abuse and exploitation of workers, H-2 programs and, 212–214
adverse effect wage rate (AEWR), 204
Age of Migration. See immigration
agriculture subsidies
effects of, 101–102, 105–106, 228–230
policy proposal, 232
Alabama, 77
Algeria, 37
American Civil Liberties Union (ACLU), 117, 119
amnesty programs
enforcement, 165
guiding principles of immigration law reform, 179, 182
IRCA and, 137
market-based solutions, 192
as policy option, 221, 224–225
proposed in 2006, 62
Anderson, Terry, 118
Angola, 24
Argentina, 25
Ariza, Noemi, 129
Arizona
anti-immigration sentiments, 115–119
economic consequences of policies, 127–130
historic immigration, 52
Maricopa County’s border patrols, 119–122
Maricopa County’s criminalization of immigrants, 122–125
policy failures, 130–131
Proposition 100, 125
Proposition 200, 118–119
sanctioning of employers, 125–127
state services and, 77
Arpaio, Joe, 119–121, 123, 124
Asians
international migration of, 18, 19–20, 25–26, 58
U.S. population increase of, 137
assimilation
as guiding principle, 172–173
reality of immigration and, 142
Bajadores, 125
Baker, Wayne E., 45–46
Batalova, Jeanne, 89
Benedict XVI (pope), 60
Bernstein, Jared, 207–208, 214
Beyond Smoke and Mirrors (Massey, Durand, Malone), 203
Bingaman, Jeff, 189
birthright citizenship, 36–37, 56, 180–181
Bologna family, 134
border enforcement
fences as policy option, 220, 222–223
myth of as only enforcement option, 159–160
Border Protection, Antiterrorism, and Illegal Immigration Control Act (2005), 74–75, 76
Borjas, George
on employment, 91
immigrant surplus and, 95
bracero program, 21–22, 53, 108, 136, 154, 188, 190–191, 202–204, 223–224, 226
Brazil, 25
Bush (George H. W.) administration, 28
Bush (George W.) administration, 29, 30, 75, 187, 201
enforcement and, 149–151, 154–157, 159
Calderón, Felipe, 99
California
anti-immigration laws, 75–77
burden on schools, 94
historic immigration, 52–53, 54
Mexican immigration, 55–56
Callaghy, Thomas, 101
Canada, 37
Canary Islands, 24
chain migration, 56–57, 189–190
children
birthplace and welfare eligibility, 93–94
impact of immigration laws on, 135–136, 143–146
Children of Immigrants Longitudinal Survey (CILS), 143
Chile, 98
Chinese Exclusion Act (1882), 19–20, 52, 64, 107
citizenship, 33–47
birthright, in U.S., 180–181
denial of, 40–41
equality of, 39–40
national identity concerns, 78–79
noncitizen rights, impacts on citizens, 44–47
policy changes, 33–35
rule of law and, 171–172
Civil Homeland Defense, in Arizona, 116–117
Clinton, Hillary, 102
Clinton administration, 28, 55, 187
Coalition for Comprehensive Immigration Reform (CCIR), 60
Colombia, 41
Colorado, 76
Comprehensive Immigration Reform Act (2006), 152, 153, 179–180, 195
Congressional Budget Office, 195
Congressional Research Service, 205
contract program, proposed temporary, 61–62
corn production, U.S. government subsidies and Mexican immigration, 101–102, 105–106, 228–229
Côte d’ Ivoire, 40
Council of Economic Advisers to the President, 95
crab processing industry, H-2 visa programs and, 209
crime rates, reality of immigration and, 140, 197
Crossing Arizona (film), 115–118
Cuba, 143
cultural assimilation
as guiding principle, 172–173
reality of immigration and, 142
Daniels, Roger, 20
Democratic Party, 215, 220–221
Democratic Republic of Congo, 40
deportation. See also repatriation
costs of, 94
failure of, 130
welfare programs and fear of, 141–142
Development, Relief, and Education for Alien Minors Act (DREAM Act), proposed, 145–146
Diaz-Balart, Lincoln, 143
Dillingham Commission, 20
Dobbs, Lou, 117, 130, 133, 134, 142, 146
documentation, employer fines and, 220, 223–224
Dominican Republic
international migration, 25
U.S. visa quotas, 61
dual citizenship, 34–35, 41–43
Durand, Jorge, 61–62, 78, 102, 108, 222–223
economic impacts, of immigration, 83–96
Arizona’s policies and, 127–130
benefits of immigration surplus, 94–96
diversity’s value and, 45–47
on education, 84–87, 173–174, 180, 197
on employment, 90–92
