Page numbers in italic indicate figures or tables.
ACIC (American Citizenship and Immigration Conference), 199–200, 201, 204, 208, 209
ACLU (American Civil Liberties Union), 108, 111, 235
Act of August 9, 1946 (60 Stat. 975), 234, 249n16
Act of August 19, 1950 (PL 717), 235–236, 250n27
Act of July 2, 1946 (60 Stat. 416), 233, 249n19
Act of July 22, 1947 (PL 213), 235
adoption, 9
AFL (American Federation of Labor), 164, 170
AFL-CIO (American Federation of Labor and Congress of Industrial Organizations), 92–93, 179, 204
Africa-America Institute (AAI), 276
African Americans: Black immigrants and, 274, 275, 277–278, 280–281; collaborating with Puerto Ricans on civil rights issues, 222–223, 224–227; contribution to American life, 206; immigration policy debates and, 278; Jamaican workers and, 128; Japanese war brides and, 236, 243–244, 251n35. See also civil rights; race
African Graduate Fellowship Program (AFGRAD), 276
African immigrants: increase in, post-WWII, 11; research deficit on, 14, 273–274; as students, 274–275, 276. See also Black immigrants; specific countries
Africa Scholarship Program of America Universities (ASPAU), 276
AFSC (American Friends Service Committee), 66, 71–72, 74
agricultural workers: Black immigrants as, 277; British West Indies (BWI) guest-worker program, 168, 171, 172–173; compulsory savings system for, 137–138; Cuban sugar industry, 49; employers bear transportation costs, 132, 133–134, 137; recruitment, 136; West Indies recruitment, 123, 125, 128–130. See also Bracero Program; temporary workers; visas, H-2
agricultural workers, Japanese, 105, 161–180; AICF and, 162–165; Cold War diplomacy and, 161–162, 173–175; employers of, 168–169; government departments and, 170–173; immigrating as “refugees,” 164–165; Japanese Americans’ relations with, 175–179; Mike Masaoka and, 165–170
Agricultural Workers Association, 200
Agrón, Salvador “the Capeman,” 213, 219
AICF (Association for International Collaboration of Farmers; Kokusai Nōyūkai), 162–165, 171
Aid Refugee Chinese Intellectuals Inc. (ARCI), 66, 71, 72–73, 76, 81nn42, 51
Alarcón, Rafael, 138
Albania, 6
alien passenger law (1837 revision), 32
Alien Seamen Program, 108, 115, 117–118
“aliens ineligible for citizenship” category, 4, 26, 84, 231. See also Asian exclusion
American Citizenship and Immigration Conference (ACIC), 199–200, 201, 204, 208, 209
American Civil Liberties Union (ACLU), 108, 111, 235
American Committee on Italian Immigration, 200
American Federation of Labor (AFL), 164, 170
American Federation of Labor and Congress of Industrial Organizations (AFL-CIO), 92–93, 179, 204
American Friends Service Committee (AFSC), 66, 71–72, 74
American Hellenic Educational Progressive
American Immigration Conference, 199–200, 211n19
Americanization, 14, 187–188. See also assimilation
American Jewish Committee (AJC), 66, 67, 68–69, 75, 80n26, 200
American Jewish Congress, 235
The American Mercury, 243
Anderson, Donald, 209
Anglo-American Caribbean Commission, 129
anti-racist resolutions, 87
anti-Semitism, 58
Antonetty, Evelina, 223
apportionment politics, 191
ARCI (Aid Refugee Chinese Intellectuals Inc.), 66, 71, 72–73, 76, 81nn42, 51
Armenia, 6
Armstrong, Clairette, 216
Asia, 3, 4; eugenics and, 5; Johnson-Reed Act and, 5–6; race and, 8; visa waitlists in, 40. See also specific countries
Asian Americans, 94; race of, 243, 245. See also Japanese Americans
Asian exclusion: Asia-Pacific Triangle provision, 91, 193, 194, 237; Asians tracked by race as opposed to nationality, 8, 51, 251n39; historical narrative of, 231–232; Japanese exclusion, 5, 84, 92, 162, 172, 237; vs family unification, 189, 233–237. See also Chinese exclusion; racial exclusion through national-origins quotas
Asian immigrants: back door entry, 37, 45, 52–53, 59; demographics in US, 12, 83; Hart-Celler Act and, 95; increase in, post WWII, 11; Johnson-Reed Act and, 85; national-origins quotas and, 251n39; opposition to, 199; PHS rejection rates, 30–32; restrictions on in McCarran-Walter Act, 162, 193, 194. See also Chinese exclusion; specific countries
Asia-Pacific Triangle, 91, 193, 194, 237
Asiatic Barred Zone, 5, 30, 85, 231
ASPAU (Africa Scholarship Program of America Universities), 276
Aspira, 221
assimilation: of Japanese Americans, 162, 165–166, 177, 178, 179–180, 186n106; of Japanese war brides, 189, 238, 240–242, 246. See also Americanization
Association for International Collaboration of Farmers (AICF; Kokusai Nōyūkai), 162–165, 171
Australia, 90
Austrian specialists. See German and
Austrian specialists
Ávila Camacho, Manuel, 257
Axster, Herbert Felix, 144, 146, 154
Axster, Ilse, 154
Azikiwe, Nnamdi, 275
the Bahamas, 280; agricultural laborers recruited from, 123, 125, 126–127; migrant-labor agreement with, 277, 283n10
Bailey, David, 29
Batista, Fulgencio, 59
Bejarano, Margalit, 55
Benjamin Franklin High School, East Harlem, New York, 216, 217, 221
Benton, William, 91
Bethe, Hans, 7
Black Americans. See African Americans
Black immigrants, 273–281; community building by, 14, 277–278, 280–281; comparative approach to history and, 278–279; Cuba and, 282n4; marginalization of, 275; as migrant labor, 277; national-origins quotas and, 9, 91; new wave of (increase in), 280–281; racial exclusion laws, worldwide, 84; research deficit on, 14, 273–274; research questions about, 276, 281; resources for understanding history of, 278–280; settlement/”disappearance” into African American communities, 274, 275. See also specific countries
Black studies programs, 226
B’nai B’rith, 200
Board of Immigration Appeals, 117
Bond, Niles W., 58
border crossing, illegal, 12
border patrolling, 6, 17n11, 46, 258
Borjas, George, 95
Boston Post, 275
Box, John, 85
Bracero Program, 7, 10, 123–124, 130–140;
braceros killed by employers, 131; Chávez and, 94; discrimination and, 132, 133; employers bear braceros’ transportation costs, 132, 133–134; end of, 104, 123, 135; First Bracero Program (WWI), 132, 142n21; H-2A visas and, 138; inception and provisions, 131–135, 142n21; reauthorization of, 135; recruitment center locations, 134; scale of, 141n4; separation from loved ones and, 189–190, 256–258; US states employing braceros, 130–131, 132–133; wages and, 134. See also agricultural workers; Mexican immigrants; temporary workers
bracero workers, Mexican: contracts of, 257; families of, 189–190; Japanese farm workers characterized in opposition to, 163, 167, 175, 176–177; Japanese immigrant labor and, 166, 176; treatment of German specialists in contrast with, 145
Braun, Marcus, 37
Brazil, 89
British Shipping Mission, 111
