NOTES

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4C.R. Byerly, Fever of War: The influenza epidemic in the US Army during World War I, New York: New York University Press, 2005.

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6A. Trilla, G. Trilla and C. Daer, ‘The 1918 Spanish flu in Spain’, Clin Inf Dis 47 (2008): 668–73.

7J.M. Barry, The Great Influenza: The epic story of the deadliest plague in history, New York: Penguin Books, 2004.

8G.W. Rice, Black November: The 1918 influenza pandemic in New Zealand (2nd edn), Christchurch: Canterbury University Press, 2005.

9G.W. Rice, Black November.

10G.W. Rice, Black November.

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12N.A. Molinari, I.R. Ortega-Sanchez, M.L. Messonnier, W.W. Thompson, P.M. Wortley, E. Weintraub and C.B. Bridges, ‘The annual impact of seasonal influenza in the US: Measuring disease burden and costs’, Vaccine 25(27) (2007): 5086–96.

13E. Centanni and E. Savonuzzi, ‘La peste aviaria I < II’, Communicazione fatta all’accademia delle scienze mediche e naturali de Ferrara, 1901.

14W. Schäfer, ‘Vergleichende sero-immunologische Untersuchungen über die Viren der Influenza und klassichen Geflügelpest’ [Comparative sero-immunological investigations on the viruses of influenza and classic fowl plague], Zeitschrift für Naturforschung 10b (1955): 81–91.

15J.S. Koen, ‘A practical method for field diagnosis of swine disease’, Am J Vet Med 14 (1919): 468–70.

16R.E. Shope, ‘Swine influenza. I. Experimental transmission and pathology’, J Exp Med 54 (1931): 349–59; R.E. Shope, ‘Swine influenza. III. Filtration experiments and etiology’, J Exp Med 54 (1931): 373–85.

17D. Tyrrell, ‘Discovery of influenza viruses’, in K.G. Nicholson, R.G. Webster, A.J. Hay (eds), Textbook of Influenza, Oxford: Blackwell Science, 1998 (19–26).

18W. Smith and C.V. Stuart-Harris, ‘Influenza infection of man from the ferret’, Lancet 228 (1936): 121–23.

19F.M. Burnet, ‘Influenza virus on the developing egg. I. Changes associated with the development of an egg-passage strain of virus’, Br J Exp Path 17(4) (1936): 282–93.

20G.K. Hirst, ‘The agglutination of red cells by allantoic fluid of chick embryos infected with influenza virus’, Science 94(2427) (1941): 22–23.

21G.K. Hirst, ‘Adsorption of influenza hemagglutinins and virus by red blood cells’, J Exp Med 76(2) (1942): 195–209.

22D. Bucher and P. Palese, ‘The biologically active proteins of influenza virus: Neuraminidase’, in E.D. Kilbourne (ed.), The Influenza Viruses and Influenza, New York: Academic Press, 1975 (83–123).

23T. Francis Jr., ‘A new type of virus from epidemic influenza’, Science 92 (1940): 405–08.

24A.M.-M. Payne, ‘The influenza programme of WHO’, Bull Wld Hlth Org 8(5–6) (1953): 755–92.

25C.M. Chu, C.H. Andrewes and A.W. Gledhill, ‘Influenza in 1948–1949’, Bull Wld Hlth Org 3 (1950): 187–214.

26W.B. Becker, ‘The morphology of tern virus’, Virology 20 (1963): 318–27.

27W.G. Laver, ‘From the Great Barrier Reef to a “cure” for the flu: Tall tales, but true’, Perspect Biol Med 47(4) (2004): 590–96.

28J.C. Downie and W.G. Laver, ‘Isolation of a type A influenza virus from an Australian pelagic bird’, Virology 51(2) (1973): 259–69.

29R.G. Webster, M. Yakhno, V.S. Hinshaw, W.J. Bean and K.G. Murti, ‘Intestinal influenza: Replication and characterization of influenza viruses in ducks’, Virology 84(2) (1978): 268–78.