H-2 visa programs and, 214–215
historical, 83–84
low-skilled workers and, 173–178, 184–186, 193–196
national interest as guiding principle of immigration law reform, 172
on welfare programs, 92–94
economic incentives, Mexican immigration and, 97–112, 227
neoliberalism’s effects, 98–102, 109, 111
policy recommendations, 109–112
U.S. immigration policies and, 106–109
Economic Policy Institute (EPI), 207, 224, 232
education
Arizona’s Proposition 300 and, 128–129
denial of benefits, as policy option, 219, 221
economic impact of immigration, 84–87, 173–174, 180, 197
pressure on school systems, 93–94
Eisenhower, Dwight D., 65
elected office, citizenship qualifications for, 39
Emergency Immigrant Quota Act (1921), 64
Arizona’s sanctioning of employers, 125–127
economic impacts, 90–92, 127–130
enforcement and, 153–158, 161–167
fines and documentation, 220, 223–224
labor migration and national identity concerns, 78
labor shortages and H-2 visa programs, 208–210
local punitive laws, 77–78
Mexican immigration and, 27–30, 100
Mexico and NAFTA, 103–105
reality of immigration and, 140
verification programs, 231
enforcement issues. See also enforcement issues, myths about
importance of stable/functioning/enduring system, 151–152
legislative background, 148–151
enforcement issues, myths about, 152–167
employer enforcement doesn’t work, 161–164
enforcement has no effect, 158–159
enforcement is at odds with humane policy, 164–166
guest-worker programs fill jobs American don’t want, 156–158
guest-worker programs will eliminate need for enforcement, 152–154
immigration is only about enforcement, 166–167
improved enforcement means border enforcement, 159–160
temporary worker programs will be temporary, 154–156
enganchadores, 52
England. See United Kingdom
Escondido, California, 77
Espinosa, Kristin E., 227
Europe, international migration (1830–1930), 16–20
European Union, 15–16, 43, 47, 111, 138
Farmers Branch, Texas, 77
farm subsidies. See agriculture subsidies
Federation for American Immigration Reform (FAIR), 118
feedback loop
economic development and tolerance, 45–46
Hamilton/Jefferson and, 18
Félix, Martha, 126
Florida, 94
Florida, Richard, 46
food stamp programs, 93
forestry workers, H-2 visa programs and, 212–213
France
citizenship and, 37–40
international migration, 20
Franklin, Benjamin, 63–64
free markets. See neoliberalism, Mexican immigration and
French and Indian War, 17
Friedberg, Rachel M., 88
Friedman, Milton, 98
Frisch, Max, 155
Gadsden Purchase of 1853, 19
Galvis, Jesús, 41
Gans, Judith, 130
General Agreement on Tariffs and Trade (GATT), 99
Georgia, 77
Germany
citizenship and, 34–35, 37, 38
international migration, 26, 225
globalization, of immigration, 22–23, 60, 225–226
Godines, Rosa Dias, 124
Gordon, Phil, 122
Great Depression, Mexican immigration and, 52–53, 107–108
Griswold, Daniel, 86, 87, 152–153
Grogger, Jeffrey, 89
Guatemala, 25
guest-worker programs, 26, 111. See also bracero program; H-2 visa program
jobs Americans don’t want and, 156–158
need for enforcement and, 152–154
as policy option, 220, 223–224
policy proposals, 231
political party disagreements over, 221
welfare benefits and, 179–180
guiding principles, of immigration law reform, 171–182
cultural assimilation, 172–173
economic impact of low-skilled immigrants, 173–178
national interest, 172
policy considerations, 178–182
political balance, 173
rule of law, 171–172
Gutiérrez, José, 142
H-2 visa programs, 201–216
abuse/exploitation and, 212–214
economic impact, 214–215
historical context, 202–204
labor shortages and, 208–210
policy considerations, 215–216
recruitment and, 210–212
wages and, 206–208
Hagel, Chuck, 75
Hamilton, Alexander, 18
Hart-Cellar Immigration Act (1965), 53
Harvard Research in International Law project, 33
Haskins, Ron, 90
Hayek, Friedrich, 98
Hazelton, Pennsylvania, 77
health service issues, market-based solutions, 197–198, 199
Heritage Foundation, 93, 190, 194–195
Hirsi Ali, Ayaan, 41