British wartime shipping, 107–111, 113–120; cheap labor needed for, 107–108, 114, 117; conditions of, 108, 109–110, 114–116, 119; desertion by non-Chinese seamen, 114–115, 116; punishment for desertion, 116–119; shore leave, 108, 109, 111, 113, 114, 117; US government involvement, 104, 107, 108–109, 115–119. See also Chinese sailors, desertion of British ships by; World War II
British West Indies: guest-worker program, 168, 171, 172–173; national-origins quotas for, 47, 91
British West Indies Central Labor Organization (BWICLO), 129, 136, 137–138
Brown, Richard, 72
Burton, Antoinette, 119
Calavita, Kitty, 135
California Farm Production Association, 164
Cameroonian immigrants, 281
Canadian immigrants, 28, 126–127, 129
Canary Islands, 48
Cape Verde, immigration from, 274, 277
Caribbean. See West Indies
Caribbean immigrants. See West Indian immigrants
Carmichael, Stokely, 223
Cartas a Eufemia (Letters to Eufemia) (1952), 258–263
Catholic church groups, 67
Catholicism, Kennedy election and, 201, 211n21
Celler, Emanuel, 75–76, 94, 202, 208
Center for Puerto Rican Studies, 226
Central Intelligence Agency (CIA), 39
Channel, William, 74
Chávez, César, 94
Chiang Kai-shek, 88
children, 7, 68, 255; exempt from quotas, 9, 11, 54, 94; mixed-race children of Japanese war brides, 189, 244–246; reformist concern and, 214. See also family reunification; Puerto Rican youth
China: AFSC in, 71; Dumbarton Oaks meetings and, 89; Jewish refugees move to, 69; remote control in, 26; wartime relations with Britain, 110. See also Hong Kong
Chinese exclusion: Chinese Exclusion Act, 4, 29, 36, 48, 70, 88, 231; Cuba and, 36–37, 46, 48–49, 52–53, 55, 57, 59–60; enforcement of, 5, 26, 29–32, 34–37, 48–49; laws, worldwide, 84, 88; Magnuson Act repeals, 7, 70, 88, 233, 234, 249n16; Mexico and, 36–37, 61n3; tracked by race as opposed to nationality, 8, 251n39; US entry through neighboring countries, 45, 52–53, 59, 61n3. See also Chinese refugees
Chinese Exclusion Act (1882), 4, 29, 48, 70, 88, 231
Chinese immigrants: family unification and, 233–234, 236, 249n16; opposition to, 199
Chinese Nationalist Daily, 114
Chinese refugees, 69–74; ARCI and, 66, 71, 72–73, 76, 81nn42, 51. See also refugee policy
Chinese sailors, desertion of British ships by: after agitating for improved conditions, 108, 109–111, 114, 118, 119; Alien Seamen Program and, 108, 117; British tactics to prevent, 109, 111, 117; compared to other nationalities, 114–115, 116; impact on shipping, 111; punishment for, 118–119; racism influences, 104, 114–119; raids to find, 107, 118–119; restaurant employment and, 104, 108, 112–113; shore leave and, 108, 109, 111, 113; social networks assist, 104, 108, 112–113, 119; US government involvement, 104, 107, 108–109, 116–119; wage gap influences, 104, 109–110, 111, 114, 117. See also British wartime shipping
Christensen, Thomas, 111, 114–115
Chung Wing Kee, 113
citizenship, 34; in Cuba, 57–58; eligibility
criteria, 3, 4, 6; experiences of, 14, 187–190; path to, for German/Austrian specialists, 148–154; status of Filipino immigrants, 6, 36, 187; status of Puerto Rican immigrants, 187, 213, 214. See also Americanization; assimilation
citizenship restrictions, 3, 14, 103, 105
civil rights: collaboration between African Americans and Puerto Ricans, 222–223, 224–227; emergence of movement, 200; linked to immigration reform, 205–206; as top problem for US, 202, 212n27
Civil Rights Act (1964), 10, 83, 92
civil rights movement, 83, 90, 94
class-based exclusion, 28; LPC clause, 4, 17n11, 29, 36
Clay, Lucius D., 150
Cold War, 4; African students and, 276; Asian exclusion and, 233; fear of communism, 149–150, 165, 198–199; immigration of German specialists and, 149–151, 156; Japanese agricultural worker program and, 161–162, 172, 173–175; national-origins quotas and, 3, 7–8, 60, 86; politics of, refugee policy debates and, 68–70, 73, 75, 76, 77n1, 78n4
colonialism, 17n6, 119, 141n15, 227; decolonization, 4, 8, 70, 88–89, 276; Japanese agricultural labor program and, 171; national-origins quotas and, 9, 47, 85; US-Japan relations and, 162–163
Colorado, 132–133; labor relief program in, 126
colorblindness, 242
Commission on Immigration and Naturalization (Truman Commission), 92, 195–196
communism, fear of, 149–150, 165, 198–199
communism, policy on refugees fleeing, 9, 11, 18n18, 69–70, 72–73, 75, 78n4. See also Cold War
community building, by Black immigrants, 14, 277–278
Congress, 3, 6, 68, 84; Asian exclusion and, 231, 233, 234; Japanese war brides legislation and, 234–236; national-origins quotas and, 192–193, 201–202; restrictionists in, 7–8, 10, 12, 13, 22, 86; Truman’s veto on McCarran-Walter Act and, 195
Congress, refugee policy and. See refugee policy
Congress of Industrial Organizations (CIO), 88, 170, 192
Cooley, Thomas, 192
“coolies” (Chinese indentured laborers), 29, 48, 114. See also Chinese immigrants
Council for Supplementary Agricultural Workers (CSAW; Nōgyō Rōmusha Habei Kyōgikai), 171, 173, 174
criminality, 4; German war criminals, 148, 149, 155; Puerto Rican youth accused of, 188, 214, 215–217. See also immigration law enforcement
Cuba, 7, 45–61, 89; Chinese exclusion and, 36–37, 46, 48–49, 52–53, 55, 57, 59–60; demographics of immigrants in US, 12; Jewish refugees and, 46, 50–52, 58; national-origins quotas by, 47, 57; nativist movements and, 57–59; smuggling in, 56, 63n39, 64n41; as source of Black migration, 282n4; upholds its own policy, 55; US entry through, 22, 45–46, 55–56; US-imposed legislation in, 22, 48–49, 55, 56, 59; “wet foot, dry foot” policy, 60–61, 64n54; whiteness and, 48–49; WWII and, 57–59
Cuban Adjustment Act (1966), 18n24, 60
Cuban Revolution (1959), 9, 49
Curran, Joseph, 111
Davis, J. J., 53
debarment, 28. See also deportation and repatriation
Debus, Kurt Heinrich, 144, 146, 154–155
decolonization, 4, 8, 70, 88–89, 276. See also colonialism
Delany, J. F., 109
de la Torriente, Cosme, 47
democracy, promotion of in Asia, 162, 163, 167, 171, 173, 174, 238. See also communism, fear of
Democratic Party: civil rights and, 202; divide over immigration reform, 203; Japanese American public relations and, 170; Johnson election and, 204–205; Kennedy election and, 201; support by foreign-stock voters, 201, 203, 204; Truman’s veto on McCarran-Walter Act and, 195
deportation and repatriation, 28; of agricultural workers, 123, 136; from Cuba, 57;
demographics, 63n26; of H-2 workers, 136–137; of insubordinate seamen, 108, 116, 117–118; of Mexican immigrants, 6, 17n13, 255; Operation Wetback, 136, 167, 256, 258; racial exclusion and, 40–41; shipping companies held liable for, 33; of sick immigrants, 37
desertion. See British wartime shipping; Chinese sailors, desertion of British ships by
