The Ages of Globalization: Geography, Technology, and Institutions

Africa, 23, 33; diseases of, 152; European empires dividing, 153; Europe’s onslaught of, 151–52; farm animals of, 55; indigenous people and slaves from, 116–20; migration from, 34–35, 41; slave trade from, 118, 118–19; tsetse-infested, 56; wild ass of, 58

agriculture, 3; in ecological zones, 45–46; emergence of, 41–42, 42; horses used in, 65–66; in Neolithic Age, 5, 8; population and, 135; sedentism leading to, 41; in Song Dynasty, 90; sustainable, 13

air pollution, 187–88, 190, 190

Alexander the Great, 28, 65–66, 75–76, 76

Alexander VI (Spanish pope), 108–9

algal blooms, 190, 191

algorithms, 174–75

Allison, Graham, 193

alluvial civilizations, 46–48

AlphaGo (AI system), 176

Anatolia, migration from, 64

ancient urban centers, 67

Anglo-American hegemony, 130, 153–56

animal domestication, 54–56

animal husbandry, 50

anopheles gambiae (mosquito), 152

anti-fascist alliance, 207

anti-trade policy, of China, 97

Aristotle, 69, 70, 75, 77, 212

artificial intelligence, 174, 175–76, 185

artificial neural networks, 174

Asia: climate and population in, 113; East, 165; Europe’s divergence with, 144–45; fossil fuels polluting air of, 190; migration from, 227n11; steppes of, 53; trade control sought by, 107–8

Assyrian kingdom, 66

Aurelius, Marcus, 84

Battle of Plassey (1757), 148

Battle of Tours (732 CE), 87

Bayt-al-Hikmah (House of Wisdom), 78

Beckert, Sven, 120–21

Belt and Road Initiative (BRI), 205, 206

Beringian land bridge, 19

biodegradable waste products, 199–200

biodiversity, 17–18, 184, 188–89, 199

biomass burning, 190

blank-slate learning (tabula rasa), 176

Bolshevik Revolution, 113

Boulton, Richard, 137

Boxer Rebellion, 147

BRI. See Belt and Road Initiative

Britain: China’s Opium War with, 146–47; coal access of, 137, 143; Egypt controlled by, 154; energy consumption of, 133–34; France’s war with, 123; global empire of, 109; India rule by, 148–49; Industrial Age entered by, 133; industrialization of, 135–38, 142–43, 155; military confrontation used by, 109; naval power of, 112; per capita GDP in, 141; textile industry of, 121; U.S. economic dominance with, 154

British East India Company, 108, 110, 120, 148

British Empire, 112, 154–55

Brundtland, Gro Harlem, 197

Bulgar group, 65, 86

Byzantine Empire, 85–88, 86

cannon artillery, 29

Cape Verde islands, 108

capitalism, 107–8, 115–16, 120–21, 151

carbon dioxide (CO₂), 102–3, 184

de las Casas, Bartolome, 117

Catholic Church, 106

Chiang Kai-shek, 147

child mortality rates, 129

China: anti-trade policy of, 97; Britain’s Opium War with, 146–47; economic development in, 180; GDP of, 154; global output of, 181; Great Leap Forward of, 147–48; Guangzhou, 190, 190; gunpowder developed in, 104; Han Dynasty and boundaries of, 80; Japan invading, 147; language in, 72; as Middle Kingdom, 96; navigational capacity of, 95–96; open world trade embraced by, 98; per capita GDP of, 180; Qin in, 80; R&D spending of, 182, 182; Shandong, 191; Smith describing, 98; Song Dynasty of, 88–91; transnational cooperation of, 205; U.S. and rising power of, 193

Christianity, 67, 70

Churchill, Winston, 159

CIS. See Commonwealth of Independent States

civilizational advances, 66–67

civilizations, alluvial, 46–48

Civil War, U.S. (1861–65), 161

Classical Age, 2–3, 7, 195; empires of, 69; lessons from, 94; population in, 11; religions of, 69

climate, of Russia, 112–13

climate change, 13, 17, 188; carbon storage in, 199; fossil fuels and, 170; human activity in, 197

climate zones: CIS, EU and Asia in, 113; dry regions in, 24; Eurasian populations by, 24–25, 25; Köppen-Geiger Mediterranean, 79; lucky latitudes in, 49; population distribution across, 83–84, 84; of steppes, 53; tropical regions in, 22–23