Hispaniola. See Dominican Republic; Haiti
Homeland Security, Department of, 139–140, 144, 163–164
Homestead Act of 1862, 19
Hoover, Herbert, 65
humane policies, enforcement and, 164–166
Hunt, Jennifer, 88
Huntington, Samuel, 67, 68, 142
identity fraud, 163–164
Illegal Immigration Prevention and Apprehension Co-op (IIMPACT), 121
immigration, 15–16. See also specific countries
Age of Migration and, 15, 22–27, 58
distortions about immigrants, 133–135
of Europeans to New World (1830–1930), 16–20
of Mexicans to U.S. (1900–1965), 20–22
of Mexicans to U.S. (1970–2008), 27–30
policy considerations, 30–32
three categories of writing about, 2–3
Immigration Act (1924), 65
Immigration and Customs Enforcement (ICE), 120, 144, 145
raids as policy option, 219, 221
Immigration and Nationality Act (INA)
of 1965, 136–137
Immigration and Naturalization Service (INS), 108, 224–225
folded into Homeland Security, 139
growth of, 137
immigration law reform. See also legal issues
guiding principles, 171–182
H-2 visa program, 201–216
market-based solutions, 183–200
Immigration Policy Center (IPC), 190, 197
Immigration Reform and Control Act (IRCA), 30, 109, 190, 203, 223
amnesty programs, 137
failures of, 187–188
impact aid program, proposed, 232
import substitution industrialization (ISI) policies, of Mexico, 98–99, 100
India
citizenship and, 42
international migration, 26, 30, 57
infrastructure, immigrants’ impact on, 196–198
Inglehart, Ronald, 45–46
interest rates, Mexican immigration and, 98–99, 227
Ireland
citizenship and, 36
international migration, 17, 31, 64
Israel, 43
Italy
citizenship and, 41
international migration, 24, 31
Jacoby, Tamar, 76
Jaeger, David, 91
Japan
citizenship and, 38
international migration, 26, 52
Jefferson, Thomas, 18
Johnson, Lyndon Baines, 21
Jones-Correa, Michael, 42
Kenan Institute of Private Enterprise, 198–199
Kennedy administration, 136
Kentucky, 174
Kenya, 40
Know-Nothing Party, 18, 44, 64
Kuwait, 40
Labor, U. S. Department of, H-2 visa programs and, 204–206, 208–209, 210
landlords, local punitive laws and, 77–78
landscape workers, H-2 visa programs and, 208–209, 210
language
English as Arizona’s official, 119
national identity concerns and, 69–71
Latinos. See also specific countries
as current focus of national identity concerns, 66–67, 68
population increase, 137
risks of restrictionist policies, 74–79
Legal Arizona Workers Act, 125–127
legal issues. See also immigration law reform
Arizona’s anti-immigration policies, 115–131
dual citizenship and, 42–43
enforcement and, 149–152
enforcement myths, 152–167
undocumented workers, 133–147
legality, routes to, 220, 224, 231
LeVecke, Jason, 127–128
Liberia, 24
Libya, 24
Light, Ivan, 56
Lithuania, 41
Lopez, Erick, 134
Louisiana, 76
Malaysia, 26
Malone, Nolan, 61–62, 78, 102, 108
maquiladora sector, of Mexico, 104
Maricopa County. See Arizona
market-based policy reforms, 183–200
economic impact of unskilled workers, 184–186, 193–196
failures to curb illegal immigration, 186–187
historical context, 184
infrastructure impacts, 196–198
policy considerations, 199–200
state and local government impacts, 198–199
temporary worker programs, 187–188
visa issuance to meet labor demand, 188–190
visa issuance with mobility provision, 190–192
workers already here and, 192–193
Martin, Jack, 94
Mason, Bert, 205
Massey, Douglas, 61–62, 78, 102, 108, 222–223, 225–226, 227
McCain, John, 1–2, 39, 75, 201, 221
McLaren, Dawn, 127
Medicaid, 93
Medicare
impact of low-skilled immigrant workers on, 174–176
payments into system, 94
policy considerations, 178–182
mercantilism, immigration and, 16–17
Mexican Migration Project, 231
Mexico, 97–112. See also North American Free Trade Agreement
economic consequences of U.S. immigration policies, 106–109
historical context of emigration, 51–56, 136–138
immigration statistics, 4, 20–22, 27–30
independence from Spain and loss of territory to U.S., 19
need for policy reforms, 58–60
neoliberalism’s effects, 98–102, 109, 111, 138