deserving, ideology of, 191, 233, 234, 237
DeWind, Josh, 136
Dimock, Marshall, 118
diplomacy, Japanese agricultural worker program and, 161–162, 173–175, 178
discrimination. See racial exclusion through national-origins quotas; racial stereotypes discrimination types, 96–97
displaced person quotas, 67–68. See also refugee policy
Displaced Persons Act (1948), 9, 18n23, 145, 148, 156, 210n5; amendments to (1950), 68; Celler on, 75; discrimination against Jewish migrants and, 67–68; national-origins quotas and, 8, 68, 192, 193. See also refugee policy
Diversity Program, 96
domesticity, Japanese war bride as symbol of, 238, 240, 241–242
Dominican Republic, 12, 46, 47, 64n47, 89 drug addiction, 255
Du Bois, W. E. B., 87
Dulles, John Foster, 89
Dumbarton Oaks meetings, 89
Durand, Jorge, 94
Eastern European immigrants, 6, 50–51, 57, 84; Cuba and, 50, 59; enter US through neighboring countries, 22, 37, 45, 55, 59; number of, 4, 92, 193, 199; opposition to, 199. See also Jewish refugees
Eastern hemispheric caps, 5–6, 10, 94–95. See also hemispheric caps
East Harlem Tenants Council, 223
education: activism in higher education, 226–227; Japanese agricultural worker program as, 162–163, 173–174, 175; Puerto Rican youth and, 214, 220–223. See also students
Eisenhower, Dwight D., 72
Eisenhower administration, 68
Emergency Quota Act (1921), 5, 38, 50, 52, 63n25, 84, 85
emotional lives of Mexican immigrants, 189–190, 255–270; Bracero Program and, 256–258; Cartas a Eufemia (Letters to Eufemia) (1952) and, 258–263; films and songs of love offer solace, 258, 269–270; men listen to songs of love, 263–267; women listen to songs of love, 267–269
employment. See agricultural workers; temporary workers
employment assistance for Chinese insubordinate sailors, 112–113
Empress of Scotland (British vessel), 107, 112, 118
Ennis, Edward J., 117
equality, societal push toward, 191–194
Ervin, Sam, 206
Escapee Program, 72
ethnic-based exclusion, 28
eugenics, 5, 85, 191, 216, 244
Europe, 4, 6; decrease in immigration from, post WWII, 11; Displaced Persons acts favor, 8; medical inspections favor white
European immigrants, 30–32; national-origins quotas and, 11. See also specific countries
European Command, 154
European immigrants: to Cuba, 49; Emergency Quota Act and, 5, 38, 50, 52, 63n25, 84, 85; favoring of Northern
Europeans, 8, 145, 193, 206; national-origins quotas and, 5–6, 47, 193; politically undesirable, 52. See also Eastern European immigrants
Executive Order 8802 (1941), 132
Executive Order 9604 (1945), 147
extraterritorial migration control. See remote control system
family reunification, 2; Asian migration and, 95; as central principle of immigration policy, 231–232, 246–247; Chinese immigrants and, 233–234, 236, 249n16; Hart-Celler Act and, 83, 92; Jewish refugees and, 7; Johnson-Reed Act and, 6; as loophole to national-origins quotas, 9, 11, 54, 94; prioritization of, 9; public opinion on, 210; refugee policy and, 66, 68; war brides and, 189, 233–237. See also long-distance romantic relationships
Far East Refugee Program (FERP), 72, 73. See also communism
farm work. See agricultural workers; Bracero Program; temporary workers
Federal Bureau of Investigation (FBI), 150, 152
Feighan, Michael, 11
Feldman, Myer “Mike,” 203
Fiancées and Fiancés Act (1946), 8
Field Information Agency, Technical (FIAT), 149
Filipino immigrants, 8, 233, 249n19; citizenship status of, 6, 36, 187; demographics in US, 12; war brides, 234
films and songs of love, 189, 256; “Aca Entre Nos” (“Between Us”), 263–264, 266–267; “Carta A Eufemia” (Letter to Eufemia), 259, 262; Cartas a Eufemia (Letters to Eufemia) (1952), 258–263; “Contestación de Eufemia” (Eufemia’s Response), 260–261, 262; “Una Aventura” (“An Adventure”), 263, 264, 265; “Ya lo Se” (“I Already Know”), 267, 268, 269
First Inter-American Demographic Congress, 87
Florida Rural Legal Aid, 137
Fong Wing Kee, 112
foreign policy, 3, 13; Chinese immigrants as allies, 7; Cuban nativism and, 57–59; Latin America and, 46, 86–87; as top concern of Americans, 200; US-imposed legislation in Cuba, 48–50. See also Chinese exclusion; Cold War; international relations; national-origins quotas, removal
Foreign Service, 35
Fuchs, Lawrence, 278
Galamison, Milton, 222
Galarza, Ernesto, 135
Gallup surveys: on concerns of Americans, 200, 202, 212n27; on immigration levels, 205; on McCarran-Walter Act, 196–197; on skills-based admissions, 209–210
gang conflicts, and Puerto Rican youth, 216–217, 218, 219
gatekeeping strategies, 36, 45–47, 51–57, 59, 61n3
geishas, 239
Gentlemen’s Agreement (1907–1908), 5
Gerena Valentín, Gilberto, 222
German and Austrian specialists, 105–106, 144–156; Debus and Axter, 144, 146, 154–155; evaluation of, 150–152; exploitation of, 146–148; number of, 148, 153; on path to citizenship, 148–154; viewed as apolitical, 149–150; visas for, 152–153; von Braun, 1, 2, 8, 153
Germany, 1; denazification process in, 150–151; Jews emigrating from (to Cuba), 58; national-origins quotas and, 6; opposition to immigration from, 198–199; Visa Waiver Program and, 40
Glazer, Nathan, 227
Goldwater, Barry, 204
Gonzalez, Henry, 200
Good Neighbor policy, 86
Great Depression, 4
Green, John C., 147
green cards (permanent residency cards), 12, 156
Griswold, Elizabeth, 65
Guantanamo Bay prison camp, 39
guest-worker programs: British West Indies (BWI) guest-worker program, 168, 171, 172–173. See also agricultural workers; Japanese agricultural worker program
Gutierrez, David, 135
H-2 visas. See visas, H-2
Haggard, Godfrey, 111
Hall, Prescott, 5
Handlin, Oscar, 227
Harris, William, 86
Hart, Philip, 94, 202. See also Hart-Celler Act
Hart-Celler Act (1965), 2–3, 10–11, 15n1, 39, 46, 59–60; Black immigration after, 280–281; “Communist or Communist-dominated lands” category added, 75–76; criteria in, 92; effects of, 95, 96; family reunification and, 136, 232, 247; hemispheric quotas introduced, 27–28; H-2 programs in, 104–105, 123, 136–140; immigrant status differentiated in, 104; impact of, scholarship on, 66, 78n4; intellectuals and, 103; length of, 212n41; preferred status in, 54; provisions, 94, 136, 140; public opinion and, 208–210; refugee policy debates and, 22, 65–66, 75–77, 77n1. See also refugee policy
Harvest of Shame (farmworker expose), 135
Hebrew Sheltering and Immigrant Aid Society (HIAS), 69
hemispheric caps, 27–28; Eastern Hemisphere, 5–6, 10, 94–95; Western Hemisphere, 10–11, 12, 94–95, 193, 202
hemispheric caps, exemptions, 47, 84, 91, 94–95, 193, 196, 202; criticism of, 54, 59–60, 85–86; Emergency Quota Act, 52, 85; Latin American migrants and, 6, 12, 60, 85–87, 215
