Page numbers refer to the print edition.
Page numbers in italic indicate illustrations.
Adams, Tasha, 236
African Americans, 88, 89, 97–98, 110, 164
agriculture, 37, 74–79, 101, 151–52, 188–90
Alabama, 78
Alaska, 181
Alaska Native students, 21–22, 27–28, 30, 31, 33, 41, 50, 51, 104–6, 148
Alcatraz Island, 186, 220, 231, 232
Alger, Horatio, Jr., 42
American Indian Defense Association (AIDA), 197
American Indian Development (AID) project, 20, 213–19, 227, 231–32
American Indian Institute (AII), 101, 119; campus of, 99–101; Clouds’ running of, 18, 72, 91, 109–16, 120, 131, 133, 134, 196, 227; curriculum at, 100–101, 108–9, 120, 122, 144, 186, 248n84; founding of, 17, 73, 98–99, 106; fund-raising for, 97–98; Haskell modeled after, 137; as hub, 115; influence of, 232; students at, 100–101, 107, 120, 222. See also education
American Indian Magazine, 72–73
American Negro Academy, 64
Amerindian, 217
Ancient Society (Morgan), 39–40
Anderson, Kim, 200
Anderson, Samuel, 134–35
Andrus, Miss, 109
animals, 148, 159, 166, 170–71, 173–75, 177
anthropology, 63–65, 130, 162, 209, 213
Apache Indians, 18, 33, 71, 73, 75–79, 165, 207, 208, 213, 218
Arapaho Indians, 33
Arrow company, 213
assimilation: and cultural identity, 4, 64–65, 79; by education, 6, 9, 12–13, 32, 34, 88, 109, 135–36, 215; means of resisting, 7–8, 15, 69, 198, 209; and Native humanity, 14; Natives complicit in, 96–97; by religion, 7, 13, 15, 61–62; U.S. policies for, 9–12, 139, 146, 153, 199; and Wild West shows, 160; and women’s organizations, 164, 198, 216. See also citizenship; settler colonialism
Assiniboine Indians, 93
Associated Press, 212
Association of Tribal Archives, Libraries, and Museums, 241n74
Auburn Seminary, 63
Australia, 10
Ayala, Felipe Huaman Poma de, 248n83
Babcock, Omar L., 19, 151, 187, 194
Bacone College, 147
Baldwin, Marie, 72
Band of Mercy, 35
Barnhart, Andrew, 189, 190, 191
Bear Clan, 240n73
Beaver, Curtis, 107
Bellinger, R. A., 78
Bender, Albertus, 81, 83, 85–87
Bender, Albertus (son), 81
Bender, Charles Albert, 81, 86, 97, 224
Bender, Frank, 81
Bender, Fred, 81
Bender, George, 81
Bender, James, 81
Bender, Marie, 97
Bennett, Henry Hamilton, 9
Berry Schools, 116
Blackfeet Reservation, 91–92
Blackfoot Indians, 213
Blackhawk, John, 154
Blackhawk, Ned, 236
Blowsnake, Sam, 5–6
Blue Eagle, Ace, 228
Blue Earth River, 24
Blue Ridge Mountains, 151
boarding schools: abuses at, 19, 84, 87, 90, 99, 121–26, 134–35, 144, 206, 234; assimilation through, 6, 7, 9, 12–13, 135–36; closing of, 146; curriculum at, 37, 64, 68, 88, 99, 122, 132–34, 136, 137; Elizabeth Cloud’s visits to, 219; first established, 93; Henry Cloud at, 32–34; hubs through, 93; in Philadelphia, 86–87; settler colonialism in, 53, 88, 95–97, 104, 157, 163; sexism in, 99, 107, 111; women’s clubs compared with, 198. See also education; Meriam Report; specific schools; U.S. government
Bomberry, Victoria, 206
Bonneville Dam, 175–78
Bonnin, Gertrude. See Zitkala-Sa
Boston, 93
Bounds, Doris, 189–90
Brennan, J. P., 168
Brigham City UT, 213
Brigham Young University, 221
Bronson, Ruth Muskrat, 213, 214, 223, 228
Brookings Institution Institute for Government Research, 121
Brosius, Samuel, 76
Brown, Anson, 26
Browning MT, 92
Bruce, H. E., 242n11
Buchannan, Harold, 97, 147, 148
Bureau of Indian Affairs (BIA): and Apache land rights, 75, 77; assimilation efforts of, 7, 160; commissioners of, 19, 221–23, 227; educational authority of, 89; Elizabeth Cloud with, 90–93; Henry Cloud as commissioner of, 121–22, 126–31, 133–34; Henry Cloud’s criticism of, 109, 146, 151, 152, 153; Henry Cloud’s employment with, 19, 116, 133, 143, 150, 152–54, 187–91, 193; Henry Cloud’s speech to, 34; holding of Umatilla land, 151; investigative survey of, 120, 121, 122–26; mission of, 13; and Native fishing rights, 175, 179, 181; Native leadership in, 220–23; and Paiutes’ land dispute, 214; tribal lists of, 193–94; and tribal sovereignty, 146, 152, 213; and tribal termination, 199, 209; Winnebagoes’ petitions to, 68, 139. See also U.S. government
Butterfield, Raleigh, 175
Butterfield, Ramona Cloud, 73, 117, 166, 204