policy choices and drivers of, 226–230
policy recommendations, 109–112
proposed policy changes, 60–62
social networks and, 56–57
statistics, 57
U.S. immigration policies and, 106–109
visa limits, 146
Middle East and North Africa (MENA), international migration and, 25, 26, 58
Miller, Mark, 44, 58, 60, 138, 225
minimum wage. See wages
Minuteman Project, in Arizona, 117, 120
Mishel, Lawrence, 214
Mississippi, 219
Mobuto Sese Seko, 40
Morocco
citizenship and, 37
international migration, 24, 27
Morse, Ann, 77
Mozambique, 24
Mukasey, Michael, 122
Muslim women, citizenship and, 37–38
NAFTA. See North American Free Trade Agreement
Natchez Rebellion of 1799, 19
National Bureau of Economic Research, 192
national identity, immigration and American, 63–79
assimilation and acculturation concerns, 67–74
history of concerns about, 63–66
Latinos as current focus of concern, 66–67, 68
risks of restrictionist policies, 74–79
national interest, as guiding principle, 172
National Research Council (NRC), 93, 95, 191–192, 195–196, 198
national security concerns, 139–140
nativist populism, citizenship issues, 45–47
naturalization
citizenship tests, 34
distinguished from native-birth, 39–40
lack of protection in Arizona, 126
rules governing, 36
neoliberalism, Mexican immigration and, 98–102, 109, 111, 138
New Americans: Economic, Demographic, and Fiscal Effects of Immigration, The (NRC), 191–192
New York, 94
Ngai, Mae, 64
Nixon administration, 27–28
noncitizen rights
impact on citizens, 44–47
North American Free Trade Agreement (NAFTA), viii–ix, 30–31, 51, 111
immigration after, 5, 28–30, 55
Mexican immigration and, 28–29, 102–106, 228–230
Mexican immigration and neoliberalism, 99, 102, 109, 111
neglected planning for labor migration, 138–140
successes of, 103
North Carolina, 94
Northwest Ordinance of 1787, 16–20
Nyantekyi, Sharon, 144–145
Operation Gatekeeper, 138, 158
Oregon, 94
O’Reilly, Bill, 117, 133, 134, 146
O’Toole, Thomas, 125
Pacheco, Abel, 126
Partido de Acción Nacional (PAN), 99
Partido Revolucionario Institucional (PRI), 99, 101–102
passports, first used for national affiliation, 36
Pearce, Russell, 128–129
Pennsylvania, 77
Peralta, Félix Alonso, 125
Perot, Ross, 105
Personal Responsibility and Work Opportunity Reconciliation Act (1996), 196, 199
Pew Hispanic Center, 4–5, 86, 93, 118, 142
Philippines
citizenship and, 41
international migration, 23, 26, 30, 57
Pierre, Sonia, 41
Pinochet, Augusto, 98
pipe fitters, H-2 visa programs and, 213–214
Plyler v. Doe, 123
policy proposals. See also market-based
policy reforms
choices based on immigration causes, 230–233
enumerated and evaluated, 219–225
immigration as global issue and, 225–226
Mexican immigration drivers and choices, 226–230
politics, immigration and, 23
guiding principles of immigration law reform, 173
Mexican immigration in neoliberal era, 100–101
national identity concerns, 72–73, 75–76
Polk administration, 136
population growth, economic impacts and, 85–86, 196–197
privatization, in Mexico, 99–100
Proposition 100, Arizona, 125
Proposition 187, California, 56, 75, 118
Proposition 200, Arizona, 118–119
Proposition 300, Arizona, 119, 128–129
PUEBLO, 122
push and pull factors, 97
quotas
policy proposals, 232
Quota Acts of 1921 and 1924, 20
Ranch Rescue, in Arizona, 116
REAL ID Act (2005), 263
recruitment of employees, H-2 visa programs and, 210–212
Refugee Act (1980), 58
religious groups
immigration reform and, 59–60
national identity concerns and, 70–71
Reno, Janet, 55
repatriation
forced, as policy option, 219, 221–222
voluntary, as policy option, 219, 222
Republican Party, 1–2, 18, 75, 221
Republic of Korea, 26
Roman Catholic Church, 59–60
Roosevelt (Franklin) administration, 108
Ros-Lehtinen, Ileana, 143
Rubio-Goldsmith, Raquel, 131
Ruíz, Nelson, 145
rule of law, as guiding principle, 171–172
Rumbaut, Rubén, 143
Russia, 225
Saban, Dan, 121
sales taxes, illegal immigrants and, 94
Sanderson, Steven, 105