hemispheric gatekeeping, 36, 45–47, 52–57. See also immigration law enforcement
Henderson, Wallace, 170
highly-skilled labor. See labor, highly skilled
Hispanic Association Pro-Higher Education (HAPHE), 220
Hispanic Young Adult Association (HYAA), 220
historically Black colleges and universities (HBCUs), 274
Ho, Jimmie, 113
Ho C. Lui, 113
Honduras, 41
Hong Kong: AFSC and, 71–72, 74; ARCI and, 72–73, 76; Chinese refugees in, 70, 80n29; US consuls in, 28, 29, 34. See also China
Hoover, Herbert, 86
Hoover, J. Edgar, 152
Hostos Community College, 226
hotel industry, 138, 139. See also temporary workers
House Select Committee on Postwar Immigration, 192
Huerta, Dolores, 200
Hughes, Charles, 55
humanitarianism, 77; in conflict with indigenous repression, 66–67; Hart-Celler Act and, 92; US projects image of, 65–67, 70, 71–76
Hungarian immigrants, 195
Hungarian Revolution, 9
immigrant groups, racialization of, 156
immigrant rights groups, 200–201
immigrants, political engagement of, 188, 191, 203
immigrants, undocumented, 2, 189–190; Bracero Program and, 257–258; deportation of, 136, 258; emotional lives of, 256, 257–258, 262–265, 263, 264; employer accountability, 138; Hart-Celler Act and, 12; IRCA and, 140; US entry through neighboring countries, 27
immigration, illegal, 156; Bracero Program and, 135; deportation and, 10, 167; detention of, during WWII, 38–39; Hart-Celler Act and, 11, 12; Jewish immigrants, 64n49; national-origins quotas and, 12; racism toward, 167; US entry through neighboring countries, 22, 37, 45, 46, 50, 51, 55–56, 59; waitlist for legal entry, 40. See also smuggling
Immigration Act (1882), 32
Immigration Act (1891), 32
Immigration Act (1903), 30
Immigration Act (1907), 5, 32, 97n14
Immigration Act (1917), 5, 116, 117, 232
Immigration Act (1924). See Johnson-Reed Act
Immigration and Nationality Act (1952). See McCarran-Walter Act
Immigration and Nationality Act (1965). See Hart-Celler Act
Immigration and Naturalization Service (INS), 108, 109; admissibility of scientists with Nazi affiliation and, 144, 154; Alien Seamen Program and, 117–118; Japanese agricultural labor and, 167, 168, 172; raids to detain Chinese seamen, 118–119; remote control system in 1930s, 6–7
Immigration Bureau, 5, 29, 35, 104, 109. See also Immigration and Naturalization Service (INS)
immigration history: comparative approach to, 278–279; periodization of, 2–3, 21; resources for understanding Black
immigration law, enforcement challenges in, 7, 9, 50; entry through neighboring countries, 27, 37, 45, 55–56, 59; temporary workers remain permanently, 12, 106, 139
immigration law enforcement, 4–5; Alien Seaman Program and, 108, 115, 117–118; Border Patrol, 6, 17n11, 258; Chinese exclusion and, 5, 26, 29–32, 34–37, 48–49; contemporary discrimination in, 40–41; in Cuba, 57–59; fines and repercussions for smuggling aliens, 32; hemispheric gatekeeping, 36, 45–47, 52–57; Immigration Bureau and, 5; inspections at Ellis Island, 5, 28, 32, 36; by private transit companies, 27, 29, 35, 38; in sending and transit countries, 13, 21–22, 26–27, 36–37, 60–61; state vs. private, 26, 27; at US consuls, 29; of US policy by Latin America and Cuba, 46, 48, 61n3. See also immigrants, undocumented; immigration,
illegal; remote control systems
immigration levels, public opinion on, 196–199, 204, 205
immigration periodization scholarship, 2, 21
immigration quotas, 5–7; Emergency Quota Act, 5, 38, 50, 52, 63n25, 84, 85; for highly skilled labor, 145, 156. See also hemispheric caps; Johnson-Reed Act (1924); racial exclusion through national-origins quotas
immigration reform, 191–210; Asian exclusion and, 233–234; changes in the early 1960s, 199–201; Goldwater campaign and, 204–205; under Johnson administration, 205–208, 209–210; under Kennedy administration, 201–202; linked to civil rights, 205–206; movement for, 200–201; national-origins quotas and, 192–193; passage of McCarran-Walter Act, 193–194; political engagement of immigrants and, 188; presidential election of 1960 and, 201–203; veto of McCarran-Walter Act, 194–196
Immigration Reform and Control Act (IRCA, 1986), 104, 124, 138
immigration restrictions. See Chinese exclusion; immigration law enforcement; racial exclusion through national-origins quotas; remote control systems; temporary workers
indentured labor, 48, 116–117, 136
Indian immigrants, 8, 12, 233, 249n19
Infante, Pedro, 262
inspections: at Ellis Island, 5, 28, 32, 36. See also medical inspections; remote control systems; US consuls
intellectuals, recruitment of, 66, 71, 72–73, 76, 81nn42, 51; H-1 visas and, 130. See also labor, highly skilled
Inter-American Conference on Problems of War and Peace, 89
International Convention on the Elimination of All Forms of Racial Discrimination (ICERD), 93
International Refugee Organization, 68
international relations, 3, 13; Cuba, US-imposed legislation in, 22, 48–49, 55, 56, 59; Japan-US relations, 105, 162–163, 172, 174, 238; Latin American response to national-origins quotas, 47; US influence and cooperation, 36; US neighbor country relations, 85–86. See also immigration reform
interracial couples: as embodiment of US-Japan relations, 239, 243–244; normalization of, 238; numbers of, 251n35; reactions to, 189; studies of, 240; war bride laws and, 234, 236, 237
IRCA (Immigration Reform and Control Act), 104, 124, 138
Ishiguro, Tadaatsu, 162–163, 171
isolationism, 13
Issei (Japanese immigrants), 169. See also
Japanese Americans Italian Americans, 216–217, 221 Italian immigrants, 195, 216 Italy, 30, 198–199
Jackson, Ashley, 129
Jamaican workers, 125, 126–127, 136, 137; race and, 128, 141nn12, 13
Japan: Alien Seamen Program and, 117; brides’ schools in, 241–242; colonial expansionism of, 161–162, 162–163; education-abroad program from, 162–163; national quota for, 162, 237; occupation of, 234; opposition to immigration from, 198–199; relations with US, 105, 162–163, 172, 174, 238; US agricultural labor program and, 166–168, 171, 174
Japanese agricultural worker program, 105, 123, 161–180; AICF and, 162–165; bracero vs BWI model for, 168, 171, 172–173; Cold War diplomacy and, 161–162, 172, 173–175; end of, 179; government departments and, 170–173; immigration as “refugees” and, 164–165; Japanese Americans’ relations with Japanese agricultural workers and, 175–179; Mike Masaoka and, 165–170
Japanese American Citizens League (JACL), 91; end of Japanese agricultural worker program and, 179; image of Japanese Americans and, 178; Masaoka’s leadership in, 165, 166, 169–170; Mikami as leader in, 164; war bride laws and, 233, 235, 236