CO₂. See carbon dioxide

coal, 16, 18, 51, 131; Britain’s access to, 137, 143; geological deposits of, 145; in industrialization, 27–28, 145

coastal regions, 25–27

Code of Hammurabi, 66

colonial era, 163–64

Columbian exchange, 100–103, 101

Columbus, Christopher, 11, 99, 99, 108

Commentariolus (Copernicus), 105

Commonwealth of Independent States (CIS), 27, 112, 113

competitive exclusion, 37

computers, 4–5, 170–71, 175

Conference of Berlin (1885), 152

conflict risks, 192–93

Confucianism, 69, 71–72, 90

consensus, lack of, 211

consonantal writing system, 73

Constantine XI (Byzantine emperor), 98

Constantinople, fall of, 104–5

consumerism, in Europe, 119

Copernicus, Nicolaus, 105, 135

Corded Ware culture, 63

countries: illiteracy of, 164, 164–65; life expectancy of, 164, 164–65; per capita GDP of, 142; population and global output of, 209, 209–10

crops, 50, 101, 101

Cuban Missile Crisis, 213

cultural acceleration, 37–38

Cultural Revolution, 148

cuneiform, 47–48, 66

Cw temperate monsoon climate, 23

data, 4, 169, 172, 219–20, 226n7

da Vinci, Leonardo, 135

Declaration of Independence, 131

Decline and Fall of the Roman Empire (Gibbon), 131

decolonization, 163–67

Deep Blue (IBM computer), 175

demographic changes, 2

Denisovans, 3, 35–37

Department of Defense, U.S., 171

developing countries, 178, 179

Dias, Bartolomou, 98

Digital Age, 2, 4–5, 196; economic growth in, 193–94; global interactions in, 11

digital revolution, 166, 168, 170–77, 186

digital technologies, 181

Diocletian (Roman emperor), 77–80

directed technical change, 199

diseases: of Africa, 152; from Europe, 102; of livestock, 101–2; smallpox, 102; tropical vector-borne, 49, 117; trypanosomiasis, 50

divergence, great global, 143–46, 144

dog domestication, 54–55

domestication, animal, 18–19, 46, 54–59

donkeys, 47, 55, 57–59, 67

Drake, Francis, 109, 116

dromedary camels, 55

droughts, 190, 191

Dutch East India Company, 108–9, 120

East India Company, 108–10, 116, 120, 148

ecological crisis, 170

ecological zones, 45–46

Economic Consequences of the Peace, The (Keynes), 155–56, 158

economic development: Britain and U.S., 154, 154; in China, 180; extreme poverty ended by, 198–99; primary energy reserves in, 27–28; riverine cities in, 47–48; from technologies, 21

economic growth, 10, 138; in Digital Age, 193–94; living standard through, 196–97; sustainable, 187

economics, 10, 159, 184

egalitarianism, 39–40

Egypt, 47, 60, 73; Britain controlling, 154; earliest kingdoms of, 66

Eisenhower, Dwight D., 199

Elizabeth (queen of England), 110, 116

Emancipation Decree of 1861, 121

Empire of Cotton (Beckert), 120

empires: Achaemenid, 74–75, 77; Africa divided by European, 153; Akkadian, 66; of Alexander the Great, 76; British, 112, 154–55; Byzantine, 85–88, 86; of Classical Age, 69; climate zones distribution of, 83–84, 84; dryland, 51; of Eurasia, 82, 82–83; globalization with competing, 28; greed in building, 114–15; Habsburg, 157; Han, 80–83; Hellenistic, 76; land-based, 3–4, 73–76; lucky latitudes and land, 73–74; Maratha, 148; Mongol, 65, 86, 91–93, 92; Mughal, 111, 148; multiethnic multireligious, 11; Neo-Assyrian, 66, 73–74, 74; Ottoman, 89, 111, 158; Parthian, 82–83; Portugal and, 110, 110–11; Roman, 77–80, 82–83, 85–88, 156; Romanov, 158; Russian, 27, 112–14; Safavid, 111; Seleucid, 77; temperate zone, 51; Timurid, 93, 93–94; transoceanic, 4; Umayyad, 87, 87. See also global empires