30B.C. Easterday, D.O. Trainer, B. Tůmová and H.G. Pereira, ‘Evidence of infection with influenza viruses in migratory waterfowl’, Nature 219(5153) (1968): 523–24.

31R.D. Slemons, D.C. Johnson, J.S. Osborn and F. Hayes, ‘Type-A influenza viruses isolated from wild free-flying ducks in California’, Avian Dis 18(1) (1974): 119–24.

32R.G. Webster, M. Morita, C. Pridgen and B. Tůmová, ‘Ortho- and paramyxoviruses from migrating feral ducks: Characterization of a new group of influenza A viruses’, J Gen Virol 32(2) (1976): 217–25.

33R.G. Webster, M. Yakhno, V.S. Hinshaw, W.J. Bean and K.G. Murti, ‘Intestinal influenza: Replication and characterization of influenza viruses in ducks’, Virology 84(2) (1978): 268–78.

34V.S. Hinshaw, R.G. Webster and B. Turner, ‘Novel influenza A viruses isolated from Canadian feral ducks: Including strains antigenically related to swine influenza (Hsw1N1) viruses’, J Gen Virol 41(1) (1978): 115–27.

35B. Harrington, The Flight of the Red Knot, New York/London: W.W. Norton and Co, 1996; D. Cramer, The Narrow Edge: A tiny bird, an ancient crab and an epic journey, New Haven, Connecticut: Yale University Press, 2015.

36P. Hoose, Moonbird: A year on the wing with the great survivor B95, New York: Farrar, Straus and Giroux, 2012.

37C.N. Shuster, H.J. Brockmann and R. Barlow (eds), The American Horseshoe Crab, Cambridge, Massachusetts/London: Harvard University Press, 2003.

38I.L. Graves, ‘Influenza viruses in birds of the Atlantic flyway’, Avian Diseases 36 (1992): 1–10.

39Y. Kawaoka, T.M. Chambers, W.L. Sladen and R.G. Webster, ‘Is the gene pool of influenza viruses in shorebirds and gulls different from that in wild ducks?’, Virology 163(1) (1988): 247–50.

40S. Krauss, D.E. Stallknecht, N.J. Negovetich, L.J. Niles, R.J. Webby and R.G. Webster, ‘Coincident ruddy turnstone migration and horseshoe crab spawning creates an ecological “hot spot” for influenza viruses’, Proc Biol Sci 277(1699) (2010): 3373–79.

41Larry Niles, I.J. Niles and Associates, Rutgers University, personal communication.

42L. Niles, J. Burger and A. Dey, Life Along the Delaware Bay, Cape May: Gateway to a million shorebirds, New Brunswick: Rivergate Books (Rutgers University Press), 2012.

43B. Tůmová and B.C. Easterday, ‘Relationship of envelope antigens of animal influenza viruses to human A2 influenza strains isolated in the years 1957–68’, Bull Wld Hlth Org 41(3) (1969): 429–35.

44H.G. Pereira, B. Tůmová and R.G. Webster, ‘Antigenic relationship between influenza A viruses of human and avian origins’, Nature 215(5104) (1967): 982–83.

45R.G. Webster and H.G. Pereira, ‘A common surface antigen in influenza viruses from human and avian sources’, J Gen Virol 3(2) (1968): 201–08.

46F.M. Burnet and P.E. Lind, ‘Studies on recombination with influenza viruses in the chick embryo. III. Reciprocal genetic interaction between two influenza virus strains’, Aust J Exp Biol Med Sci 30(6) (1952): 469–77.

47Pereira, Tůmová and Webster, ‘Antigenic relationship between influenza A viruses of human and avian origins’.

48R.G. Webster, C.H. Campbell and A. Granoff, ‘The “in vivo” production of “new” influenza A viruses. I. Genetic recombination between avian and mammalian influenza viruses’, Virology 44(2) (1971): 317–28.