Butterfield, Robin, 2, 26, 236
Cahill, Cathleen, 4, 15, 130–31, 153
California State University, Fresno, 187
Cameron State of Agriculture, 78
Campbell, Roberta, 147
Canada, 82
capitalism: Henry Cloud’s encouragement of, 142–44; and hunting and fishing rights, 177, 180, 183–85; and Indian performances, 158–60, 170–71; on land allotments, 74; and settler colonialism, 9, 10, 13–14, 169
Carlisle Indian School, 13, 32, 68–69, 88, 93, 96, 97, 99
Carmen (surname unknown), 92–93, 94
Carpenter Hall, 90
Carter, C. D., 77
Casas, Bartolomé de Las, 14
Cassiman, Francis, 26
A Century of Dishonor (Jackson), 226
Chaat, Robert, 100
“Charter of Indian Rights,” 215–16
Chayskagah. See White Buffalo
Chemawa Indian School, 193
Chetco Indians, 193
Chippewa Indians, 202, 224, 255n17
Chiricahua Apache Indians. See Apache Indians
Christianity: assimilation through, 7, 13, 15; compared with Ho-Chunk spirituality, 29–32, 55, 56, 60, 63, 67; of Elizabeth Cloud, 20, 92, 98, 197, 202, 206–7, 217; of Henry Cloud, 21, 26–27, 34–36, 54, 69, 98, 124, 242n27; and identity, 4; of Oklahoma Natives, 51; Roes’ reinforcement of, 56, 57; in schools, 17, 38, 39, 46, 51–52, 65, 83, 89, 101, 102, 116, 234; and settler colonialism, 9, 61–62, 67, 95, 156–57
Christian Science Monitor, 202
citizenship: and “Charter of Indian Rights,” 215–16; and Christianity, 157; and cultural pluralism, 66–67, 109, 120, 136–37; definition of Native cultural, 3–4; Friends of the Indian for, 72; Natives’ right to, 47, 196–97, 199, 209, 210, 212, 217, 222, 228–29; Natives’ work for, 14, 17, 20, 139; of Native women, 164; in schools, 122; and tribal termination, 214–15. See also assimilation; settler colonialism
civilization hierarchy: at boarding schools, 64, 68, 89–90; Natives’ place in, 9–10, 13, 14, 39–40, 46–47, 53–54, 72, 162–63
civil rights, 207–8. See also Native Americans: activism of; Red Power movement
Clapp, Moses E., 78
Cloud, Elizabeth Bender, 94, 102; admiration of husband, 93, 148; at AII, 109–13, 116, 119; appearance of, 197, 228; archives of, 1–2, 236; as commissioner of Indian Affairs, 222; culture and identity of, 4, 5, 71–72, 84–85, 196–97, 207, 208, 210–11, 215, 217, 228, 233; European trip of, 211–12; family-tribal history of, 82–83; at Hampton Institute, 89; and husband’s buffalo blanket, 175; and husband’s illness and death, 165–66, 194, 201; and husband’s white family, 59, 111–12; illness and death of, 228; as Indian princess, 202, 255n17; as intellectual, 14, 15, 90, 93, 96–97, 108, 172, 186–87, 211, 232; and land allotments, 79–80; life’s work of, 2–3, 18–20, 196–97, 228–29, 231–35; marriage of, 54, 56, 71–73, 97, 120, 235, 244n78; as Mother of the Year, 19, 20, 165, 196, 200–209, 203; as nurse, 92; in Oregon, 151, 153, 170, 176, 193, 194, 195; personal characteristics of, 164–65, 201–4, 206, 229; retirement of, 227, 228; as teacher, 91–95, 99; in Tomah WI, 147; tribal affiliation of, 240n73
Cloud, Henry II, 73, 113, 114, 118, 131–32
Cloud, Henry Roe, 22, 44, 94, 102, 118, 119, 148; admiration of wife, 97, 172; appearance of, 37, 47, 145, 154, 155; archives of, 1–2; athleticism of, 43–46, 147, 150, 166; attitude toward work, 40–43, 106–7, 142–43; birth date of, 26, 242n11; criticism of, 111–12, 153–54; culture and identity of, 4, 5, 21, 25–27, 30–32, 35, 38, 41, 45–51, 56–61, 64–65, 68–70, 73, 80–81, 96, 104–7, 112, 146, 147, 151, 157, 167, 170, 175, 185, 190, 233, 240n73, 242n27; as father, 115–16, 117, 205; film about, 236; at Hahnemann Hospital, 92–93; honoring of, 147, 161, 228; horses of, 148, 159, 166; illness and death of, 165–68, 194, 195, 200, 201; as intellectual, 14, 15, 68–70, 78, 79, 105, 106, 156–57, 170, 174, 185–87, 194–95, 232; life’s work of, 2–3, 195, 231, 234, 235; marriage of, 56, 71–73, 80, 97, 112, 120, 235, 244n78; name of, 17, 25–26, 112, 167, 235–36; as orphan, 36, 55, 167; political savvy of, 138–39; relationship with mother-in-law, 81; resistance of, 18, 19, 233; self-support of, 38, 42–47, 50–51, 55, 57, 61, 65, 97–98; working relationship with wife, 109–11, 202, 204–6; writing of, 166