empirical research, 75

employment, 16, 226n7

encomiendas (land grants), 117

End of Poverty, The (book), 176

energy, 18, 133–35, 134

environmental, social, and governance (ESG), 200

environmental crisis, 184, 187–90

environmental process, 11–12, 19

Equestrian Age, 2–3, 7, 11, 67–68, 195

equestrian states, 65–66

equine piroplasmosis (theileria parva), 55

equus ferus. See wild horses

Erasmus, Desiderius, 105

ESG. See environmental, social, and governance

EU. See European Union

eudaimonia (flourishing life), 212

Eurasia: advantages of, 20–22; alluvial civilizations of, 46–48; empires of, 82, 82–83; horse-based societies in, 62–63, 65; horses role in, 53; Mongol control of, 92; North American compared to, 63; population by climate zone of, 24–25, 25; population of, 44; steppes in, 24, 54; technological advances in, 49; temperate zones of, 48; world production share of, 21, 21; writing systems in, 70; Yamnaya breakthrough in, 62–65

Europe: Africa divided by empires of, 153; African onslaught by, 151–52; age of inquiry in, 104–6; Asia’s divergence with, 144–45; consumerism in, 119; cotton for factories of, 120–21; decolonization and, 163–67; diseases from, 102; farmers in, 45; global empire sought by, 108–12; global-scale trade of, 107–8; Indian Ocean dominated by, 103–4; industrialization diffusion in, 141–43; languages from, 50, 64–65; lucky latitudes in, 48–49; New World divided up by, 111; North America sea routes linking, 125–26; North America settled by, 22; population of, 27; precious metals of, 117; print shops in, 105; wars of, 156–59; Western, 99, 126, 143

European Union (EU), 113, 182, 182

evolutionary process, 33

extreme poverty, 129, 165; basic human needs and, 225n4; economic objectives ending, 198–99; end of, 176, 183, 213; rates of, 9, 177; technologies reducing, 177

farmers, 41, 129; in Europe, 45; nomadism compared to, 43–45; Russia’s peasant, 113–14; systems for, 82; U.S. food from, 15; villages of, 5, 43–45

farm mechanization, 5

Ferdinand (king), 99, 108

Fertile Crescent, 42, 66–67

fertility rates, 13, 135, 201

feudal structure, 151

fiber-optics cables, 172

fire, control of, 18

flourishing life (eudaimonia), 212

Food and Agricultural Organization, 161

food production, 4, 135

foragers, 35–36, 39–40

fossil fuels, 4, 27, 133; Asia polluted by, 190; climate change and, 170; CO₂ emitted from, 184; to renewable energy, 13, 187–88

French East India Company, 110

French Revolution, 5, 123

GATT. See General Agreement on Tariffs and Trade

GDP. See gross domestic product

GEI. See Global Energy Interconnection initiative

GEIDCO. See Global Energy Interconnection Development and Cooperation Organization

gender equality, 199, 201

General Agreement on Tariffs and Trade (GATT), 161

general-purpose technology (GPT), 134

Genghis Khan, 91, 93

geography, 12, 18, 106; factors involved in, 17–18; of Japan, 150; North America bounties from, 21–22; physical, 19; of Russia, 113–14; technologies and, 18

geological deposits, of coal, 145

geopolitics, 30; leadership, 162, 168; power in, 184–85

global capitalism, 107–8, 120–21

global convergence, 163–67

global divergence, 143–46, 144

global economic activity, 170

global empires, 111; of Britain, 109; Europe seeking, 108–12; nations of, 124; Smith’s summation of, 124–26; of Spain and Portugal, 110, 110–11; war among, 121–24

Global Energy Interconnection Development and Cooperation Organization (GEIDCO), 205