Japanese Americans: assimilation of, 162, 165–166, 177, 178, 179–180; internment of, 243, 245, 253n69; Issei influence over Nisei farmers, 169; relations with Japanese agricultural workers, 105, 175–179. See also Nisei (second-generation Japanese-Americans); war brides
Japanese exclusion, 5, 84, 85, 92, 162, 172, 237. See also Asian exclusion; Chinese exclusion; racial exclusion through national-origins quotas
Javits, Jacob, 206
Jewish immigrants, 7, 62n12; opposition to, 199; WWII and, 58–59, 64nn46, 47, 49
Jewish refugees, 7; AJC and, 66, 67, 80n26; Cuba and, 46, 50–52, 58; Refugee Relief Act and, 68–69
Jewish Relief Committee (Cuba), 58
Johnson, Lyndon Baines, 11, 66, 94; election of, 204–205; immigration reform and, 10, 203, 205–206; as Kennedy running mate, 201
Johnson-Reed Act (1924), 2, 5, 21, 35, 47, 60; birthplace differentiated from residence in, 51; Caribbean, diplomacy and policy effects in, 52–57; European immigrant preference in, 84; Japanese immigration and, 162; pressure to Americanize and, 187; Puerto Rican immigration and, 188; remote control solidified through, 38; restrictions on Asian immigration in, 85, 231, 233–234. See also immigration quotas; national-origins quotas
Joint Intelligence Objectives Agency (JIOA), 149, 151, 152
Joppke, Christian, 95
Judd, Walter, 73
juvenile delinquency, 216–217, 218, 219
Katzenbach, Nicholas, 93
Kawasaki, Frank Tsunekusu, 164, 165
Kellogg, Frank, 86
Kennedy, Edward, 11
Kennedy, John F., 10, 74, 94, 135, 201, 203
Kerry v. Din (2015), 40
King, Martin Luther, Jr., 200
Knight, Goodwin, 170
Kong Bo, 112
Koo, Wellington, 89
Korean immigrants, 12; brain drain effect and, 9; military brides, 234, 236, 244; opposition to, 199
labor, 3; indentured, 48, 116–117; nativist legislation in Cuba, 57
labor, highly skilled, 13–14; brain drain effect, 9; Hart-Celler Act and, 92; H-1B visas and, 138–139; Johnson-Reed Act and, 6; occupational needs vs. first-come, first-served, 54; prioritization of, 9; recruitment of intellectuals, 66, 71, 72–73, 76, 81nn42, 51. See also German and Austrian specialists; skills-based admissions
labor, unskilled, 1–2, 13–14, 15n1, 93, 103. See also agricultural workers; Bracero Program; temporary workers; visas, H-2
labor agitation: Bracero Program and, 135–136; for improved conditions on British ships, 108, 109–111, 114, 115, 118, 119; Jamaican agricultural workers and, 125, 128; UFW, 135–136; US Sugar protests, 128; by West Indian agricultural workers, 136
labor demand, 7, 13–14; medical inspection standards and, 35; restrictions lifted because of, 97n14; for shipping needs during WWII, 107–108; smuggling and, 53; for sugar industry, 48, 49. See also agricultural workers; Bracero Program; temporary workers
labor migration, 123, 130. See also Bracero Program; intellectuals, recruitment of
labor organizing, 92–93, 111, 192, 200
labor relief programs, 126–127
La Follette Seamen’s Act (1915), 117
La Guardia, Fiorello, 33, 108, 116
Lasby, Clarence, 153
Latin America: arrests of aliens in, during WWII, 38–39; Dumbarton Oaks meetings, exclusion from, 89; hemispheric caps exemptions and, 6, 12, 60, 85–87, 215; race-based exclusion laws changed in, 23, 60, 84, 87; US-imposed legislation in, 46, 61n3; visa waitlists in, 40
Latin American immigrants: demographics in US, 12; in NYC communities, 215; opposition to, 199. See also Mexican immigrants
Latino/Chicano rights movement, 200
Law for Liberation from National Socialism and Militarism (1946, Germany), 150
Lee Choy, 113
Lee Joe, 113
legal status of immigrants. See immigrants, undocumented; immigration, illegal
Liebowitz, Samuel, 219
“likely to become a public charge” clause (LPC), 4, 17n11, 29, 36
Lin Young Tsai, 110
long-distance romantic relationships: Cartas a Eufemia and, 258–263; emotional pain and, 258; ending of due to separation, 263–266. See also family reunification
Louisiana Purchase (1803), 46
Lutheran World Federation, 72
Madame Butterfly stories: original story, 238–239; postwar versions, 242–243
Magnuson Act (1943), 7, 70, 88, 233, 234, 249n16
Mailer, Norman, 225
Malone, Nolan J., 94
Maloney, Deidre, 28
marriage. See war brides
Martí, José, 56
Martin, Philip, 135
Masaoka, Joe Grant, 170
Masaoka, Mike, 165–170, 176, 179, 235
Massey, Douglas S., 94
Mayor’s Committee on Puerto Rican Affairs (MCPRA), 220
McCarran-Walter Act (1952), 1, 8–9; Asian exclusion and, 189, 237; Cold War foreign policy and, 60; effects of, 18n20; family unification and, 189, 232; German specialists and, 144, 145, 155, 156; H-2 visas and, 129–130, 136; Japanese agricultural workers and, 168; Japanese immigration and, 162, 189, 237; national-origins quotas and, 162, 193–194, 237; parole authority granted in, 9, 18n24; provisions, 136; public opinion on, 196–197; racial exclusion and, 4, 7–9, 91, 93, 193–194, 232, 237; Refugee Relief Act and, 69; Truman vetoes, 194–196
McGranery, James, 194
McLeod, Evan Ward, 124
media attention: on Japanese American farmers, 178; on Japanese war brides, 238, 239–241; on juvenile delinquency, 218–219; on mixed-race children, 244–245; on smuggling, 45. See also public opinion; racial stereotypes
medical inspections, 26, 27, 30–38; from Canada, 37; data interpretation of, 37–38; racism and, 30–32; rates of rejection from, 37–38, 43n46; by shipping companies, 32–35; standardization of, 32
MEND (Massive Economic Neighborhood Development), 223
Menocal, F. E., 49
Mexican American Political Association, 200
Mexican immigrants: demographics in US, 12; deportation and repatriation of, 6, 17n13, 41; Hart-Celler Act and, 28; migrant labor, 1–2; national-origins quota and, 17n11; Operation Wetback and, 10, 136; opposition to, 199; visa designations, 138–139; visa waitlists for, 40. See also Bracero Program
Mexican immigrants, emotional lives of, 189–190, 255–270; Bracero Program and, 256–258; Cartas a Eufemia and, 258–263; films and songs of love offering solace and expressions of concerns, 258, 269–270; men listen to songs of love, 263–267; women listen to songs of love, 267–269
Mexico, 4, 89; as alternate entry route, 45–46; Chinese exclusion and, 36–37, 61n3; US intervention in, 46
Michener, James, 1, 240, 251n43
Middle Eastern immigrants, 11, 19n28, 84
migrant labor. See agricultural workers; Bracero Program; visas, H-1; visas, H-2
Mikami, Henry Seiichi, 164, 169–170, 176
military, US: Air Force, 153; Army, 128, 153; Navy, 151, 153. See also Project Paperclip
military brides. See war brides
military interventions, 36, 48, 86
Miller, William, 204
Ministry of Labor (Canada), 137
Ministry of War Transportation (Canada), 108, 110
miscegenation laws, 189, 234, 237, 244, 245, 249n38. See also interracial couples