Clow, Richmond, 146
“clown stories.” See tricksters
Cody, Buffalo Bill, 158–60
Collier, John: as GFWC agent, 197; Henry Cloud’s complaint to, 157–58, 160–62; and IRA, 139, 146; and leadership of Indian Affairs, 129, 130, 133, 220; as medal nominee, 147
Collier’s, 72
Colony OK, 73
Columbia River, 172, 175–80, 185, 191
Columbus OH, 72
Commission on Organization of the Executive Branch of the Government (Hoover Commission), 199
Commission on the Reorganization of Secondary Education, 99
competency, 141–42
Competency Commissions, 103–4
Conner, Gilbert, 156
contact zone, 6–7
Cook Indian Training School, 219
Coonts, Harry, 100–104
Cooperstown NY, 224
Coquille Indians, 193
Corbert, Lillie, 189
Cornell, Stephen, 190
Court of Indian Affairs, 144
Critchlow, Donald, 130
Crossley Hall dormitory, 46
Crow Creek Reservation, 24
Crumbo, Woody, 222
Crystal NM, 218
cultural pluralism, 66–67, 109, 120, 136–37, 139–40, 146, 153, 199, 215
culture: Clouds’ criticism of Native, 92; dispossession of Native, 10, 13; and identity, 4–5, 64–65, 209, 232–33, 237n12; and land allotments, 74; presentations of Native American, 161–63, 165, 172; preservation of Native, 66–67, 88–90, 93, 104–9, 120, 122, 136–37; through stories, 5–8
Curry, James E., 214
Curry, Reginald, 221
Curtis, Charles, 228
Curtis, Edward, 9
Custer, George Armstrong, 43
Dakota Indians, 24, 37. See also Sioux Indians
Dale, Edward, 126–30
The Dalles OR, 156
Dawes Allotment Act: and Apache land case, 76; effect on Umatilla tribes, 151; Henry Cloud’s opposition to, 19, 140, 144, 234; land dispossession through, 104, 146; purpose of, 9, 12, 74; and women’s land rights, 80. See also land
Decora, Angel, 92–93
Deganawidah-Quetzacoatl University, 253n70
Densmore, Francis, 147
Densmore, Ruth, 4
Denver CO, 221–22
Des Moines IA, 111
Dickson, Elsie, 170–71
Dixon, Phil, 219
doubleness: as defense against racism, 7, 15, 18, 21, 56; Elizabeth Cloud’s use of, 20, 95–97, 216; Henry Cloud’s use of, 27, 29–31, 33, 40, 61–62, 64, 66–67, 69, 79, 163, 183; in trickster stories, 6, 23, 233–34
Douglass, Frederick, 42
Duncan (roommate, surname unknown), 49–50, 62
Eastern Oregon State University at LaGrand, 165
Eastman, Charles E., 72, 147, 228
Edmonds, Penelope, 182
education: of Elizabeth Cloud, 81, 83–86; Elizabeth Cloud’s advocacy for, 90–91, 93–95, 151, 165, 204, 209, 219; of Henry Cloud, 21, 40, 57, 69, 77, 151; Henry Cloud’s advocacy for, 18, 23, 46–47, 64, 65, 68–69, 72, 100–101, 106, 107, 120, 132–33, 147, 162, 234; in Ho-Chunk culture, 25, 26, 28; and IRA, 144; of Natives, 11–15, 32, 88–89, 103, 106–10, 120, 186, 212, 248nn83–84; NCAI’s advocacy for, 199, 225; sexism in, 99, 107, 111, 116; tribal stories in, 108. See also American Indian Institute (AII); boarding schools
Eisenhower, Dwight D., 199, 220, 223
Ellis, Special Agent, 75
England, 212
English, Charles, 139
Ewing, Susan Noble, 26
Fairmount College, 99
family-tribal histories: analysis of, 8, 15–18; gendered settler colonialism in, 53; origins of, 1, 2, 231; sources of, 3, 234–36; tied to land, 232–33. See also kinship systems
Farmer, James, 123
Farrow, Elizie, 150
Federal Fathers and Mothers (Cahill), 130–31, 153
fee patents. See competency
feminism: in family-tribal histories, 16–18, 167, 220, 232, 235; and motherhood, 200; and settler colonialism, 8, 15; and women’s organizations, 165. See also gender
Field Foundation, 213
Findley, Rev, William T., 34–35, 40
fishing. See hunting and fishing
Flathead Reservation, 213, 224
Flatmouth, Ruth, 82
Flatmouth (chief), 82
Florida, 78
Forbes, Jack, 253n70
Ford, Clara, 202
Fort Belknap Reservation, 91, 93
Fort Berthold Reservation, 221
Fort Marion, 78
Fort Pickens, 78
Fosston MN, 81
Frazier, Lynn J., 147
Freed, Lillian Cloud, 73, 117, 118, 119, 201, 204
Freed, Michael Henry, 166
Freed-Held, Susan, 161
Freed-Rowland, Gretchen, 156, 193, 194, 236
Freire, Paulo, 104
French, 23
friendship, 35
Friends of the Indian, 63, 65, 72, 106
“From Wigwam to Pulpit” (Cloud), 26–27
Ganado AZ, 218
Gardens in the Dunes (Silko), 58