Global Energy Interconnection (GEI) initiative, 205

global hegemony, of U.S., 159–62, 168

globalization: ages of, 6; Anglo-American dominance in, 130; consensus lacking in, 211; distinct ages of, 1–5; empires competing in, 28; employment shares by sectors in, 16; in Industrial Age, 129; of politics, 69; shared reality in, 214

global output, 179, 181, 209, 209–10

global patterns, 145–46

global trade, 4, 84, 98, 107–8, 137

Glorious Revolution (1688), 122, 136

Goering, Hermann, 212–13

Golden Hind (vessel), 116

Goodrich, L. Carrington, 80

goods, production of, 14

GPT. See general-purpose technology

Great Depression, 157, 159, 167

Great Dispersal from Africa, 34–35, 35

Great Leap Forward, 147–48

Greco-Roman world, 70

greed, in building empires, 114–15

Greek alphabet, 48, 71

Greek society, 76–79

greenhouse gases, 184, 187, 189

gross domestic product (GDP), 139, 154, 188. See also per capita GDP

Guangzhou, China, 190, 190

gunpowder, 29, 103–4

Guns, Germs, and Steel (Diamond), 46

Guttenberg, Johannes, 105, 131

Han Dynasty, 80, 81, 93

health care, 199–200

Hellenistic empire, 76

Henry (king of Portugal), 98

Henry the Navigator, 108

hierarchical structure, of societies, 39

hieroglyphics, 47–48, 50, 66

highland regions, 22

Histories (Herodotus), 75

Hitler, Adolph, 158–59

Holland, 109, 137, 141

hominin brains, 33, 35

Homo sapiens, 3, 33–34, 36–37, 195

horse-drawn chariot, 29, 67

Horse in Human History, The (Kelekna), 62

horses: agriculture using, 65–66; domestication of, 18–19, 46, 57–59; Eurasia and societies using, 62–63, 65; Eurasian role of, 53; hunted for meat, 58; long-distance trade from, 67; in North America, 101; North American extinction of, 56; societies based on, 59; steppes with domestication of, 59; technologies distributed by, 64; as transportation vehicle, 54; warhorse and, 60; wild, 36, 55, 57, 62

House of Wisdom (Bayt-al-Hikmah), 78

human activities, 11–12, 197

human history, 1–2, 5

human settlements, 10–11

human society, 38–40

hunter-gatherers, 40, 195; farm villages forcing out, 43–45; in Paleolithic Age, 15–16; wild horses killed off by, 55; Yamnaya people as, 63

hybridization of ideas, 138

Hyde 3.1 Project, 7, 83

hydraulic civilizations, 47

hydroelectric power, 143

ICTs. See information and communications technologies

Ieyasu, Tokugawa, 150

illiteracy, of countries, 164, 164–65

impartial spectator, 124

Indian Ocean, 97, 102–4

indigenous people, 102, 116–20

Indo-European language, 50, 64–65

Industrial Age, 2, 4, 7, 11, 195; Britain entering, 133; globalization in, 129; lessons from, 167–68; steam engine in, 16–17, 131–34, 132

industrialization, 5, 7–9; of Britain, 135–38, 142–43, 155; coal in, 27–28, 145; colonial era ending and, 163–64; economic divergence in, 144, 144; Europe’s diffusion of, 141–43; global patterns of, 145–46; of Japan, 150; self-sustaining, 137–38; stages of, 141

industrial production, 14

Industrial Revolution, 17, 138

inequalities, 196–97; challenges from, 185–86; economic, 184; gender, 199; technological changes for, 30

Influence of Sea Power Upon History, 1660–1783, The (Mahan), 112

information and communications technologies (ICTs), 141

information technologies, 4–5

infrastructure development, 161

innovative designs, 138–41

In Praise of Folly (Erasmus), 105

inquiry, age of, 104–6

institutions, 1, 17, 18, 19–20

integrated circuits, 171–72

intelligent technologies, 141

internal combustion engines, 4

International Monetary Fund, 161, 178

Isabella (queen), 99, 108

Iwakura Mission, 151

Japan: China invaded by, 147; feudal structure of, 151; geography of, 150; industrialization of, 150; as military powerhouse, 146; population of, 150; Russo-Japanese War and, 151; Sino-Japan War and, 151

