivé, Jacques, 61–62
Ashalacoa (“Long Knife”) “tribe” (Virginians), 87, 88, 92, 95, 100, 102; Indians’ view of, 101; U.S. Indian policies and, 103. See also Virginia
Atchatchakangouen (Grue [Crane]) band, 74
Atherton, Lewis, 159
Atlantic World, 30–31, 32, 35; Louisiana and New Orleans in, 39, 43, 45; migration in, 38
Audubon, John James, 190
Babis, Louis, 60
back-of-town collaborations, 33, 35, 36, 39, 40, 44, 45
Baltimore, city of, 170
barter, 153
Barth, Gunther, 126
Bates, Frederick, 191
Baynton, Wharton, and Morgan, 91, 99
Bayou St. John, 33, 34, 40, 44
Beauharnois, Marquis de, 77
Beaver Wars, 225 n.6
Bellini, Jacques Nicolas, 175, 177
Bienville, Jean-Baptiste Le Moyne de, 32, 33
Bingham, George Caleb, 190
Black Majority (Wood), 35
Bocarro, António, 19
Bocquet, Simple, 78–79
boleta system, 22
Booker, Matthew, 126, 237 n.27
boom-and-bust cycles, 107, 159
boosters, 112, 121, 131, 162, 164; conquest of nature/savagery and, 132; legacies of dispossession and, 142; Mexicans viewed by, 138; moving frontier and, 149; postfrontier stage of development and, 157; representation of frontier cities and, 171, 172–73, 175
borderlands, 45, 124, 150, 209 n.6
Boré, Etienne Jean, 41
Boston, city of, 25, 26, 28, 35, 181; books and print culture in, 191, 196, 197; British blockade of, 100; merchants of, 155–56; representation of frontier cities and, 170, 171; as subject of representation, 188; as trade center, 192; trade with frontier cities, 154
Bouquet, Col. Henry, 89
Bradstreet, Col. John, 76
Breslay, René-Charles de, 49–50, 51, 60, 62, 65, 221 n.1
British Columbia, 130
Broderick, Matthew, 27
Brown, Michael, 27
Building the Devil’s Empire (Dawdy), 32
Bureau of Indian Affairs, 144
Burke, Thomas, 127
Butler, William, 91
Cabanné, Jean Pierre, 192
cabildos (Spanish municipal corporations), 24
Caddo Indians, 185
Cadillac, Antoine de la Mothe, 68, 69, 74, 228 n.43; Detroit envisioned as city by, 85; Native urban space in Detroit and, 70–72
California, 108, 116; agriculture, 109–10, 111, 137, 237 n.27; ports of, 124
Californios, 124, 125 câmaras (Portuguese municipal councils), 16–17, 18, 24
capitalism, 160
Carondelet, village of, 6
Cartier, Jacques, 52, 53–54, 57
Carver, Jonathan, 194
catchment areas, 160
Catholicism, 54, 57, 61, 222 n.8; Anglo-Americans and, 165; French-Indian relations and, 60; Indians of Detroit and, 70; women and, 62
Cerré, Gabriel, 194
Chaoucha Indians, 33
Charless, Joseph, 198
Charleston (Charles Town) (S. Carolina), city of, 25, 26, 35, 154, 170
Charlevoix, Father Pierre, 32
Chartier’s Town, 88
Chauvin family, 75
Chemin de Lachine (Lachine Trail), 57, 60
Cheyenne Indians, 132
Chicago, city of, 113, 158, 161–62, 186
China, 12, 14, 144; Japan’s trade with, 19; Philippines trade with, 20, 21; Portuguese empire and, 17–19; silver standard and, 12–13
Chinatowns, 129, 130, 135, 137
Chinese immigrants, 2, 126, 129, 207; in fishing industry, 130–31; industrial laborers, 130; in the Philippines, 20–21; San Francisco earthquake and, 134–35; in Southern California, 137
Chouteau, Auguste, 1, 190, 193, 194–95
Chouteau, Gabriel, 194
Christianity, 55
Chumash Indians, 124
Cincinnati, city of, 31, 154, 161, 163, 173; books and print culture in, 196; incremental change and, 186; maps of, 180; resemblance to eastern cities, 188
cities: in American Far West, 122; defined, 4–5; eastern, 167, 182; economic role of, 8; empire-building and, 11, 14; establishment of, 7; gender composition of, 117; nation-making function of, 6; native and métis satellite villages, 5–6; Pacific Slope, 124, 130, 133, 142, 145; port cities, 45; in Portuguese empire, 14, 16–17; Progressive thinkers and, 134; river cities, 31, 173; in Spanish empire, 19–20; urban versus metropolitan, 234 n.2. See also frontier cities
citizenship, whiteness linked to, 6
City and the Country, The (Williams), 4
civilization, 1, 51, 134; “civilizing” of Indians, 70–71; nature and, 122; savagery and, 167, 172; Turner’s frontier thesis and, 3, 121–22, 133