gender: in education, 83–84, 93–96, 99, 101–2, 107, 116, 204, 234–35; Elizabeth Cloud’s work regarding, 19, 20, 80, 151, 163–65, 170–72, 195, 196, 197, 217–18, 229, 232; and land allotments, 12, 74, 79–81; and NCAI leadership, 224, 227; in Ojibwe culture, 81–83, 109–10, 208, 228; and self-reliance, 38, 42–47, 51, 55, 69; and settler colonialism, 11, 52–54, 95–96, 200, 235; and tribal councils, 219–20; white vs. Native views of, 18, 21, 41, 71–72, 109, 111, 120, 157, 198, 202, 210–11. See also feminism
General Federation of Women’s Clubs (GFWC): Elizabeth Cloud’s participation in, 2, 19, 196–98, 201, 212, 224; Indian Welfare (Affairs) Committee of, 197, 198, 214, 215; and Natives’ living conditions, 137–39, 198, 211; and Oregon Trail Women’s Club, 163, 165, 172; president of, 147; and tribal termination, 200, 225–26
Genoa boarding school, 17, 32. See also boarding schools
George Washington University, 221
Giard, Margaret, 79–80
Giard, Pete, 80
Goodale, Ida Collins, 198
Good Government Club, 46
Grand Ronde–Siletz Agency, 191–94
Grange, 200
Grass Dance, 92
Great Depression, 181
Green Bay, 24
Greendeer, George, 170
Greendeer, Jon, 154
Gros Ventre Indians, 93
Hamilton, David C., 100
Hampton Literary Society, 108
Hampton Normal and Agricultural Institute: Anna Bender at, 87–88; archives of, 2; curriculum at, 99; Elizabeth Cloud at, 83, 84, 85, 87, 89–96; mission of, 88–90; students at, 109–10. See also boarding schools
Happy Canyon performances, 19, 158, 160–61, 162, 194
Hard to See, 26
Harlem MT, 93
Harper’s Magazine, 93
Harvard club, 98
Haskell boarding school, 19, 120, 122, 133–39, 227. See also boarding schools
Haskell Institute, 138
Haudenosaunee (Iroquois), 45, 104–5
Held, Susan Freed, 236
Henry Roe Cloud School, 227
Hensley, Albert, 139
Hensley, Fred, 33–34
Hertzberg, Hazel, 14, 211, 215
Hess, Farmer, 139
Hewitt, John N. B., 147
Hinzo, Angel, 170
Ho-Chunk Indians, 145; class markers among, 154; constitution of, 145; culture of, 4, 18, 21–22, 25–30, 58–59, 69–70, 79, 104–9, 113, 166, 167, 232–33, 240n73; doubleness speech of, 163; funding of film, 236; Henry Cloud’s advocacy for, 19, 21; as intellectuals, 93; and settler colonialism, 9; spirituality of, 29–32, 58; storytelling by, 5–7, 18, 27–29, 47–50, 108, 216, 233–34; studies of, 15, 170, 174; tribal territory of, 2, 23–25, 67, 232. See also Winnebago Tribe of Nebraska
Ho-Chunk Language Renaissance Program, 107
Ho-Chunk Medicine Lodge, 55, 67
Hoover, Herbert, 133
Hoover Commission, 199
Hope College, 101
Houston TX, 212
hubs: AID summer workshops as, 214; American Indian Magazine as tool of, 73; Clouds’ use of, 18, 20, 23, 25, 27–28, 30, 45, 59, 69, 77–78, 80–81, 84, 85, 90, 119–20, 166–68, 207–9, 228, 231–33; definition of, 4–5; Native Western Hemispheric, 206; NCAI as, 199, 210, 211, 214, 224, 225, 227; nongeographic, 74; and schools, 93, 100, 108; and storytelling, 49, 60–61, 83, 207; symbol of Ho-Chunk, 175; and tribal councils, 219; women’s organizations as, 151, 165, 197
Hughes, Edward Roe Cloud, 166
Hughes, Marion Cloud, 102, 117, 118; at AII, 100, 119; and brother’s death, 132; correspondence with mother, 218; education of, 204; family-tribal history of, 1–2, 73, 82–83, 208, 236; on father at Haskell, 134; on father at Yale, 47; and father’s illness and death, 166, 168, 194; on father with Indian Service, 146, 151, 152, 153, 156; on Ho-Chunk language, 113–15; naming of son, 167; as “show Indian,” 62; work of, 228
humor, 22, 23, 28, 29, 47, 49–50, 69, 148
Hunter, Etta, 57, 113, 114, 115, 118
Hunter, John, 33, 57, 113–15, 114, 118, 132
Hunter family, 232
Hunters Point AZ, 218
hunting and fishing, 19, 151, 152, 156, 172–86, 231
Hyde, Ethel, 54
Iapi Oave. See Word Carrier
Illinois, 24
Independence Hall, 90
Indian Claims Commission, 192
Indian Council Fire of Chicago, 147, 212–13
Indian New Deal, 199
Indian Reorganization Act: government’s failure to implement, 153; Henry Cloud’s work on, 3, 18–19, 63, 120, 137, 139–49, 234; and Meriam Report, 121; and tribal sovereignty, 105, 152; at Umatilla Reservation, 188, 190–91
Indian Rights Association, 72, 76, 77
Indians in Unexpected Places (Deloria), 17