mixed-race children, 9, 189, 244–246
Monroe Doctrine (1823), 46
Moynihan, Daniel Patrick, 227
Murphy, Ruth Z., 200
Murrow, Edward R., 135
Muslim-majority countries immigration ban, 41
Myrdal, Gunnar, 87
NASA (National Aeronautics and Space Administration), 1, 144, 155
Nasu, Shiroshi, 162–164, 165, 168, 169, 171
National Association of Puerto Rican Civil Rights (NAPRCR), 222
National Council of Jewish Women, 69
National Council on Naturalization and Citizenship, 199–200, 211n19
Nationality Act (1790), 4
National Lutheran Council, 66, 75
National Maritime Union, 111
National Opinion Research Center (NORC), 210n5; surveys on immigration levels, 197–199
national-origins quotas. See immigration quotas; racial exclusion through national-origins quotas
national-origins quotas, exemptions, 9–10; adoption, 9; entry through other countries, 22, 50, 54, 55–56; family reunification, 9, 11, 54, 94; parole authority, 9, 18n24, 74, 77. See also hemispheric caps, exemptions; immigration quotas; refugee policy national-origins quotas, removal, 66, 84–86, 231; bill introduced, 202; civil rights movement and, 83, 84, 92; global race-based restriction removal and, 60, 83–85, 87, 90–91, 92–93; hemispheric caps system replaces, 10–11, 12, 27–28, 94–95; justification, 203; labor movement and, 92–93; reintroduced in 1976, 28; skills-based quotas replace, 145, 146, 156; visa quotas replace, 39–40, 44n62, 136. See also refugee policy
national security and defense, 150
naturalization: Chinese exclusion and, 88; data on, 203; racial exclusion, 70; rates of, 188, 191. See also McCarran-Walter Act
Naturalization Act (1790), 70
Nazi Party, 1, 58, 144, 148–150, 151, 154 New York City Chamber of Commerce, 215
New York Times, 51–52, 53, 57, 60, 154, 216, 222, 225
New York Times Magazine, 65
New Zealand, 90
Nicaragua, 46
Nisei (second-generation Japanese-Americans), 105; ethnic/class politics of, 161; influence of Japanese immigrants over, 169; Japanese war brides and, 236, 243, 244; Mike Masaoka and, 165–166, 169; relations with Japanese agricultural workers, 175–179
Nkrumah, Kwame, 275
nongovernmental organizations (NGOs), 66, 67, 75, 77n1
Office of Military Government, United States (OMGUS) in Germany, 150–151
Okihiro, Gary, 190
“Operation Wetback” (1954), 10, 136, 167, 256, 258
La Opinion, 255
oral histories: Black immigrant experience and, 279, 283n10; of Mexican immigrant men, 263–264, 265–266; of Mexican women in long-distance relationships with immigrant men, 261–262, 267–269; Mexican workers’ emotional lives and, 189–190, 256
organized labor, Japanese guest-worker program and, 167, 168, 169, 170, 172
Oyen, Meredith, 111
Pantoja, Antonia, 220
parole authority, 9, 18n24, 74, 77. See also refugees
Passport Control Act (1918), 35
People’s Republic of China. See China
Peru, 48
Pfeiffer, Sachiko, 1, 2, 241, 242, 246
the Philippines: annexation of, 36, 46; Asiatic barred zone and, 5; Chinese labor and, 35; national-origins quotas and, 8, 36, 85, 88; Tydings-McDuffie Act and, 6, 36, 85. See also Filipino immigrants
Platt Amendment (1901), 48, 49
Polish immigrants, 195
ports of entry/exit, 26, 28, 30, 32
Powderly, Terence, 25
Presbyterian groups, 67
Presidential Committee on Civil Rights (1947), 90
presidential election of 1960, 201–203
prison, insubordinate seamen in, 114–115, 116
Project Overcast. See Project Paperclip
Project Paperclip, 105–106, 144–156; Debus and Axter brought to US by, 144, 154–155; denying other countries access to specialists, 146–148; path to citizenship and, 148–154; setting precedent for labor preferences in immigration policy, 145, 155–156; as war reparations, 146
Public Law 78, 130, 166, 176. See also Bracero Program
public opinion: on American problems, 200; on immigration levels, 196–199, 204, 205; on immigration restrictions, 206–208, 209–210
Puerto Rican Association for Community Affairs (PRACA), 221
Puerto Rican Forum, 221
Puerto Ricans, 7; adaptive strategies of, 188–189; citizenship status of, 187, 213, 214; conflicts with Italian Americans, 216–217, 221; increase in numbers of, 213–214, 217; negative characterizations of, 188, 215–216; number of in NYC, 215; opposition to, 199; protest their poor treatment, 215
Puerto Rican studies programs, 226–227
Puerto Rican youth, 213–227; criminality accusations, 188, 214, 215–217; intelligence study on, 215–216; leadership/activism of, 188–189, 213, 214, 220–223, 224–227; scapegoating of, 217–218; shift from “foreign” to “national minority,” 224
Puerto Rico: annexation of, 46, 188, 214; separate culture of, 228n1; as source of Black migration, 282n4
“Pursuit of Happiness by a GI and a Japanese” (Michener), 240–241
Pyndarius (British steamship), 113
Quakers, 71. See also AFSC (American Friends Service Committee)
Quarantine Law (1893), 30
Quinn, Percy E., 275
quotas. See immigration quotas; national-origins quotas
Rabkin, Sol, 69
race: of Asian Americans, 243, 245; Cuba and, 48–49, 55; employers of Japanese agricultural workers and, 105, 168–169; intelligence and, 215–216; Jamaican workers and, 128, 141nn12, 13; mixed-race children, 189, 244–246; national-origins quotas and, 192; racialization of immigrant groups, 156; as top problem for US, 202, 212n27; white settler societies and, 66–67. See also African Americans; Asian exclusion; Black immigrants; interracial couples
racial exclusion through national-origins quotas, 2, 4–12, 83–85; Asians tracked by race as opposed to nationality, 8, 51, 251n39; Asia-Pacific Triangle provision, 91, 193, 194, 237; Cold War and, 3, 7–8, 60, 86; colonialism and, 9, 47, 85; by Cuba, 47, 57; deportation and, 40–41; Displaced Persons and, 8, 68, 192, 193; Emergency Quota Act, 5, 38, 50, 52, 63n25, 84, 85; European immigration and, 5–6, 47, 193; vs. family unification, 189, 233–237; ideology driving, 191; indigenous displacement and, 66; from Japan, 162; Japanese exclusion, 5, 84, 92, 162, 172, 237; Latin American laws removed, 23, 60, 84, 87; Latin Americans and, 85–87; laws, worldwide, 17n8, 36–37, 83–84, 87; Magnuson Act and, 7, 70, 88, 233, 234, 249n16; McCarran-Walter Act and, 4, 7–9, 91, 93, 193–194, 232, 237; public opinion on, 93, 208, 209–210; quotas created, 5–6, 27, 28, 84; restrictionists, 7–8, 10; Truman opposes, 8, 18n19, 91, 194–196; Tydings-McDuffie Act exemptions, 6, 36, 85. See also Asian exclusion; Chinese exclusion; Hart-Celler Act (1965); hemispheric caps; immigration law enforcement; Johnson-Reed Act (1924); national-origins quotas, exemptions; national-origins quotas, removal; refugee policy; remote control systems
racial integration: Japanese war brides and, 243–244; Puerto Rican youth and, 217, 222–223; as top problem facing US, 202, 212n27