Jaspers, Karl, 70–71

Jeopardy (game show), 175

Jesuit Order of the Catholic Church, 106

Jurchen horsemen, 90

Kasparov, Garry, 175–76

Kelekna, Pita, 62, 81

Kennedy, John F., 30–31, 200, 211, 213–14

Kenya-Somalia border, 190, 191

Keynes, John Maynard, 155–56, 158

kingdoms, of Egypt, 66

King William’s War, 122

knowledge, advancements in, 105–6

Koch, Alexander, 102

Kondratiev, Nikolai, 139

Kondratiev waves, 139–41, 140

Köppen-Geiger climate system, 22–23, 23, 218

Köppen-Geiger Mediterranean climate zone, 79

Kurki, Sofi, 139, 141

land-based empires, 3–4, 73–76

land grants (encomiendas), 117

land power (tellurocracy), 72

land use, 103, 188, 222–23

language, 38, 167; book writings with, 71; in China, 72; from Europe, 50, 64–65; Indo-European, 50, 64–65. See also writing systems

leadership, geopolitical, 162, 168

League of Nations, 207

Leyes Nuevos (New Laws), 117

life expectancy, of countries, 164, 164–65

life satisfaction, 202

livestock, 101, 101–2

living standards, 13, 196–97

local governance, 204

Louis XIV (king of France), 106, 122

Loyola, Ignatius de, 106

lucky latitudes: ancient urban centers in, 67; in climate zones, 49; in Europe, 48–49; global trade within, 84; land empires in, 73–74; Old World, 228n10; technological innovations in, 50–51; in U.S., 49; world population in, 83

machine intelligence, 173, 175

Maddison, Angus, 7–8, 20, 141, 143

Magyar group, 65, 86

Mahan, Alfred Thayer, 112

malaria, 19–23, 49–50, 102, 152

Malthus, Thomas Robert, 12–13

Malthusian curse, 12–13

Mandeville, Bernard, 115

al-Mansur, Abdullah ibn Muhammad, 78

Mao Zedong, 147–48

mathematical weighting, 174–75

megafauna, 35–36, 55

Mehmed II (Ottoman sultan), 98

Meiji Restoration, 151, 180

Mencius, state law of, 71

microwave transmission, 172

Middle Paleolithic, 34

migration: from Africa, 34–35, 41; from Anatolia, 64; from Asia, 227n11; during Neolithic Age, 64; in Paleolithic Age, 10–11; from steppes, 64

military: confrontation, 109; Japan’s powerhouse, 146; technology, 29–30; U.S. bases for, 162, 163

Ming Dynasty, 93, 96–97

mobile phones, 173, 173

Mongol Empire, 65, 86, 91–93, 92

monsoon patterns, 47

Moore’s law, 172, 172, 175

mosquito (anopheles gambiae), 152

Mughal Empire, 111, 148

multiethnic multireligious empires, 11

multi-national groups, 205

Napoleonic Wars, 123, 129

native Americans, 102–3, 119

natural resources, 160

naval power, of Britain, 112

naval technology, 96

navigational capacity, of China, 95–96

Neanderthals, 3, 35–37, 40

Neo-Assyrian Empire, 66, 73–74, 74

Neolithic Age, 2–3, 7, 10–11, 195; agriculture in, 5, 8; lessons from, 51–52; migrations during, 64

networks, computer, 171

neural networks, 174, 174–75

Newcomen, Thomas, 131–33

New International Economic Order (NIEO), 167, 208

New Laws (Leyes Nuevos), 117

Newton, Isaac, 106, 131, 136

New World: African slaves in, 116–20; crops exchanged with, 101; European powers dividing, 111; species exchanged with, 100–101

Nichomachean Ethics (Aristotle), 77

NIEO. See New International Economic Order

Nine Years’ War (1688–97), 122

nomadic populations, 43–45, 60

North America: Eurasia compared to, 63; European colonists settling, 22; European sea routes linking, 125–26; geographical bounties of, 21–22; horse extinction in, 56; horses in, 101; King William’s War in, 122; land use in, 103; population of, 102, 103; slave plantations of, 119; technologies cut off from, 51–52

North Atlantic, 98–101

Novum Organum (Bacon, F.), 106

Ocean Age, 2, 4, 7, 195; global reach in, 11; lessons from, 126–27

ocean navigation, 97–101

Old World, 100–101, 228n10

Old World technologies, 21

organic economy, 133

Ottoman Empire, 89, 111, 158

Our Common Future (report), 197

overland transport, 25

ozone depletion, 188

packet switching, 171

Paleolithic Age, 2–3, 7, 195; dog domestication in, 54–55; human dispersal during, 35; hunter/gatherers in, 15–16; lessons from, 40; Middle Paleolithic of, 34; migration and human settlement in, 10–11; productive activity in, 15; sub-periods of, 226n1