Intermountain Indian School, 213
International Mothers’ Digest, 204
Iowa, 24
Iowa Indians, 138
Iroquois. See Haudenosaunee (Iroquois)
Iverson, Peter, 4
Jackson, Helen Hunt, 226
Jicarilla Apache Reservation, 165
Johnson, Lyndon, 228
Johnson, M. A., 175
Jones, D., 93
Jones, Tom, 170
Joseph, Chief, 228
Juliana, Queen of Holland, 211–12
Kansas, 137–38, 224. See also Wichita KS
Kansas Federation of Women’s Clubs, 138
Kash Kash, James, 189
Kennedy, E. Jean, 38
Kensington MD, 131
Kickapoo Indians, 138
kinship systems: adoption in, 57–59, 113; and fishing rights, 178, 180; and Ho-Chunk naming, 25; importance to Henry Cloud, 167–68; and land allotments, 74; and settler colonialism, 11, 52–56, 157, 235. See also family-tribal histories
Kiowa-Comanche-Apache reservation lands, 75
Kirkham, Art, 143
Klamath Indians, 224
Klickitat River, 185–86
Lac Courte Oreilles band, 208
LaFlesche, Rosa B., 72
La Follette Bennett, Robert, 227
LaFrances, Francis, 193–94
Lake Geneva, 98
Lake Mohonk, 72
Lake Winnebago, 24
Lakota Indians, 24, 97. See also Sioux Indians
LaMere, Moses, 107
land: Apaches’ rights to, 75–79, 207, 208; English dispossession of, 168–69; Ho-Chunk ownership of, 24, 147; Indian culture tied to, 59–60, 74, 84–85, 177, 206–7, 232–33; money from allotment of, 41, 140–43; ownership in Umatilla River Valley, 151–52, 177–78, 183–85, 188–90; of Pawnees, 102–4; recovery of stolen, 214; settler colonial view of, 9–10, 12–14, 96, 125–26, 139–41, 157, 160, 161, 225, 226, 234, 250n45; taxation of Indian, 63, 64, 67–68, 141, 142, 199; U.S. policy on Indian ownership of, 130, 139–46, 199–200, 209; women’s rights to, 79–80, 82. See also Dawes Allotment Act
language: at AII, 108; of Elizabeth Cloud, 56, 81, 85, 86, 208; at federal boarding schools, 13, 32, 34, 37, 66, 89, 137; of Henry Cloud, 21, 33, 42, 68–69, 113–15; of Hunters, 113, 115; preservation of Native, 157
Laslay, Walter, 100
Lavina (surname unknown), 92–93
Lawson, Roberta Campbell, 198
Lee-Smith, David, 170
LeFlore, Louie, 198
Lewis, Meriwether, 160, 222, 223
Lincoln, Helene, 107
Lincoln Institute, 86–87
Little, E. C., 137–38
Littlebear, Minnie, 29
Lowe, Truman, 170
Lyon, Scott, 17
Lytle, Clifford, 105–6
Mack, Connie, 224
Macy NE, 34
Maddox, Lucy, 3–4, 14, 15, 63, 96, 245n3
Marshall Plan, 211
Martin, George, 100
Martinez, David, 4
Mashunpeewingah (Good Feather Woman), 26
Mayetta jurisdiction, 138
McCall, Dorothy, 160
McConaughy, James, 41
McCormick family, 98
McGregor, Superintendent, 123–24
McKay, Douglas, 200, 201, 220–21, 222
McKenzie, Dr., 93
McKenzie, Fayette A., 130
McKinley, Francis, 221
McNeil, Chris, 236
McNickle, D’Arcy, 213
Menominee Indians, 224
Meriam Report: focus of, 122–26; Henry Cloud’s writing of, 3, 18–19, 33, 99, 120, 121, 131–34, 143, 144, 234. See also boarding schools
Mescalero NM, 75, 76, 77, 78, 218
mescal religion, 58
Messer, David, 4
Mexicans, 43
Mexican Springs NM, 218
Minnesota, 24, 83, 202, 255n17
Minthorn, Antone, 150
Miranda, Deborah, 238n34
Monahan, A. C., 147
Montana, 224
Moody, Rev. Dwight L., 38
Morales, Reynaldo, 236
Mother of the Year award, 19, 20, 165, 196, 200–209, 203, 212
Mount Edgecumbe boarding school, 27–28, 50, 104–6, 148
Mount Vernon barracks, 78
Museum of Natural History (New York City), 90
Myer, Dillon S., 209, 214, 220, 223, 235
My People the Sioux (Standing Bear), 97
Nash, Philleo, 227
National Conference of Social Workers, 200
National Congress of American Indians (NCAI): and AID project, 213, 214, 217, 218, 219; assembly in Denver, 221–22; “Charter of Indian Rights,” 215; Elizabeth Cloud’s role in, 2, 19, 20, 186, 196–201, 209, 210; leadership of, 223–24; and tribal sovereignty, 210, 211, 220, 221, 225–27
National Indian Youth Council, 214
Native American Church, 58