school systems. See education
Schwarzenegger, Arnold, 39
Select Commission on Immigration and Refugee Policy (SCIRP), 28, 30
Sensenbrenner, James, 74
Simcox, Chris, 116–117
Singer, Audrey, 232
skill levels, economic impact of immigration and, 84–87
Smith, Roger, 78–79
smuggling, of humans, 123–125, 159
social networks, Mexican immigration and, 56–57, 136, 154
Social Security benefits
contributions to, 94
H-2 visa programs and, 205
impact of low-skilled immigrant workers on, 174–176, 195–196
need for additional workers to pay for, 86
policy considerations, 178–182, 223
sociocultural issues, national identity and, 67–74
Somalia, 24
Sosa, Lionel, 75
Southern Poverty Law Center, 116
Spain
international migration, 24, 25, 31
noncitizen voting rights, 43
U.S. expansionism and, 18–19
Special Immigrant Juvenile Status (SIJS) visa, 124
state and local governments
economic impact on, 198–199
national identity concerns, 76–78
State Children’s Health Insurance Program (SCHIP), 93
Suárez, Xavier, 143
sub-Saharan Africa, 24
Sweden, 31
Taiwan, 26
Tancredo, Tom, 2, 75, 118, 134
tax issues
benefits used by immigrants, 176–178
immigration’s effect on U.S. taxpayers, 172, 193–194
taxes paid by immigrants, 94, 141, 196
Temporary Assistance for Needy Families (TANF), 93
temporary workers. See also guest-worker
programs
Bush (George W.) administration and, 150, 154–156
market-based solutions and, 187–193
Texas
economic impacts on, 198–199
entry into U.S., 19
historic immigration, 52–53
local laws, 77
Mexican immigration to, 21, 55
trade liberalization. See North American Free Trade Agreement
Turkey
guest workers in Germany, 34–35, 38
international migration, 25, 27
undocumented workers, 133–147. See also
enforcement issues, myths about
historical context, 135–138
impact on children, 135–136, 143–146
myths about, dispelled, 140–142
NAFTA and, 138–140
unemployment. See employment issues
unions
citizenship issues, 45
employer sanctions and, 29
immigration reform and, 59, 60
Mexico’s neoliberal era, 101, 104
temporary worker programs, 191
United Farm Workers and Mexican immigration, 22
United Farm Workers, 22
United for a Sovereign America, 120
United Kingdom
international migration, 31
United Nations’ 2003 Human Security Now report (Ogata Report), 34, 41
United States
dual citizenship and, 41–42
expansionism and immigration, 16–17
noncitizen voting rights, 35, 43–44
three-tier system or rights, 44
unskilled/low-skilled labor
demand for, 87
economic impact of, 173–178, 184–186, 193–196
U.S. Citizenship and Immigration Services (UNCIS), 224–225
Velez, Denice, 209
Velez-Ibañez, Carlos, 128, 129–130
visas. See also H-2 visa programs
categories of, 186
issuing enough to meet labor demand, 188–190
mobility provisions and, 190–192
reform, as policy option, 222, 224
Special Immigrant Juvenile Status, 124
waiting time for relatives, 5
welfare benefits and, 179
voting rights, citizenship and
absentee voting, 34
wage remittances, by immigrants
to Bangladesh, 34
consequences of restrictive laws, 78
to Mexico, 137
to Somalia, 24
temporary worker programs and, 189
unemployment and, 92
wages
economic impact of immigrants on, 87–90, 191–192
H-2 visa programs and, 206–212
policy proposals for minimum wage, 231–232
Washington Consensus, 98
Watterson, Yvonne, 129
Weil, Patrick, 38–39
welfare programs
Arizona Proposition 200 and, 119
benefits received contrasted to taxes paid, 176–178
denial of, as policy option, 219, 221
economic impact of immigration, 92–94
impact of low-skilled immigrant workers on, 174–176
not used, for fear of deportation, 141–142
policy considerations, 178–182
Welfare Reform Act (1996), 196, 199
Who Are We? The Challenges to America’s National Identity (Huntington), 67, 68, 142
“willing employees,” employment myth and, 156–158
Wilson, Mike, 116
Wilson, Pete, 56
Wolf, Martin, 225
women
in Age of Migration, 23
citizenship rights and, 37–38
Yemen, 24
Zedillo, Ernesto, 99–100
Zimbabwe, 24
Z visa program, 179