civil society, 183
Civitates orbis terrarumI (Braun and Hogenberg), 15
Clark, George Rogers, 100
Clark, William, 190
Clatsop Indians, 185
Clements, Frederic, 136
Cody, William F. “Buffalo Bill,” 122, 123, 143
Collot, Georges-Henri-Victor, 192
Colonial St. Louis (Peterson), 197
colonists/colonization, 7, 18, 26
Columbus, Christopher, 121
communications revolution/technologies, 108, 111, 118, 153, 232 n.5; differences among urban areas and, 163; frontier cities’ growth enabled by, 112–13; outposts’ link with metropoles and, 155
Compagnie de Colonie, 72
Company of the Indies, 75
Comstock Lode, 113
Connolly, John, 98–102
conquest, 4, 16, 168, 187; Iroquois claims around Detroit, 225 n.6; of nature, 122, 123, 132, 133, 143; by Virginians (Ashalacoans), 88, 103
Cooper, Frederick, 32
Cooper, James Fenimore, 188
Cooperstown (N.Y.), town of, 156–57
corporation, modern, 114
Couc, Isabelle (Madame Montour), 75
counterfeiting, 51
coureurs de bois (“runners of the woods”), 67
coureurs de villes (“runners of the city”), 67, 69–70, 71, 77; British rule and, 80–84; French imperial effort and, 85; fur trade and, 81, 228 n.43; négociants, 78–79; political-commercial interrelatedness and, 73–74
cowboys, 163
Craig, Larry, 28
Cramer, Zadok, 173, 175, 246 n.15
Crawford, William, 231 n.17
creoles/creole practices, 37, 38, 45, 67
Crescent City. See New Orleans, city of
Croghan, George, 82, 89, 231 n.17
Croly, Herbert, 133–34
Cuillerier (“Beaubien”), Antoine, 80
Cuillerier (“Beaubien”) family, 76
Cuillerier, Angelique, 80, 82–83
“cultural wetlands,” 45
d’Abbadie, Jean-Jacques-Blaise, 37, 38
Daman (India), city of, 17
Davenport (Iowa), town of, 157, 158
Davenport, George, 157
Davenport, Rev. John, 201
Davis, Mike, 124
Dawdy, Shannon, 32
Dearborn, Henry, 41
Deerfield, Mass., raid on (1704), 74
deforestation, 34
Delaware Indians, 87, 88–89, 91, 92, 100, 102
Denver, city of, 155, 157, 162
DesRuisseaux, Madame, 82
Detroit, city of, 64, 85–86, 177; British rule over, 80–84; coureurs de villes and, 69–70, 71; explorers’ descriptions of, 186–87; French fort at, 68, 68, 69; fur trade and, 85; imperial rivalry and, 66, 67, 69–70, 225 n.1, 225 n.6; as Montreal of the West, 85; population of, 76–77; slaves at, 78, 80; small French population of, 72–73; as trade center, 72, 73, 76, 77, 192
Detroit-Kekionga corridor, 68, 75
Detroit River, community at (map), 78
Didier, Pierre, 194
diplomacy, 12, 14, 61, 209 n.2; coureurs de villes and, 73, 85; Pennsylvania state seal and, 96
Discovery, Settlement and Present State of Kentucke (Filson), 175
disease (pathogens), 17, 122, 123, 124, 202; pandemic flu, 144; plague, 135–36, 138, 139; yellow fever, 42–43
Diu (India), city of, 17
Dodge City, 163
Dubuque, town of, 154
Ducharme, Catherine, 74, 226 n.21
Dunmore, Lord, war of, 98, 100–103
Duwamish Indians, 144
Eastman, Seth, 190
Eaton, Theophilus, 201
Edmonds, Penelope, 210 n.13
Edwardsville Public Library (Illinois), 198
Elliott, Matthew, 100–101
El Paso (Tex.), city of, 206–8
empire: cities and, 11, 14, 52, 200; frontiers and, 3–4; military demands of, 26; in Ohio Valley, 103; power networks and, 7
English/British empire, 4, 14, 30, 88, 156;
American Revolution and, 39; Anglo-American settlers at odds with, 93; Canada taken over by, 79; Detroit’s Indians and, 79–84; frontier outposts of, 154; fur trade and, 69; invasion of New Orleans, 43; liquor trade with Indians, 64, 224 n.37; Pittsburgh and, 89; urbanization of little importance in, 25. See also French-English rivalry
English language, 197, 249 n.14
Enlightenment, 169
environmental changes, 33–34, 130, 140–41
Erie Canal, 156
Essex Book Shop (St. Louis), 195
eugenics, 136
Evans, Estwick, 165–66, 167, 183
exchange, cultural and economic, 3
Fafard (“Macouc”), Marie-Anne, 63
families, frontier and, 116–17