racial stereotypes: about Mexican vs Japanese workers, 163, 167, 176–177; of Japanese women, 189, 238, 239–240; of Puerto Ricans, 188–189, 214, 219
racism: Bracero Program and, 132, 133; British treatment toward Chinese sailors, 104, 114–119; Chinese Exclusion Act and, 48–50; denial of, 242–243; Japanese war brides and, 241, 244; Masaoka’s anti-racist efforts, 165–166, 169; medical inspections and, 30–32; national-origins quotas and, 87; Puerto Ricans and, 214, 215–218
Refugee Act (1980), 11, 19n29, 77
refugee policy, 65–77; AFSC, 66, 71–72, 74; AJC, 66, 67–68, 69, 75, 79n16, 80m26; ARCI, 66, 71, 72–73, 76, 81nn42, 51; Chinese refugees and, 69–74; Cold War politics shape, 68–70, 73, 75, 76, 77n1, 78n4; communism, defection from, 9, 11, 18n18, 69–70, 72–73, 75, 78n4; Displaced Persons Act, 67–68, 75, 79n16; Hart-Celler Act and, 11, 19n28, 65–66, 75–77, 77n1, 94; Hong Kong and, 70–74, 76, 80n29; Jewish refugees and, 7, 67, 68, 69–70, 76, 80n26; race-based discrimination and, 66–67, 68, 70, 73, 74, 75, 78n4; Refugee Act, 11, 19n29; Refugee Relief Act and, 8, 68–69, 70–71, 75–76; resettlement assistance, 71, 73, 76, 79n16, 81n42, 82n59; US’s humanitarian image and, 22, 65–67, 70, 71–76
Refugee Relief Act (1953), 8, 68–69, 70–71, 75–76, 162, 164, 165
refugees: Japanese agricultural workers as, 164–165; in Kennedy administration bills, 202; national-origins quotas and, 192, 193; population numbers, 80n29; Somalian, 280; Syrian, 65; UN definition of, 11, 19n29. See also Chinese refugees; Jewish refugees
relationships, long-distance: Cartas a Eufemia and, 258–263; emotional pain and, 258; ending of due to separation, 263–266. See also family reunification
religious organizations and agencies: AFSC, 66, 71–72, 74; humanitarian efforts for refugees by, 67, 75; lobby for immigration law reform, 75; political handling of support from, 80n26
remote control systems, 6–7, 21, 25–41; bureaucracy of, 29, 32; definition, 26; Johnson-Reed Act and, 38; medical inspections, 26, 27, 30–38; private companies’ reliance, 25–26, 27, 32; racism and, 30–32; state vs. private, 26, 27; strengthening of, 39, 54; US immigration officers posted internationally for preclearance, 39; US influence and international cooperation and, 25–26; during WWI, 35–39. See also immigration law enforcement; national-origins quotas
Republican Party: civil rights and, 203; divide over immigration reform, 203–204; Japanese American public relations and, 170; Johnson election and, 204–205; Truman’s veto of McCarran-Walter Act and, 195
resettlement assistance: AFSC and, 71; ARCI and, 73, 81n42; Displaced Persons Act emphasizes, 79n16; Hart-Celler Act falls short, 66, 76, 82n59; for intellectuals, 73
residency certification, 26, 30, 31
resident alien status: of German specialists, 145, 153. See also visas, H-2
restaurants, Chinese and, 104, 108, 112–113
restrictionists, 7–8, 10, 12, 13, 22, 86. See also
racial exclusion through national-origins quotas
Rio Tijuana encampment, 255
Rogers Act (1924), 35
Roosevelt, Eleanor, 215
Roosevelt, Franklin Delano, 86, 88, 118, 132
Ross, Edward, 111
routes of entry via neighboring countries, 45–46; Chinese immigrants and, 48
Rowe, Captain (SS Silver Ash), 110
Roybal, Edward, 200
Rudolph, Arthur, 153
Rumanian immigrants, 195
Russia. See Soviet Union
Rustin, Bayard, 222
Scalia, Antonin, 40
scientists, German and Austrian. See German and Austrian specialists; intellectuals, recruitment of
seasonal workers. See agricultural workers; Bracero Program; temporary workers; visas, H-2A; visas, H-2B
Segarra, Arnold, 224
Seidl, Tom, 136
Senate Immigration Subcommittee, 201
Senate Judiciary Subcommittee on Immigration and Naturalization, 196
Senate Report 1515 (Senate Special Subcommittee to Investigate Immigration and Naturalization, 1950), 193
Senate Resolution 137 (1947), 193
Senate Special Subcommittee to Investigate Immigration and Naturalization, 193
Shankman, Arnold, 278
Shaughnessy, Edward J., 117
Shenk, Janet, 136
Sheppard, Oliver H., 124
shipping companies: agriculture workers’ transport, 125, 128; liability of, 32; medical inspections by, 32–35; national-origins quotas and, 38; smuggling on, 22, 53–54. See also British wartime shipping; Chinese sailors, desertion of British ships by
skilled labor. See labor, highly skilled
skills-based admissions, 104, 105–106; in Celler bill, 202; in Hart bill, 202; H-1 visas and, 130; McCarran-Walter Act and, 145, 155, 156, 193–194; public opinion on, 208, 209–210. See also intellectuals, recruitment of; labor, highly skilled
smuggling: cost of, 53; Cuba and, 50–51, 52–53; Golden Venture incident, 45, 61; New York Times report, 53, 54; treaties banning, 56, 63n39, 64n41
Somalian refugees, 280
songs of love. See films and songs of love
Sotomayor, Sonia, 226
Southern regions of United States: braceros contracted in, 130–131; establishment of national origins quota system and, 191; Truman’s veto on McCarran-Walter Act and, 195
Soviet Union, 7–8; defectors from, 72; exploitation of German specialists by, 146; opposition to immigrants from, 207; relations with, 200; UN charter and, 89–90
Spain, 48
Spanish Welfare League, 216
Spickard, Paul, 278
SS California Standard (British vessel), 114
SS Shanks (vessel transporting temporary workers), 125
SS Silver Ash (British vessel), 110
Steinberg, Stephen, 278, 283n13
Student Nonviolent Coordinating Committee, 223
students: African, 274–275, 276; Asian, 9, 12; Chinese intellectual refugees, 72–73; exemptions for, 9, 29, 48, 145; Japanese agricultural workers as, 162–163, 173–174, 175. See also intellectuals, recruitment of; Puerto Rican youth
Students for a Democratic Society, 227
Suez crisis, 9
sugar industry: in Cuba, 48, 49; temporary workers in, 124–129, 133, 136, 137; worker conditions, 124, 137
Supreme Commander for the Allied Powers (SCAP), 234, 236
Supreme Court, US, 40
Switzerland, 40
Syrian refugees, 65
Tai Pun (Dapeng) Association, 112
Technical Industrial Intelligence Committee, 147
Teller, Edward, 7
temporary workers, 15n1, 104–105; citizenship restrictions, 3, 14, 103, 105; deportation of, 123; distinguishing between permanent migrants and, 55, 56; IRCA and, 138; recruitment of, 134, 136, 138, 142n21; remain permanently, 12, 106, 139; restrictions lifted during WWI, 97n14; in sugar industry, 124–129, 133, 136, 137; visa classifications, 123–124, 130, 138–139, 140; West Indians as, 277. See also agricultural workers, Japanese; Bracero Program; labor, highly skilled; McCarran-Walter Act (1952); skills-based admissions; visas
Ting, Jan, 95
tobacco industry, 138
transit countries, 13