49L.J. Zakstelskaja, N.A. Evstigneeva, V.A. Isachenko, S.P. Shenderovitch and V.A. Efimova, ‘Influenza in the USSR: New antigenic variant A2-Hong Kong-1-68 and its possible precursors’, Am J Epidemiol 90(5) (1969): 400–05.

50W.G. Laver and R.G. Webster, ‘Studies on the origin of pandemic influenza. III. Evidence implicating duck and equine influenza viruses as possible progenitors of the Hong Kong strain of human influenza’, Virology 51(2) (1973): 383–91.

51C.M. Chu, C. Shao, C.C. Hou, ‘Studies of strains of influenza viruses isolated during the epidemic in 1957 in Changchun’, Vopr Virusol 2(5) (1957): 278–81.

52W. Chang, ‘National influenza experience in Hong Kong, 1968’, Bull Wld Hlth Org 41(3) (1969): 349–51.

53S. Lui, ‘An ethnographic comparison of wet markets and supermarkets in Hong Kong, 2008’, The Hong Kong Anthr 2 (2008): 1–52.

54K.F. Shortridge, W.K. Butterfield, R.G. Webster and C.H. Campbell, ‘Isolation and characterization of influenza A viruses from avian species in Hong Kong’, Bull Wld Hlth Org 55 (1977): 15–20.

55K.F. Shortridge, R.G. Webster, W.K. Butterfield and C.H. Campbell, ‘Persistence of Hong Kong influenza virus variants in pigs’, Science 196 (1977): 1454–55.

56K.F. Shortridge, W.K. Butterfield, R.G. Webster and C.H. Campbell, ‘Diversity of influenza A virus subtypes isolated from domestic poultry in Hong Kong’, Bull Wld Hlth Org 57(3) (1979): 465–69.

57D.K. L’vov, B. Easterday, R. Webster, A.A. Sazonov and N.N. Zhilina, [‘Virological and serological examination of wild birds during the spring migrations in the region of the Manych Reservoir, Rostov Province’], Vopr Virusol 4 (1977): 409–14. [In Russian.]

58F.J. Austin and R.G. Webster, ‘Evidence of ortho- and paramyxoviruses in fauna from Antarctica’, J Wildl Dis 29(4) (1993): 568–71.

59A.C. Hurt, Y.C. Su, M. Aban, H. Peck, H. Lau, C. Baas, Y.M. Deng, N. Spirason, P. Ellström, J. Hernandez, B. Olsen, I.G. Barr, D. Vijaykrishna and D. Gonzalez-Acuna, ‘Evidence for the introduction, reassortment, and persistence of diverse influenza A viruses in Antarctica’, J Virol 90(21) (2016): 9674–82.

60N. Zhou, S. He, T. Zhang, W. Zou, L. Shu, G.B. Sharp and R.G. Webster, ‘Influenza infection in humans and pigs in southeastern China’, Arch Virol 141(3–4) (1996): 649–61.

61L.L. Shu, N.N. Zhou, G.B. Sharp, S.Q. He, T.J. Zhang, W.W. Zou and R.G. Webster, ‘An epidemiological study of influenza viruses among Chinese farm families with household ducks and pigs’, Epidemiol Infect 117(1) (1996): 179–88.

62J.C. de Jong, E.C. Claas, A.D. Osterhaus, R.G. Webster and W.L. Lim, ‘A pandemic warning?’, Nature 389(6651) (1997): 554.

63K.F. Shortridge, N.N. Zhou, Y. Guan, P. Gao, T. Ito, Y. Kawaoka, S. Kodihalli, S. Krauss, D. Markwell, K.G. Murti, M. Norwood, D. Senne, L. Sims, A. Takada and R.G. Webster, ‘Characterization of avian H5N1 influenza viruses from poultry in Hong Kong’, Virology 252(2) (1998): 331–42.