farmers, 114, 172; Chinese, 20; Detroit and, 77; merchants and, 156, 158; New Orleans and, 38, 42; Pennsylvania land policy and, 97
Filson, John, 175, 181, 247 n.17
fishing industry, 130–31
Flagg, Edmund, 192
Flint, Timothy, 192
floods and flood-control, 34, 42
Florida, West, 39
Florissant, town of, 198
Formosa, 19
forts, 31, 67, 77, 85, 151, 154
Fort Stanwix, Treaty of (1769), 90, 92
Fox Indians, 59
Franks, David, 91
Franks, Moses, 91
Freeman-Custis Expedition, 185
free people of color, 28, 39, 42; incorporation of New Orleans into United States and, 41–42; militiamen, 41; restrictions on, 44
French and Indian War, 77, 81, 89
French empire, 4, 14, 88, 175; books and print culture in, 192–94; Detroit and forts of, 67; frontier outposts of, 154; relations with Indians, 49–50; smuggling in, 51; urbanization of little importance in, 25
French-English rivalry, 50, 51, 56, 64; Detroit and, 66, 67, 69–70, 71, 76, 225 n.6; French and Indian War, 77, 81; Virginians (“Long Knife” tribe) and, 92
French language, 1, 81, 197, 198, 209 n.2, 249 n.14
frontier cities, 162–63, 172, 200–201, 208; chaos in, 51; civilization and, 181; commerce and, 25, 31; as commercial outposts, 151, 155, 158; comparison with modern cities, 200; cultural development of, 191; defined, 2, 152, 153, 160, 209 n.6; elusive character of, 164; European cities in Asia, 11–12, 156; expeditions into the West from, 184–85; global markets and, 120; histories connected by, 7; as imperial strongholds, 52; intermediary role of, 151; maps of, 169–70, 180–81, 187–88; as masculine spaces, 163, 164; metropoles’ connections with, 52; paradox of, 149–50; railroads and, 159; representation in American culture, 168–70, 173, 175, 187–89; rivers and, 107; self-government in, 12; in Spanish empire, 23–26; suburbs of, 6; telescoped development of, 113; trade with metropolitan center, 152–53; white settlement and, 167–68; world market and, 107–8. See also cities
frontier exchange, 33, 35, 37–40, 43–44
Frontier in History, The (Lamar and Thompson), 208
frontiers, 164, 167, 172, 189, 208, 210 n.6; debate about cities and, 182; decivilizing elements of, 183; defined, 2–3; empire-building and, 6; frontier mentality, 113–14; global, 7; investors in booms on, 114; limits of imperial power and, 66; “near frontier,” 150; as rural spaces, 5; towns as spearheads of, 31, 122; transportation revolution and, 116–17; Turner Thesis, 52; urban frontier anxiety, 133
Fujita-Rony, Dorothy, 143
Fuller, Alexandra, 163
fur trade, 52–53, 59, 68–69, 72, 227 n.23; bilingual fluency promoted by, 249 n.14; Coast Salish peoples and, 125; Detroit dominated by, 85; French-Indian kinship networks and, 76; in Montreal, 91; in New Haven, 251 n.11; in Pittsburgh, 91, 93; settler opposition to, 94–95, 95
Gage, Gen. Thomas, 91
Galena (Ill.), town of, 154, 155, 157
Gasparilla Festival (Tampa), 203, 205
Gass, Patrick, 246 n.15
Gelves, Marques de, 22
George III, king of England, 87, 99, 103
Geronimo, 122
Gibault, Father, 198
Gibson, George, 91
Gibson, John, 91–92, 99, 100–101
Gitlin, Jay, 52
Goa, city of, 12, 13–14, 16–17, 25, 114, 200; Council of, 11; international trade system and, 156; Macau and, 18; military demands of empire and, 26; in sixteenth-century illustration, 15; U.S. frontier cities compared with, 108
gold rushes: California, 6, 109, 114, 126, 161; Klondike, 139, 162
Gouin family, 76
Gratiot, Charles, 192
Gratz, Bernard, 91
Gratz, Michael, 91
Great Lakes, 58, 66, 172, 225 n.2; concentration of Indians in, 77; coureurs de villes from, 70
Great Peace of Montreal (1701), 67–68, 72
Great Plains, 162
Greek immigrants, 131
Guadalupe Hidalgo, Treaty of, 109, 207
Hall, Basil, 192
Hamer, David, 152
Hansen, Cecile, 144
Hatian Revolution, 41
Hawthorne, Nathaniel, 188
Hinderaker, Eric, 103
hinterlands, 25, 33, 142, 152, 164; Chicago and, 161, 162; cities’ relation to, 143, 153, 160–61, 163, 164; descriptive terms for, 150; of Detroit, 67, 83, 85–86; flow of trade and people into, 155; of Goa, 14; of Manaus, 107, 119; mining, 161; of San Francisco, 126, 161; settlers drawn to, 159; unruliness of, 51