travel documentation. See passports; visas
Trinidad and Tobago, 202
Truman, Harry, 67, 90, 147, 151, 210n3; Commission on Immigration and Naturalization, 92, 195–196; vetoes McCarran-Walter Act, 8, 18n19, 91, 194–196
Truman Commission (Commission on Immigration and Naturalization), 92, 195–196
“Truman Directive” (1945 executive order), 67
Trump, Donald J., 40, 41, 64n54
Tydings-McDuffie Act (1934), 6, 36, 85
Ukrainian immigrants, 195, 199
undocumented immigrants. See immigrants, undocumented
United Bronx Parents (UBP), 223
United Farm Workers (UFW), 135–136
United Fruit Company (UFC), 125
United Nations, 19n29; charter of, 89–90; Conference on International Organization, 89; refugee definition of, 11, 19n29; Relief and Rehabilitation Administration, 71
United Service for New Americans, 69
United States: entry through neighboring countries, 45, 52–53, 59, 61n3; government assists Britain in recovering deserting seamen, 104, 107, 108–109, 116–119; humanitarian image of, 22, 65–67, 69, 70, 71–76; immigrant demographics in, 12, 83; labor relief programs, during WWII, 126–127; neighbor country relations, 85–86; overseas expansion of, 187; political role after WWII, 13; racist image of, 90–91; relations with Japan, 105, 162–163, 172, 174, 238; smuggling treaties and, 56; UN charter and, 89–90
United States Escapee Program, 72. See also refugees
Universal Declaration of Human Rights (1948), 90
University of the Streets, 225
US Air Force, 153
US Border Patrol, 6, 17n11, 258
US Bureau of the Budget, 194
US-Canada border, 27
US consuls, 28–29; in Cuba, 51, 57, 58; in Hong Kong, 28, 29, 34; in Japan, 236; as labor recruiters, 29; visa denial at, 28, 40; visas for German specialists issued at, 152–153. See also remote control systems
US Department of Agriculture, 130
US Department of Commerce, 147–148
US Department of Justice, 124, 148–149, 152
US Department of Labor, 53; Bracero Program and, 134; H-2 program and, 136, 138, 139; Immigration Bureau and, 5, 17n11; Japanese guest-worker program and, 167, 168, 170–171, 172, 174–175, 179
US Department of State: German specialists and, 148–149, 151, 154; Japanese agricultural workers and, 163, 166, 168, 170, 171, 172, 173, 174–175; on McCarran-Walter Act, 194
US Department of Treasury, 5
US Department of War, 146, 147–148, 148–149, 150, 151, 152, 154
US Information Service (USIS), 174
US Marshall plan, 11
US merchant marines, 115
US-Mexico border, 5, 6, 10, 17n11, 27
US Public Health Service (PHS), 30
US Sugar Corporation, 124, 128, 137
Vail Corporation, 139
Valenti, Jack, 94
Venezuela, 89
Vietnamese immigrants, 12, 93, 234
visas: discriminatory issuing of, 39–40; eligibility criteria, 3, 32; inspections of, 36; limits on, 10–11, 12, 40, 58–59, 193–194; procedures for obtaining by German specialists, 152–153; standardization of, 26, 35
visas, denial of: McCarran-Walter Act and, 18n20; rejection rates, 39–40, 44nn55, 57; remote control and, 28–29; at US consuls, 28–29, 40; during World War II, 6–7
visas, H-1, 130
visas, H-1B, 104, 124, 138, 156
visas, H-2, 104–105, 123–124, 129–130, 136–140; demographics and statistics of recipients, 138–139; Japanese agricultural labor and, 168, 173; long-term effects of program, 137–139; replaces Bracero Program, 123; sugar industry precedes issuing of, 124–125, 128–129, 133, 136. See also agricultural workers; Bracero Program; temporary workers
visas, H-3, 130
Visa Waiver Program, 40
Viteles, Harry, 51
Viva Kennedy, 200
von Braun, Wernher, 1, 2, 8, 153
Von Mach, M. E., 124
Voting Rights Act (1965), 10, 83, 92
wages: for agricultural workers, 137; Bracero Program and, 133, 134; paid by US merchant marines, 115; for sugar workers, 124–125, 137; wage gap for Chinese sailors, 104, 109–110, 111, 114, 117
Wagner-Rogers bill, 7
Wallace, Henry A., 147
Walter, Francis “Tad,” 201, 202
war brides, 88, 162, 189, 231–247; brides’ schools for, 241–242; as embodiment of US-Japan relations, 239, 243–244; legislation for, 234–237; Madame Butterfly tales and, 238–246; married to black men, 236, 243–244, 251n35; media depictions of, 238, 239–241; mixed-race children of, 189, 244–246; numbers of, 235, 236, 237–238; Pfeiffer, 1, 2, 241, 242, 246; reasons for change in immigration laws, 233; reasons for marriage, 240; as rewards for deserving soldiers, 233, 237; uplifting stories about, 240–241, 242–243
War Brides Act (1945), 8, 189, 234, 235, 248n9
War Food Administration, 128
War Labor Board, 128
War Relocation Authority, 165
Warren, Earl, 162
War Shipping Administration (WSA), 108, 109, 117–118
Wasserman, Jack, 117
Watkins, W. F., 112
Western Hemisphere nations: Eastern Hemisphere caps, 5–6, 10, 94–95; hemispheric gatekeeping by US, 36, 45–47, 51–52; immigration caps for, 10–11, 12, 94–95, 193, 202
Western Hemisphere nations, quota exemptions. See hemispheric caps, exemptions
West Indian immigrants: community building by, 274, 278, 281; demographics in US, 12; discriminatory treatment of, 194; intra-Caribbean migration of, 47; Jamaican workers, 125, 128, 136, 137, 141nn12, 13; research on, 280; temporary-worker visas and, 277. See also Puerto Ricans
West Indies, 6; alternate routes to US through, 45; the Bahamas, 123, 125, 277, 280, 283n10; Dominican Republic, 12, 46, 47, 64n47, 89; guest-worker program, 168, 171, 172–173; Haiti, 46, 47, 64n47; Jamaica, 202, 277, 280; Johnson-Reed Act, effects on diplomacy and policy in, 52–57; national-origins quotas and, 9, 47, 91; Puerto Rico, 46, 188, 214, 228n1, 282n4; racial exclusion and, 91; research deficit on immigration from, 14, 273–274; upholds US immigration policy, 46, 61n3. See also Cuba
whiteness: assimilation of Asians and, 246; Cuban immigration and, 48–49; employers of Japanese agricultural workers and, 168–169; McCarran-Walter Act and, 156. See also interracial couples
white settler societies, 66–67, 70
Whom We Shall Welcome (Commission on Immigration and Naturalization report), 92
Wildman, Rounsevelle, 29
Williams, Rob, 137
Williamson, Neal, 124
Wise, Stephen S., 154
women: Chinese women immigrating as wives of citizens, 233–234, 249n16; Mexican women in long-distance relationships with migrants, 258–263. See also war brides
Wood, Leonard, 48
World War II, 4; China and, 70; Cuba and, 57–59; detention of illegal aliens in, 38–39; intellectual reparations after, 146; Jewish refugees denied US entry, 6–7; labor relief programs, by US state, 126–127; national-origins quotas and, 86, 87–88; social change after, 192–194; US political role after, 13. See also British wartime shipping; German and Austrian specialists
You Gee, 113
Young Lords Organization, 226
Yugoslavian immigrants, 195
Yu Tsune-chi, 111