64L.D. Sims, T.M. Ellis, K.K. Liu, K. Dyrting, H. Wong, M. Peiris, Y. Guan and K.F. Shortridge, ‘Avian influenza in Hong Kong 1997–2002’, Avian Dis 47(3 Suppl) (2003): 832–38.

65Y. Guan, K.F. Shortridge, S. Krauss and R.G. Webster, ‘Molecular characterization of H9N2 influenza viruses: Were they the donors of the “internal” genes of H5N1 viruses in Hong Kong?’, Proc Natl Acad Sci USA 96(16) (1999): 9363–67.

66H. Chen, G. Deng, Z. Li, G. Tian, Y. Li, P. Jiao, L. Zhang, Z. Liu, R.G. Webster and K. Yu, ‘The evolution of H5N1 influenza viruses in ducks in southern China’, Proc Natl Acad Sci USA 101(28) (2004): 10452–57.

67K.S. Li, Y. Guan, J. Wang, G.J. Smith, K.M. Xu, L. Duan, A.P. Rahardjo, P. Puthavathana, C. Buranathai, T.D. Nguyen, A.T. Estoepangestie, A. Chaisingh, P. Auewarakul, H.T. Long, N.T. Hanh, R.J. Webby, L.L. Poon, H. Chen, K.F. Shortridge, K.Y. Yuen, R.G. Webster and J.S. Peiris, ‘Genesis of a highly pathogenic and potentially pandemic H5N1 influenza virus in eastern Asia’, Nature 430(6996) (2004): 209–13.

68X. Xu, K. Subbarao, N.J. Cox and Y. Guo, ‘Genetic characterization of the pathogenic influenza A/Goose/Guangdong/1/96 (H5N1) virus: Similarity of its hemagglutinin gene to those of H5N1 viruses from the 1997 outbreaks in Hong Kong’, Virology 261(1) (1999): 15–19.

69Y. Guan, L.L. Poon, C.Y. Cheung, T.M. Ellis, W. Lim, A.S. Lipatov, K.H. Chan, K.M. Sturm-Ramirez, C.L. Cheung, Y.H. Leung, K.Y. Yuen, R.G. Webster and J.S. Peiris, ‘H5N1 influenza: A protean pandemic threat’, Proc Natl Acad Sci USA 101(21) (2004): 8156–61.

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78J. Pu, S. Wang, Y. Yin, G. Zhang, R.A. Carter, J. Wang, G. Xu, H. Sun, M. Wang, C. Wen, Y. Wei, D. Wang, B. Zhu, G. Lemmon, Y. Jiao, S. Duan, Q. Wang, Q. Du, M. Sun, J. Bao, Y. Sun, J. Zhao, H. Zhang, G. Wu, J. Liu and R.G. Webster, ‘Evolution of the H9N2 influenza genotype that facilitated the genesis of the novel H7N9 virus’, Proc Natl Acad Sci USA 112(2) (2015): 548–53.

79Pu et al., ‘Evolution of the H9N2 influenza genotype’.

80J.C. Jones, S. Sonnberg, R.J. Webby and R.G. Webster, ‘Influenza A (H7N9) virus transmission between finches and poultry’, Emerg Infect Dis 21(4) (2015): 619–28.

81S. Krauss, D.E. Stallknecht, R.D. Slemons, A.S. Bowman, R.L. Poulson, J.M. Nolting, J.P. Knowles and R.G. Webster, ‘The enigma of the apparent disappearance of Eurasian highly pathogenic H5 clade 2.3.4.4 influenza A viruses in North American waterfowl’, Proc Natl Acad Sci USA 113(32) (2016): 9033–38.

82J.K. Taubenberger, A.H. Reid, A.E. Krafft, K.E. Bijwaard and T.G. Fanning, ‘Initial genetic characterization of the 1918 “Spanish” influenza virus’, Science 275(5307) (1997): 1793–96.

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