Hochelaga (Iroquoian town), 53, 54
Ho Chunk (Winnebago) Indians, 70
Hoover, Herbert, 132
Horse, John, 204–5
Howard, Governor, 87
Hudson River valley, 156
Hudson’s Bay Company, 124
Hunt, W. Price, 191
Huron-Petun-Wendat Indians, 70, 77, 80
hurricanes, 32
identity, American national, 3
Illinois and Michigan Canal, 161
Illinois country, 194
immigrants, 117, 163, 208; illegal, 144; in New Orleans, 32; restrictions on immigration, 133, 136–37; violence against, 129–30
indentured servants, 34
India, 7, 12, 13–14, 17, 22, 110
Indian country, 2, 102, 191, 198, 203, 225 n.1
Indians (Native Americans), 29, 40, 108, 235 n.16; alcohol consumption by, 49–50, 56, 62, 65; Anglo-Americans and, 87–88, 93–95, 95; in California, 125; Dunmore’s War and, 99–103; El Paso and, 206–8; English/British empire and, 69, 79–84, 93; explorers and, 185, 186–87; in fairs and expositions, 132; forced removal of, 187; French empire and, 53, 54–56, 63–64, 70–71; frontier cities and, 118–19, 153; fur trade and, 68–69; kinship networks with the French, 71; languages, 59, 81, 82, 203, 250 n.7; “laziness” of, 247 n.24; in Mississippi Valley, 31; New Haven and, 201–3; in New Orleans area, 33, 37; resources for worldwide trade and, 124; as slaves, 34, 62; in Spanish empire, 23, 24; territorial conceptions of, 68, 69; Turner Thesis and, 121–22. See also individual and tribal names
indigenous peoples, 3, 107, 210 n.13, 212 n.18
indigo, 42
industrialization, 201
“instant cities,” 159
Inuit people, 132
Iroquois Indians, 51, 53, 54, 61, 75; as allies of the English, 69, 225 n.6; Anglo-Americans and, 87; attack on Montreal, 57–58; at Detroit, 66, 69; Great Peace of Montreal and, 67–68, 69, 72; Pittsburgh and, 88
Irving, Washington, 188, 190, 192
Italian immigrants, 131
Jamestown (Va.), town of, 30, 114, 163
Japanese immigrants, 129, 137, 142, 238 n.43
jazz music, 45
Jefferson, Thomas, 42, 43, 103, 165, 167; culture of American West and, 182; Lewis and Clark Expedition and, 194
Jenkins, C. M., 129
Jesuits, 16, 18, 19, 56; in Detroit, 77; Indian converts and, 60; in Manila, 21; in New Orleans, 32
Jews, 91
Johnson, Sir William, 79–80, 82, 84, 91
Jones, David, 92
Joseph (slave of Lamoureux), 62
Kahnawake (Sault Saint-Louis), town of, 55, 58, 61, 64, 74
Ka-Lang-ad, 132
Kane, Joe, 119
Kansas City, 155
Kastor, Peter, 40
Kekionga (Fort Wayne), 67, 75, 76, 80, 81, 84
Kelérec, Louis Billouart de, 37
Kenny, James, 89 Keokuk (Iowa), town of, 154, 163
Keskabikat, Michel, 60
Kickapoo Indians, 70
kinship, French-Native: coureurs de villes and, 71, 74, 78; Lamoureux and, 59, 60, 63. See also métis (mixed-race people)
Klingle, Matthew, 118, 153, 158, 162
Korean immigrants, 137
Kuskkuskies, town of, 89
Labbadie, Silvestre, 194
labor unions, 136
LaButte (Chesne), Charles, 75
LaButte (Chesne), Pierre, 75–76, 78, 79, 83
Laclède, Pierre de, 1, 190, 192, 193, 194
Lafrenière, Nicolas Chauvin de, 36
Lakota Indians, 132
Lamoureux, François Charles, 65
Lamoureux, François (“Saint Germain”), 50–52, 56, 63, 222 n.4; French imperial state and, 59; French-Native intimacy and, 59–60; Native partners of, 58, 61–62; trial of, 61, 62, 64
Lancaster (Pa.), town of, 154
landscape paintings, 188
land speculators, 90, 92, 98, 163; moving frontier and, 149; in Portuguese empire, 17; representation of frontier cities and, 172; San Francisco tideland reclamation and, 126
Las Vegas, city of, 119
Latin America, 7, 13, 24, 212 n.18
Leadville (Colorado), town of, 113, 157–58, 162, 163
Le Blond de la Tour, 32
Le Claire, Antoine, 157
Lehmann-Haupt, Helmut, 193
Lepore, Jill, 35
Le Scel, Barbe, 60
Levy, Andrew, 91
Levy, Solomon, 91
Lewis and Clark Expedition, 185, 194, 246 n.15
Lexington (Ky.), town of, 31, 172, 175, 180
Lexington (Mass.), town of, 154
liminality, 150