Paris Climate Agreement, 232n4

Parthasarathi, Prasannan, 149

Parthian Empire, 82–83

Partial Nuclear Test Ban Treaty (1963), 213

Patent Cooperation Treaty (PCT), 182

pathogens, 101, 101–2

Paul III (pope), 106

PCT. See Patent Cooperation Treaty

Peloponnesian Wars, 75

Peloponnesian Wars (Thucydides), 75

People’s Republic of China, 147

per capita GDP: in Britain and Holland, 141; of China, 180; of countries, 142; of developing countries, 178, 179

permanent settlements, 41

Persian-Greek Wars, 75

Philip of Macedon, 75

philosophers, Islamic, 78

Phoenicians, 72–73

physical geography, 1, 19

plague (yersinia pestis), 45

planetary boundaries, 187–92, 189, 197

Plato, 69–70, 73, 75

Pope, Alexander, 136

population: agriculture and, 135; CIS, EU and Asia density of, 113; in Classical Age, 11; climate zones distribution of, 83–84, 84; of countries, 209, 209–10; data on, 219–20; of Eurasia, 44; Eurasian climate zones, 24–25, 25; of Europe, 27; of Han Empire, 82–83; of Japan, 150; land use and, 222–23; lucky latitudes and world, 83; nomadic, 43–45, 60; of North America, 102, 103; river areas density of, 26; of Roman Empire, 82–83; urbanization and, 130; world, 8, 10, 83, 135

Portugal, 97–98; Cape Verde islands colonized by, 108; discovered lands divided with, 109; global empires of, 110, 110–11

PPP. See purchasing-power-parity

precious metals, 117

primary energy reserves, 27–28

primary sectors, 14–16

Prince, The (Machiavelli), 105

Princep, Gavrilo, 157

print shops, in Europe, 105

private goods, 203–4

privately owned corporations, 107

production: Eurasia’s share of, 21, 21; food, 4, 135; of goods, 14; industrial, 14; Paleolithic Age activity in, 15; sectors of, 14–16; systems, 107; world, 21, 21

profits, capitalism seeking, 115–16

Ptolemaic Kingdom, 77

public goods, 203–5

purchasing-power-adjusted prices, 180

purchasing-power-parity (PPP), 180, 225n4

Qing Dynasty, 111, 146–47

R&D spending, 182, 182, 199

recombinant growth, 139

regime change operations, 162

regional groupings, 205

religions, 69–70, 211–12, 214

renewable energy, 13, 187–88

Republic (Plato), 73

Rio Earth Summit, 197

river areas, 25–27

riverine cities, 26, 47–48

Roman emperor (Diocletian), 77–80

Roman Empire: Diocletian dividing, 77–80; fall of, 85–88; German tribes defeating, 156; population of, 82–83

Roosevelt, Franklin, 159

Royal Society of Edinburgh, 136

Russian Empire, 27, 112–14

Russo-Japanese War (1904-5), 151

Saint-Domingue slave rebellion, 121

Satsuma Rebellion, 151

Science (Bush), 160

SDG. See Sustainable Development Goals

sea level rise, 192, 192

sea power (thalassocracy), 72–73

secondary sectors, 14–16

Second Opium War, 147

Security Council, 209, 210

sedentism, 41, 43–45

self-driving trucks, 186

Seven Years’ War, 122, 148

Shandong, China, 191

Shannon, Claude, 171

ships, cannon-laden, 104

Silk Road, 24, 84, 85, 98

skilled workers, 186

slavery: from Africa, 118, 118–19; indigenous people and, 116–20; North America plantations with, 119; Saint-Domingue rebellion of, 121; for sugar plantations, 120; in temperate zone, 119

Smith, Adam, 98; global empires summation by, 124–26; invisible hand from, 114; Wealth of Nations by, 26, 124, 131, 196

Social Conquest of Earth, The (Wilson, E.), 170

social democracy, 202

social-democratic ethos, 201–3

social institutions, 19–20

societies: Eurasia with horse-based, 62–63, 65; Greek, 76–79; hierarchical structure of, 39; horse-based, 59; human, 38–40