Native Americans: activism of, 186, 198, 214, 227; distrust of Henry Cloud, 133, 134, 153–54, 188, 189, 195, 258n3; health of, 36, 90–92, 137–39, 140, 169, 171, 192, 219, 250n45; history of, 168–70; humanity of, 14, 104, 160, 171; international relationships of, 204–6, 211, 212; leadership of, 101–2; modern vs. traditional, 7–9, 38, 42–43, 106, 143, 152, 154, 164, 165, 172, 198, 202–4, 212, 217, 238n34; reform of, 197–98; rights to privacy, 16, 235, 240n73; self-sufficiency of, 65–66, 104–5, 174, 213; spirituality of, 29–32, 55, 56, 60, 63, 67, 206–7, 212; stereotypes of, 43, 45, 50–53, 58, 61, 62, 75, 90, 95, 156–58, 160–61, 169–71, 174, 207–9; as teachers, 100–101; vanishing of, 61–62, 209, 226
Native Women’s Action Council, 220
Navajo Indians, 131, 213, 218–19
Nebraska, 2, 23–25, 32, 34, 36, 67–68, 154, 224
Neuberger, Richard, 207
Nevada, 214
New Jersey, 42
Newport OR, 192
New York City, 49–50, 90, 93, 208–9, 212, 219
New York Times, 214
Nicolet, Jean, 23
Noble, James, 26
North, Anne Woesha Cloud, 102, 117, 118; activism of, 186; at AII, 99, 107, 115, 119; family-tribal history of, 1–2, 15, 53, 73, 81–83, 208, 215, 231, 236; on father as commissioner, 129–30; and father’s heart attack, 165; on Ho-Chunk identity, 26; and Native ceremonial traditions, 55, 67, 92; Native hub of, 231, 232; on Natives’ distrust of father, 258n3; studies of, 170, 186–87, 204, 205; at Umatilla Reservation, 153
North, Robert, 110–11, 133, 134, 153–54, 236
Northfield Mount Herman school, 38–47, 55. See also boarding schools
Northwest, Inter-mountain, and Montana Superintendents’ Conference, 144–45, 182
Northwest Neighbors, 143
Nunn, Nellie, 37
Oberlin College, 63
Office of Indian Affairs. See Bureau of Indian Affairs (BIA)
Ohlerking, William, 100
Ojibwe Indians: culture of, 4, 18, 84–85, 110–11, 196, 197, 200, 204, 206–7, 217, 232–33; Elizabeth Cloud honored by, 202; Ho-Chunks near, 24; hubs of, 93, 175, 207, 208; land rights of, 79–81; storytelling by, 5, 6, 7, 207, 216, 233–34; studies of, 15; women in society of, 20, 81–82, 95, 208, 211, 219–20, 224, 228
Oklahoma, 18, 51, 59, 73–78, 197, 218
Oklahoma State University, 101
Okmulgee OK, 134
Omaha Cession, 103
Omaha Reservation, 139
Opechancanough (Powhatan chief), 168
Oregon: Clouds buried in, 228; Clouds’ work in, 19, 191, 198; compensation for tribal land in, 192–93; Mother of the Year award in, 200, 201; Native fishing rights in, 178, 181; racism in, 154–56; tribal termination in, 224
Oregon City Presbyterian Church, 200
Oregon Federation of Women’s Clubs, 163, 170, 201
Oregonian, 211
Oregon State University, 165
Oregon Trail Women’s Club, 19, 151, 163–65, 171–72, 196, 200, 201
Oswego Women’s Club, 200
Otoe Indians, 33
Ottipoby, James, 101
Page, Elizabeth (Bessie), 53, 59, 165–70, 174, 201–2
Pahuska OK, 75
Paiute Indians. See Pyramid Lake Paiute Indians
Palestine, 10
Parker, Ely, 227
Pawnee Indians, 101–2
Pendleton OR, 144–45, 150–58, 159, 165, 168, 172
Pendleton Round-Up, 152, 157–60, 159, 161, 161–62, 170–71, 194, 235
Pennsylvania, 93
Peterson, Helen, 219, 223–24, 226–27, 228
Philadelphia, 86–87, 90, 92, 97, 131
Philadelphia Athletics, 97, 224
Phillips Petroleum, 221
Picard, Sonny, 150
Pillager band, 82
Pine Ridge Reservation, 92, 140–43, 146
Pipestone Industrial School, 83–84, 87. See also boarding schools
Plains Indians, 91
Pocahontas, 212
“Point Four Program,” 214
Porter, Alice Mallory, 26, 36, 232
Porter, Joy, 4
Portland League of Woman Voters, 228
Portland OR, 166, 168, 172, 193
Post Dispatch (St. Louis), 206
Potawatomi Indians, 33, 138, 222, 224
Powhatan, 169
Pratt, Mary Louise, 7
Pratt, Richard H., 9, 13, 32, 68–69, 72, 93
Presbyterian Church, 36, 63, 156, 200
Pueblo Indians, 213
Pyramid Lake Paiute Indians, 214
racism: Elizabeth Cloud’s resistance to, 206, 207; against Henry Cloud, 19, 39–40, 54, 97–98, 112, 121–22, 126–31; Natives’ defense against, 7, 14, 18, 19, 51; in Oregon, 154–61; of Pendleton Round-Up, 171; of Richard Pratt, 68–69; self-made men against, 42
railroads, 12–14
Ramirez, Gilbert, 236
Ramirez, Lucio, 236
Ramirez, Mirasol, 236
Razier, Mary, 102, 119; and daughters’ education, 85–87; influence of, 56, 81–83, 100, 111, 200, 208, 224, 232
Red Banks WI, 23
Red Elk, Margarite, 150
Red Lake Ojibwe, 202
Red Man, 93
Red Power movement, 186, 214, 225, 232. See also civil rights
Reel, Estelle, 12
Republican Party, 133
Return of the Native (Cornell), 190