Lincoln (Nebraska), town of, 162
Livingston, Robert, 69
Logstown, 89
London, city of, 109, 115, 154, 197
Long, Stephen Harriman, 185
Lopez, Roberto, 4
Los Angeles, city of, 119, 122, 128–29, 134, 200; immigrants in, 143; Mexicans in, 137–38; sanitary campaigns, 138, 139
Louboey, Lt. Henri de, 34
Louisiana, 64, 73, 192; colonial population of, 34; “dysfunctional” reputation, 27, 35; economic weakness of, 36; incorporated into United States, 40–43, 177, 195; population of, 39; slavery in, 38; Spanish rule over, 1, 39; uniqueness in American history, 28, 30; wetlands of, 29
Louisville (Ky.), town of, 31, 173, 175, 177, 180, 186
Louis XIV, king of France, 51
Macau (China), city of, 12, 13, 17–19, 114, 156; military demands of empire and, 26;
Philippines trade with, 22
Makougan (Mak8a8an), 62
Manaus (Brazil), city of, 2, 107–8, 119–20, 200
Manchu dynasty, 19
Mandan Indians, 185
Manila, city of, 12, 13, 19–22, 156; ethnic segregation of, 20; military demands of empire and, 26; silver from America in, 19; U.S. frontier cities compared with, 108
maps, 166–67, 170–71, 180–81, 188, 189; of American explorers, 185–86; Kentucky, 177, 247 n.17; New Orleans, 176; Ohio River and towns along, 174; standard convention of urban maps, 175
Mascouten Indians, 70
Mason-Dixon line, 88
Maspero, P., 179
Massachusetts Bay Colony, 35
McDermott, John Francis, 190, 191, 193, 196, 197, 198
McKay, Aeneas, 91
McKenzie, Roderick D., 141
Ménard, Marguerite, 59
Mercantile Library (St. Louis), 194–97, 198, 250 n.22, 250 n.25, 255, 257
merchants, 39, 151, 152–53, 155, 164; in Boston, 155–56; economies of scale and, 158–59; English, Scots, and Irish, 84; French, 51, 53, 56, 59, 64, 74; libraries of, 194; in Portuguese empire, 14, 17; postfrontier stage of development and, 157; records of, 190; of St. Louis, 193, 197; in Spanish empire, 13, 20, 21, 22
Mesquakie (Fox) Indians, 59, 70
métis (mixed-race people), 6, 60, 63, 75, 124, 189; British rule and, 81; Detroit-centered trade network, 67; Frenchmen married into networks of, 78; as wealthiest citizens of Detroit, 79
Mexican-American War, 124
Mexicans/Mexican Americans, 137, 142, 203
Mexico, 13, 21, 25, 137, 192, 206
Mexico City, 25
Miami Indians, 67, 70, 72, 84, 86; British trade with, 83; Kekionga outpost, 75, 81; kinship networks with the French, 76
Michaux, André, 192
Michilimackinac, 62, 67, 77, 80
Middle Ground, 91, 103, 150 militia: in New France, 55, 79; in New Orleans, 41, 43; in Pennsylvania, 97, 99, 102
Miller and Lux Company, 129
Mingo Indians, 87, 92, 101, 102, 103
mining, 5, 112–13, 118, 151, 161
Minneapolis, city of, 162
missionaries, 21–22, 49, 56, 89–90, 92, 95
Mississippi River, 33, 44, 67, 154
Missouri Gazette, 195
Missouri Indians, 1
Mobile, town of, 25
modernity, 133
Moehring, Eugene, 160
Mohawk Indians, 55, 59, 62, 74, 81
Mohegan Indians, 202–3
Moluccas, 22
Momauguin, 201
Montana, 108, 116, 117, 159, 162
Montreal, city of, 2, 7, 35, 49, 65, 69–70; Anglo-American views of, 183; books and print culture in, 191; empire and, 52, 63; French-Iroquois relations and, 54–56, 57–58; fur trade and, 52–53, 68, 91, 124; geography and, 53; Indian communities surrounding, 50, 55–56; liquor smuggling in, 50, 51, 62, 63–65; maps of, 175; plan of, 58; population of, 55, 56; reach of Native representatives’ voices and, 66; settlement of, 54; slaves in, 78; as trade center, 192; trade with west, 67, 80, 85; urbanization of, 57, 58; U.S. frontier cities compared with, 108
Moore, Marshall, 127
Morse, Jedediah, 181–83, 186, 187–88
Morse, Samuel F. B., 109
Muir, John, 126
Mullanphy, John, 191
Nashville, town of, 172
Natchez (Miss.), town of, 177, 186
nationalism, cultural, 171, 188
nation-making/building, 4, 6, 8, 200
Native Americans. See Indians (Native Americans)
nature, conquest of, 122, 123, 132, 133, 143
Navigator, The (Cramer), 173, 174
Nebraska City, 157
négociants, 78–79
Neveu family, 75
New Amsterdam, city of, 11