Song Dynasty, 88–91, 89, 104

Soviet Union, 30, 161–62, 207

Spain, 97, 108–11, 110

steam engine, 4; global trading of, 137; in Industrial Age, 16–17, 131–34, 132; Watt patenting, 17

steppes: of Asia, 53; climate zones of, 53; Eurasian, 24, 54; horse domestication in, 59; migration from, 64

subsidiarity doctrine, 196, 203–4

sugar plantations, 120

Summa Theologica (Aquinas), 78

sustainable agriculture, 13

sustainable development, 31, 183–85, 196–200; economic growth from, 187; governance of, 200; public goods for, 204–5; religious leaders on, 211–12; U.N. goals of, 198, 201–2

Sustainable Development Goals (SDG), 178, 198, 202

Taiping Rebellion, 147

technologies, 1–2, 11, 18, 70; digital, 181; digital revolution and, 166; economic development from, 21; environmental impact of, 188–90; Eurasian advances in, 49; of farm villages, 45; geography and, 18; of Han Empire, 82; horses distributing, 64; inequalities and changes in, 30; information, 4–5; innovative designs for, 138–41; institutions and, 17; intelligent, 141; lucky latitudes innovations in, 50–51; military, 29–30; naval, 96; North America cut off from, 51–52; Old World, 21; for poverty reduction, 177; upheavals from, 130; U.S. advances in, 160; wireless, 181

tellurocracy (land power), 72

temperate zones: advantages to, 22–25; empires, 51; of Eurasia, 48; slavery in, 119

territorial competition, 28

tertiary sectors, 14–16

textile industry, 134; of Britain, 121; of India, 149; robots in, 186

thalassocracy (sea power), 72–73

theileria parva (equine piroplasmosis), 55

Thirty Years’ War, 156–57

Timurid Empire, 83, 93, 93–94

Tokugawa Shogunate, 150

Trajan (emperor), 79

transistors, 171, 172

transnational cooperation, 205

transoceanic empires, 4

transportation vehicle, 54

transport systems, 203

Treaty of Tordesillas (1494), 109–10

Treaty of Versailles, 157

Treaty of Zaragoza (1529), 109–10

triangular trade, 119

tropical vector-borne diseases, 49, 117

tropical zones, 22–23

trucks, self-driving, 186

trypanosomiasis disease, 50

tsetse flies, 56, 152

Turing, Alan, 170, 173

Umayyad Empire, 87, 87

U.N. See United Nations

UN Framework Convention on Climate Change (UNFCCC), 204

United Kingdom (U.K.), 144

United Nations (U.N.), 167; as anti-fascist alliance, 207; global center of gravity and, 209–10; reformation of, 207–10; Security Council, 210; sustainable development goals of, 198, 201–2; U.S. supporting, 208–10

United States (U.S.): birth of, 130–31; Britain’s economic dominance with, 154; China’s rising power and, 193; Civil War of, 161; Declaration of Independence of, 131; decolonization supported by, 166–67; Department of Defense, 171; dominant economy of, 159; economic development of, 154, 154; farmer’s food in, 15; GDP of, 154; geopolitical leadership of, 162; global hegemony of, 159–62, 168; global output of, 181; infrastructure development of, 161; lucky latitudes in, 49; military bases of, 162, 163; primary sector employment in, 16; R&D spending of, 182, 182; regime change operations of, 162; Soviet Union challenges to, 161–62; technology advances of, 160; UK comparisons with, 144; unlimited resources of, 121; U.N. supported by, 208–10; War of Independence of, 123; world output of, 155

Universal Declaration of Human Rights, 207

universal health care, 199–200

Upper Pleistocene, 37–40

urbanization, 7; population and, 130; rates of, 8, 9; transformation to, 14–16

U.S. See United States

Utopia (More), 105

Victoria (queen of England), 153

von Neumann, John, 171

War of Independence, U.S., 123

wars: Britain and France in, 123; conflict risks of, 192–93; of Europe, 156–59; geopolitical powers and, 184–85; global empires and, 121–24; King William in, 122; Napoleonic, 123, 129; Nine Years’, 122; Opium, 146–47; Peloponnesian, 75; Persian-Greek, 75; Russo-Japanese, 151; Second Opium, 147; Seven Years’, 122, 148; Sino-Japan, 151; Thirty Years’, 156–57; U.S. Civil War, 161; World War I, 155, 157–58; World War II, 147, 155, 159, 163–65, 171