Rice, Charlie, 26
Rice, Fred, 26
Riverside CA, 219
Rock Creek, 178
Rock River, 24
Roe, Mary: with Friends of the Indian, 63; Ho-Chunk name of, 59; relationship with Henry Cloud, 17, 51–59, 68, 69, 97–98, 111–13, 167, 235–36, 240n73, 244n78
Roe, Walter: adoption of, 58–59; on Apache situation, 73; on Henry Cloud’s speech topic, 62; relationship with Henry Cloud, 17, 57, 69, 167, 235–36, 240n73; school named for, 98–99; school of, 51
Rogers, Will, 228
Roosevelt, Eleanor, 165
Roosevelt, Franklin D., 133, 201
Roosevelt, Theodore, 43
Rosaldo, Renato, 3
Rosebud Reservation, 121–23, 146
Ross, Elsie, 139
Saint Augustine school (Winnebago NE), 202
San Carlos Reservation, 219
San Francisco State University, 120, 187
Santee Mission School, 32, 36–37, 40, 133. See also boarding schools
Sarett, Lew, 147
Sawmill AZ, 218
Scott, James, 239n37
The Search for an American Identity (Hertzberg), 211
Self-Help (Smiles), 37–38
Sells, Cato, 75
Seminole OK, 134
Sepúlveda, Juan Ginés de, 14
Sequoyah, 228
settler colonialism: at boarding schools, 53, 88, 95–97, 104, 124–26; and conservation, 172–74, 182, 185–86; description of, 8–11, 168–69, 240n51; effect on Ho-Chunks, 23; Elizabeth Cloud’s resistance to, 71–72, 85, 197, 207–9, 216, 226, 228; and gender, 11, 52–54, 95–96, 200, 235; Henry Cloud’s resistance to, 22, 23, 64, 68–69, 96, 104, 105, 156–57, 180, 185; of IRA, 144, 146; and land dispossession, 80, 139–41, 182, 214; of Mary Roe, 52, 55, 56, 63, 167; Natives complicit with, 10–11, 61–63, 134, 153, 164, 188, 189, 195, 198, 209–11, 215, 233, 258n3; Native students’ resistance to, 36, 124, 134–35; and racism, 39, 40; and religion, 67; and storytelling, 5–6, 234; studies about, 16–17; in Umatilla River Valley, 152; of U.S. policies, 12–13, 19, 21, 33, 63, 225, 234, 235; and Wild West shows, 160–63, 170–72; and women’s organizations, 163, 165; zones of, 6–7. See also assimilation; citizenship
Seufert Brothers Company, 180
Shakespeare, William, 108
shape-shifting, 7, 18, 20, 23, 49, 197, 216–17, 233
Sherman Institute, 219
Siletz OR, 192–94. See also Grand Ronde–Siletz Agency
Silko, Leslie Marmon, 58, 84–85
Simpson, Alvin, 221–22
Sinclair, Niigonwedom James, 5
Sioux Indians, 33, 36, 37, 213, 221, 223. See also Dakota Indians; Lakota Indians
Sisters School of Saint Joseph, 83
Smiles, Samuel, 37–38
Snake, George, 107
Snake, Walter, 107
Sniffen, Matthew, 76
Society of American Indians (SAI): Clouds’ participation in, 2, 18, 65, 197, 211; cofounders of, 130; and cultural citizenship, 3, 14; as hub, 71; and Indian Service, 91; and land allotments, 77–80; mission of, 63–64, 72–73, 245n3; and peyote use, 92; strategies of, 197, 217
Standing Bear, Luther, 97
Starr, Robert C. “Charlie,” 101, 137
Stechi, Lecie, 198
Steinmetz, Paul, 242n27
St. Michaels AZ, 218
storytelling: at AII, 108–9; by Elizabeth Cloud, 83, 207; by Henry Cloud, 21–22, 47–50, 59–61, 69, 108; in Ho-Chunk culture, 27–29; resistance through, 5–7, 18, 20, 233–34. See also tricksters
Swan Island, 193
Taft, William and Robert, 50, 130
Ten Eyck, 61–62
Tetzloff, Jason, 4
Thies, Sophie Van S., 219
Thompson, Tommy, 179–80
Thorpe, Jim, 228
Thunderbird Clan, 25, 58–59, 73
Tillamook Indians, 193
Tomah WI, 147
Too-too-toNey Indians, 193
The Tragedy of the Sioux (Standing Bear), 97
treaties: abrogation of, 198, 209, 225–26; on Ho-Chunk land, 23–24; on hunting and fishing rights, 183–86; and Pawnee land, 102–3; and reservation system, 182. See also U.S. government
tribal sovereignty: and AID project, 213, 217; Clouds’ work for, 104–6, 151, 190, 196–97, 210, 211, 212, 215–17, 219, 221, 226, 228–29, 232; conflict associated with, 190–91, 209–10, 211, 214–17; and IRA, 143–46, 152, 188; and language, 66; and Red Power movement, 214; and taxation of Indian land, 63; and treaties, 186; and women’s organizations, 198; women’s role in, 219–20
tribal termination: Elizabeth Cloud’s opposition to, 196, 197, 220–21; Elizabeth Cloud’s program concerning, 214–15; government policies on, 209, 223, 224, 227; NCAI’s resistance to, 198–200, 225–26
The Trickster (Radin), 5