New England, 24, 170, 182, 192
New France, 55, 58, 64, 108, 192, 222 n.8; books on, 194; coureurs de bois in, 67; Detroit and, 73, 76; officers as nobility of, 74, 79; officials’ tolerance of smuggling, 65
New Haven (Conn.), city of, 201–3, 208, 251 n.11
New Orleans, city of, 25, 44–45, 166, 186, 192; in American imagination and history, 28–30, 183; books and print culture in, 195; cultural refinements of, 192; founding of, 32; French regime in, 30, 32–38; as frontier city, 28, 30, 31, 165; Indian tribes and, 33; Katrina hurricane and, 27–28; maps of, 175, 176, 177–79; mix of migrants in, 29; similarity to other Atlantic port cities, 35; slavery and, 39–40, 42–43; Spanish regime in, 30, 38–39; unique cultural heritage of, 45
New Salem (Ill.), town of, 154
New York, city of, 25, 35, 66, 67, 80, 181; books and print culture in, 196; as immigrant city, 28, 117; investors in, 158; price of staples in, 107; as subject of representation, 188; as trade center, 192; trade with frontier cities, 154; transformation of trade in, 156
New York Burning (Lepore), 35
Nipissing Indians, 49, 59, 60, 65; Lamoureux’s trial and, 62–63; liquor smuggled to, 58, 62
Norris, Frank, 133
Notes on the State of Virginia (Jefferson), 165
Noyelles de Fleurimont, Nicolas-Joseph, 75
obedience, simulation of, 18, 26
Odawa Indians, 63, 65, 70, 75, 76, 79
Ohio Company, 99
Ohio River, towns along (map), 174
Ohio Valley, 90, 103, 112; competing colonial projects in, 91; Indian tribes of, 87–88; river cities of, 173
Onas (“bird quill”) “tribe” (Pennsylvanians), 87, 88, 92, 95; Dunmore’s War and, 102–3; Indians’ view of, 101; U.S. Indian policies and, 103. See also Pennsylvania
Oneida Indians, 59
Onondaga Indians, 70
Oregon Treaty, 109
Oronhoua, 62
Osbey, Brenda Marie, 39
Osceola, 204–5
Otermín, Antonio de, 206
Ouabankikoué, Marguerite, 74–75, 83
Parkman, Francis, 222 n.8
Pauger, Adrien de, 32
Paul, Moses, 202
Pawnee Indians, 122
pays d’en haut (upper country), 66, 68, 71, 72, 73, 85
Peck, John Mason, 198
Pennsylvania, 80, 87, 88; Quaker elite of, 96; Virginia in conflict with, 92, 95–103. See also Onas (“bird quill”) “tribe”
Pequot War, 202
Perren, Barbe, 62
Perrin du Lac, François Marie, 192
Peru, 21
Peterson, Charles, 197
Peterson, Jacqueline, 225 n.2
Phelan, James D., 135
Philadelphia, city of, 14, 26, 154, 155, 181; books and print culture in, 196, 197; “Hell Town,” 35–36; publishing industry in, 170; representation of frontier cities and, 170–71; as subject of representation, 188
Philip II, king of Spain, 20, 23
Philip IV, king of Spain, 22
Philippe, Odet, 205
Philippines, 12, 108, 132, 143; administered from
Mexico, 21; Royal Ordinances followed in, 24; silver from, 13; Spanish colony building in, 19; U.S. acquisition of, 131
Philipson, Joseph, 198
Pigarouiche, Étienne, 60
Pigarouiche, Marguerite, 59–60
Pitot, Jacques, 183
Pittsburgh, town of, 7, 31, 94, 97, 173; boosters and, 172; Dunmore’s War and, 98–103; history of, 88–90, 230 n.7; population of, 90; urbanism and, 90; on Wingenund’s map, 94 Plan of the City and Suburbs of New Orleans (map), 178, 179
plazas, in Spanish cities, 23, 24
politics, 5, 8, 152, 168; machine politics in New Orleans, 28–29; racial, 5
Popé, 206
Portage des Sioux, village of, 6
Porteus, John, 83
Portuguese empire, 21, 24, 25, 211 n.18; Goa and, 14, 16–17; Macau and, 17–19; as middleman in Asia trade, 12; Spanish rivalry with, 20, 22
postcolonial theory, 7
Potawatomi Indians, 70
Potosí, silver mines of, 13
Potter, David, 117
power relations, unequal, 3, 200
Pritchard, James, 51 Private Libraries in Creole St. Louis (McDermott), 190, 191
probate records, 191
progress, idea of, 123, 133, 142
Progressive Era, 122, 133–34, 140
Promise of American Life, The (Croly), 133–34
property, private, 129
prostitutes, 163
public works projects, 123
publishing industry, in early republic, 168–69, 171, 180, 189
Pueblo (Tigua) Indians, 206–8
Puritans, 14
Queen Aliquippa’s Town, 89
Quenet, Jean, 62
Quincy (Ill.), town of, 154, 155
Quinnipiac Indians, 201
race, 7, 42, 84, 132, 202; anti-Indian race hatred, 94–95; racial segregation, 125, 142, 238 n.43; racial stereotyping, 166
railroads, 108, 115, 129, 153, 154; Chicago and, 161, 162; Chinese immigrant workers and, 117; construction of, 109; in Florida, 205; Great Northern Railroad, 127, 128, 162; merchants and, 159; paths of settlement and, 157; Southern Pacific, 207
real estate, 115
Réaume, Simon, 63
restaurants, 6
Richter, Daniel, 225 n.1
Rockford (Ill.), town of, 154
Rocky Mountains, 162
Roman Empire, 150
Roosevelt, Theodore, 134
Rothman, Hal, 119
Roy, Étienne, 75
Roy, François, 75
Roy, Pierre, Sr., 74, 226 n.21
“Royal Ordinances Concerning the Laying out of New Towns” (Philip II), 23, 24
Rushforth, Brett, 118
Russian empire, 4
Sacramento, town of, 161
St. Ange de Bellerive, Louis, 194
St. Augustine, 25
St. Charles, village of, 6
St. Clair, Arthur, 98, 100, 102
St. Domingue, 64
St. Ferdinand de Florissant, village of, 6
St. Joseph (Mo.), city of, 155
St. Louis, city of, 1–2, 7, 31, 154, 157; in American imagination and history, 183, 192; currency note issued by Bank of St. Louis, 179–180, 179; as frontier city, 162, 186, 198; as global village, 209 n.4; investors in, 158, 162; libraries and print culture in, 190–99, 250 n.22, 250 n.25; Louisiana Purchase and, 177; resemblance to eastern cities, 188; satellite villages of, 6; trade shifted to Chicago from, 161, 162; waterfront, 180, 180
St. Malo, Juan, 39
St. Martin (DesButtes), Jacques, 80
salesmen, traveling, 159
saloon, western, 5
San Diego, city of, 130, 132, 144
San Francisco, city of, 6, 7, 112, 158, 162; closing of frontier and, 122; earthquake (1906) in, 134–35; gold rush and, 109, 126, 159; “Grain King” of, 110; immigrants in, 143, 144; merchants of, 159, 161; Mining and Stock Exchange, 114–15; rapid development of, 112; urban space reconfigured in, 136; waterfront (tidelands), 126, 129, 236 n.26; world’s fair in, 131–32
sanitation: in Los Angeles, 138, 139; in San Francisco, 135–36; in Seattle, 139–40
Santa Fe, city of, 183–84
St. Domingo, slave insurrection in, 42
Sauconk, town of, 89
Saugrain, Antoine, 194
Sauk Indians, 70
“savagery,” 94, 123; civilization in conflict with,
3, 122, 133, 167, 172; conquest of, 122, 132, 143
Savannah (Ga.), city of, 14, 35
Schenectady, town of, 156
Schoolcraft, Henry Rowe, 186–88
Scott, James, 134
Seattle, city of, 7, 119, 143–44, 158; closing of frontier and, 122; as gateway to Alaska, 162; geography and, 124–25; Great Depression and, 141; Herring’s House, 121, 125, 144; immigrants in, 143; Indians in, 121–22, 127, 128, 132; population growth, 139; Skid Row district, 127–28, 141; urban space reengineered in, 131, 139–41; waterfront (tidelands), 126–28, 127, 129; world’s fair in, 132
settler colonialism, 6, 8, 200
Seven Years’ War, 92
Shah, Nayan, 137
Shannopin’s Town, 89
Shawnee Indians, 87, 88, 91, 92, 100, 101
ship building, 113
“Significance of the Frontier in American History, The” (Turner), 3
Sigo8ch (Sigoouitz, Sigoouy), 62
Silègue, Thiton de, 38
Simon, Joseph, 91
Single Whip Tax, 12
Sitting Bull, 122
slaves/slavery, 30, 31, 36–37, 183; from the Caribbean, 41; in Detroit, 78; Indians as slaves, 34; New Orleans as commercial center and, 39–40; official planners in New Orleans and, 32–33; restrictions on movements of, 39; runaway slaves, 35, 37, 39, 204; slave insurrections, 42, 43; in Virginia, 96
Slavic immigrants, 131
Smith, Jedediah, 190–91
Smith, Michael P., 45
smuggling, 21, 49, 50, 51, 58, 60, 63–65
Snowshoe (La Raquette), 61–62
sociology, 151
Sothern, Billy, 29
Spanish empire, 4, 14, 175, 211 n.18; Anglo-American views of, 183; British rivalry with, 39; California as part of, 125; frontier cities in, 23–26; frontier outposts of, 154; galleon trade, 21, 22; Manila and, 19–22; Pueblo Indians and, 206–7