tricksters: stories about, 29; strategies of, 8, 18, 23, 31, 40, 42, 49, 165, 197, 216, 239n37. See also storytelling
Truman, Harry, 199
Tsotsie, Stella, 219
Tulee, Sampson, 181–86
Turtle and Hare stories, 29
Uintah and Ouray Ute Indians, 221
Umatilla Indians, 151, 152, 172
Umatilla Reservation: Clouds’ work at, 19, 34, 144–46, 150–61, 155, 181, 187, 194, 195; exploitation of Natives at, 157–58; hunting and fishing at, 172–81; location of, 151; political conflict at, 187–88, 190–91; women’s organizations at, 163, 170–72
Umatilla River Valley, 151, 177–78
Umatilla Young Peoples’ Choir, 156
Umatilla (Yakima) Treaty (1855), 181, 183–86
University of California, 120, 253n70
University of Chicago, 213
University of Kansas, 204
University of Nebraska, Lincoln, 187
University of New Mexico, 165
University of Washington, 165
U.S. Constitution, 74, 105, 212
U.S. Department of the Interior, 13, 220–22, 224
U.S. government: appropriation of land, 13–14, 24, 75–79, 102–4; assimilation efforts of, 6–7, 9, 11–14, 21, 34, 63; denial of Native motherhood, 200, 206; financial support of Ho-Chunks, 67–68; Grand Ronde–Siletz claim against, 192–93; Henry Cloud’s attitude toward, 38, 65–66; Henry Cloud’s work within, 19, 139, 188, 231; investigation of abuses, 198; land provided by, 142–43; modeled after tribal organization, 105; and Native fishing rights, 175–86; Natives in, 23, 137, 227; and Ojibwe tribal leaders, 82; removals by, 6, 18, 23–25, 73–74, 102; settler colonialism of, 9–10, 234; and tribal constitutions, 144–46; and tribal termination, 199–200, 214–15, 220–21, 223–26; and Umatilla Natives, 151, 152, 189. See also boarding schools; treaties; U.S. Supreme Court
U.S. military, 13, 78, 79, 154, 160
Ussery, Roy, 101
U.S. South, 13
U.S. Supreme Court, 182, 184, 185, 192–93. See also U.S. government
Valentine, Robert G., 68
Vassar College, 54, 166, 204, 205
Virginia, 168
Voorhees, Elizabeth, 101
Waikun stories, 28–29
Walker, Allen, 170
Walla Walla Indians, 151, 172, 190
Wanblee SD, 140
War Department, 13
Warm Springs Indians, 178–81
Warrior, Clyde, 214
Washington (state), 181–82, 185, 186
Washington, Booker T., 42
Washington DC: Elizabeth Cloud in, 209, 223; government research in, 121; Henry Cloud in, 67, 76, 77, 93, 131, 133; NCAI conference in, 225–27; Pawnee rights in, 103; Pyramid Lake Paiute Indians in, 214
Washington Merry-Go-Round (newspaper column), 209
Weeks, B. D., 147
Wellesley College, 204
Western Hemispheric consciousness, 204–6, 229
West Linn OR, 193
White, Felix, Sr., 29
White Earth Reservation: Anna Bender on, 87; Elizabeth Cloud on, 18, 81, 82, 84, 206–8, 240n73; land allotments on, 79–80; Mary Razier on, 111, 232
Whitehawk, David, 107
White House Conference for Youth and Children, 201
White Mother to a Dark Race (Jacobs), 10, 163
Wichita Beacon, 99
Wichita KS, 73, 99, 113, 131, 210, 227, 232. See also Kansas
Wildlife Society, 172
Wild West Shows, 9, 19, 158–62, 194, 235
Willamette River, 193
Willamette University, 165
Williamson, Thomas, 37
Wilson, Burney O., 100
Window Rock AZ, 218
Winnebago Constitution, 145
Winnebago Industrial School, 34
Winnebago Reservation: archives of, 2; class markers in, 154; Cloud family on, 21, 23, 26, 45, 122, 175, 232, 242n11; complaints at, 139; farming on, 37; Henry Cloud’s missionary work on, 55; Hunters on, 113; loss of land on, 142; school on, 32–33
Winnebago Tribal Council, 139
Winnebago Tribe of Nebraska, 23, 67–68. See also Ho-Chunk Indians
Wisconsin, 2, 23–25, 67, 147, 154, 224
Wisconsin River, 24
Wocatse, Viola, 150
Wolfe, Patrick, 8–9
Women’s National Indian Association, 72
Worak stories, 29
Word Carrier, 37
World War II, 153, 156, 190, 209
X-Marks (Lyon), 17
Yakima Treaty. See Umatilla (Yakima) Treaty (1855)
Yale Courant, 61
The Yale Indian (Pfister), 240n73
Yale University: archives of, 2, 53, 236, 240n73; Henry Cloud at, 17, 18, 21, 47–51, 48, 52, 57, 59–63, 73, 74, 77, 79, 130, 167
Yankton Indian School, 121, 124–25
Yardley, Jonathan, 168
Yellow Cloud, 26
Young, Iris Marion, 127
Young Men’s Christian Association, 46
Zimmerman, William, 199
Zimmerman, Zelma, 227