Spear, Jennifer, 37
Spice Islands, 14
Springfield (Ill.), town of, 154
Springfield (Mass.), town of, 154
steamboats, 154, 157, 159, 162, 163
Sterling, James, 81–83
Stevens, Isaac Ingalls, 125
Stevenson, James, 84
Stevenson, Robert Louis, 115, 119
Stoler, Ann Laura, 32
sugar, 42
Suzanne (slave of Lamoureux), 62
Tampa (Fla.), city of, 203–6, 208
Tantaquidgeon, Gladys, 202
Tantaquidgeon, Lucy Occom, 202
Tardiveau, Bartholomew, 198
Taylor, Paul, 237 n.27
telegraph, 108–9, 110, 113, 114, 154
Texas, 109, 114, 161, 201, 206
Thompson, Leonard, 208
Thrush, Coll, 121
Tigua (Pueblo) Indians, 206–8
Tlingit Indians, 132
Tocqueville, Alexis de, 189
Tonty, Alphonse, and wife, 71–72, 74, 229 n.43
Townshend, Charles H., 202
trade, 5, 123, 200, 203; Detroit and networks of, 67; disregard of imperial trade laws, 21, 26; frontier cities in Asia and, 11; global networks of, 8, 13; mobility and, 84; sea-lanes and, 12; in spices, 12, 17; transpacific and transatlantic, 132–33
traders, 2, 17–18, 69, 80, 91–95, 151
transportation revolution/technologies, 108, 111, 116, 153, 232 n.5; differences among urban areas and, 163; frontier cities’ growth enabled by, 112–13; metropolitan growth and, 123
travel narratives, 166, 169, 186–87, 188, 247 n.23
Travels in the Interior of North America (Carver), 194
Trois-Rivières, city of, 78
Trudeau, Laurent, 194
Trudel, Marcel, 78
Trumbull, George, 84
Tsimshian Indians, 124
Tunica Indians, 37
Turner, Frederick Jackson, 3, 52, 121, 122, 139; on cities, 133; as Malthusian, 136
United States, 115–16, 168; early republic, 167, 184; entry into World War I, 131; entry into World War II, 142; expansion of, 4; Florida acquired by, 204; Indian policies, 103; Louisiana acquired by, 40–43; Mexican border, 124, 207, 208; printing industry, 169; western territories annexed by, 108
Urban Frontier, The (Wade), 2, 31, 145, 149
Usner, Daniel, 118
Vail, Albert, 109
Vandalia Company, 99
Vaudreuil, Philippe Rigaud de, 51, 64, 73
Vimont, Barthélemy, 54
Vincennes, Fort, 67, 75, 84, 176
Vincennes Library Company, 198
Virginia, 88, 90, 170, 175; founded as profit-making enterprise, 97; Pennsylvania in conflict with, 92, 95–103; Western settlers’ gravitation toward, 96. See also Ashalacoa (“Long Knife”) “tribe”
Virginia City, Nevada, 109, 113, 115, 118–19, 159, 164
voyageurs, 74
Wabanaki Indians, 70
Wade, Richard C., 2, 31, 44, 126, 145, 209 n.5, 257; on cities and western settlement, 52; on towns as spearheads of frontier, 122, 133, 149
Wampanoag Indians, 202
“warehousing cities,” 159
water rights, 129
Wea Indians, 70
Webb, Walter Prescott, 114
West, American, 3, 8, 154, 158; annexation of, 108; Asian immigrants in, 143; class structure in, 164; development of culture in, 182; emergence as distinctive region, 109; European image of, 169; frontier in historiography of, 4; global history and, 7; images of West in American culture, 166; in Mississippi Valley, 31; Virginia’s role in populating and governing, 170
West, Elliott, 122–23, 153, 203
wheat production, 109–10, 111, 112, 161
whites, 42, 44, 136, 205; Francophone, 183; frontier cities and white settlement, 167–68, 183; militiamen in New Orleans, 43; in Pacific Slope cities, 122; racial purity of, 95; whiteness, 6, 37. See also Anglo-Americans
Wilkinson, Gen. James, 41
Williams, Raymond, 4
Wingenund, 94 (caption)
Winship, Michael, 196
Wisekaukautshe (Piedfroid [Cold Foot]), 74
women: Catholicism embraced by Native women, 62; city as frontier for, 117; single women in American West, 116; as victims in Dunmore’s War, 101, 102; violence and, 118; wives of French colonial officials, 71–72
Wong Kee Jun v. Seattle, 141
Wood, Peter, 35
Worcester (Mass.), town of, 154
working class, 29, 134, 136, 164
World War II, 142
Yakuts, 124
Yellow Creek Massacre, 100, 102, 103
Yellow Hand, 122
Yellowstone Expedition, 185
Yesler, Henry, 127
Young, Mary Gamble, 141–42
zones of emergence or transition, 150–51