Note: page numbers followed by f, t, or b refer to figures, tables, or boxes, respectively.
Agreement on the Application of Sanitary and Phytosanitary Measures, 13
Bipartisan Agreement on Trade Policy (May 10 Agreement), 35–36, 67–68
Bipartisan Congressional Trade Priorities and Accountability Act (TPA-2015), 37, 39
Canadian Environmental Protection Act (CEPA), 117–118
Cartagena Protocol, 150
Central American Free Trade Agreement (CAFTA-DR), 113–115, 118–119
Commission on Environmental Cooperation (CEC), 31
Complex adaptive system theory, 131–134, 140, 151–152
Comprehensive and Progressive Trans-Pacific Partnership (CPTPP), 6, 38–39, 128, 165–167
Congress (US), 79
PTA/MEA funding appropriations, 96, 98
Trade Act of 2002, 14
trade power, 173
2007 Bipartisan Trade Deal, May 10 Agreement, 67
US Trade Promotion Authority (TPA), 67, 154
Convention on Biological Diversity (CBD), 99
Convention on International Trade in Endangered Species of Wild Fauna and Flora (CITES), 5, 64, 165–166. See also US-Peru PTA
compliance management, COP, 86–87
linkages, PTAs and MEAs, 73–74
Diffusion. See Norm, policy diffusion
Doha Development Agenda, 14
Environmental cooperation agreements (ECAs), 70–71
Environmental provisions evolution, US trade agreements, 23–24, 25t, 26, 29t. See also US PTAs, global policy diffusion
EU-Malaysia Preferential Trade Agreement (PTA), 62
Executive Order 13141 (Clinton administration), 32
Executive Order 13773 (Trump administration), 69–70
Fast-track authority. See Trade Promotion Authority (TPA)
Garcia, Alan, 161–162
General Agreement on Tariffs and Trade (GATT), 3, 26, 140–141
General Law on Ecological Balance and Environmental Protection (LGEEPA), Mexico, 117
Greening the GATT (Daniel Esty), 8
Innovative trade agreements, unprecedented environmental provisions, 31, 32f
Linkage politics. See also PTA-MEA linkages
democracy level, environmental clauses in PTAs, 60f
ECAs, 70–71
EU-Malaysia PTA, 62
interagency process, US, 63–65
NGO involvement, 65–66
protectionist interests, 61, 68
study of, 53–55
trade, security regimes, 55
trading partner interests, 68–69
transnational crime and, 69–70
Trump administration, 69–70
typologies, international politics, 56–58, 59t
May 10 Agreement. See Bipartisan Agreement on Trade Policy (May 10 Agreement)
Montreal Protocol, 69
Multilateral environmental agreements (MEAs). See PTA-MEA linkages
NAFTA (North American Free Trade Agreement), 30–32, 104
environmental provisions, 112–113, 168–169, 168f
investor-state dispute settlement, 9
norm, policy diffusion, 112–113
norm internalization, 117–118
Trump administration, 165, 167–168
US PTAs, global diffusion, 131, 135, 151
Norm, policy diffusion. See also US PTAs, global policy diffusion
CAFTA-DR, 113–115
counterfactual analysis, 110–111
domestic laws, 124–125
enforcement, 103, 108–112, 109f, 114–116, 124–125
environmental clauses, 121–122, 122f, 123f, 124
issue linkage and, 11f, 104–107
NAAEC, 112–113
NAFTA, 112–113
policies, international treaties and, 105
process tracing, 107
public participation, 103, 108–115, 109f, 124–125
tactical linkages, 106–107
US-Peru PTA, 115–117
US PTAs, environmental norms, 112, 125–128
US role, causal mechanisms, 129
US trade agreement influence, 104
Norm internalization
alternative explanations, 120–124
CAFTA-DR, 118–119
NAFTA, 117–118
public participation, 118–119
US-Peru PTA, 119–121
North American Agreement on Environmental Cooperation (NAAEC), 9, 31–32, 112–113
Paris Agreement (2015), 41
Peru, Annex on Forest Sector Governance, 36–37
PTA-MEA linkages
back-door environmental governance, 99
CITES, 5, 64, 73–74, 78, 78f, 85–88, 93–94, 97–98
commitment within, 77
effectiveness, measurement, 78–85, 79t
indirect benefits, 100
managerial vs. legalistic model, 80–84, 82t, 83t, 96
overview, 74–78, 75f, 77f, 78f
trade liberalization, environmental protection vs., 73
unintended consequences, 101
PTAs. See also US PTAs, global policy diffusion
environmental provisions, 3–4, 4f
environmental provisions, implications, 3–4, 164b
innovations per country, 5, 5f
regional integration, 177
United States vs. EU, Japan, China, 5–6, 6f
Renewable energy disputes, WTO, 170–171
Research methods, questions, findings, 17–18, 20–21, 22t
Shrimp-turtle dispute (WTO), 10, 10f
Trade and Environment Policy Advisory Committee (TEPAC), 65–66
Trade-environment politics, scholarly literature, 14–17
Trade Expansion Act (1962), 63
Trade Policy Review Group, 63–64
Trade Policy Staff Committee, 63–64
Trade Promotion Authority (TPA), 154, 169
Trans-Pacific Partnership (TPP), 6, 38, 99, 103–104, 128, 142–143, 165–167
Trump administration
environmental provisions, US trade agreements, 24
Executive Order 13773, 69–70
linkage politics, 69–70
tariffs, trade war, 153
Tuna/dolphin dispute (WTO), 8–9
United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change (UNFCCC), 68
United States, Mexico, and Canada Trade Agreement (USMCA), 14, 24, 64, 167–169, 169f
US Marine Mammal Protection Act, 8–9
Annex on Forest Service Governance, 87–88, 90–91, 100–101
CITES and, 73–74, 85–88, 93–94, 97–98
compliance measures, 80–81, 82t, 85
compliance mechanisms of precision, delegation, obligation, 88–91
domestic political fallout, 161–162
enforcement, dispute settlement, 34–36, 114–116
Environmental Investigation Agency (EIA) critique, 96–97
environmental measures, limitations, 48–49f
environmental provisions, categories, 27–28t
environmental provisions, distribution by country: 1985–2018, 42–43f
environmental provisions, evolution, 29t
environmental provisions, overview, 26
GATT/WTO disputes, US as respondent, 28, 29t, 30
implementation, 80
implementation, domestic policy change, 91–94
joint institutions, 50–51f
missed opportunities, future improvements, 41
norm, policy diffusion, 115–117
norm internalization, 119–121
US PTAs, global policy diffusion, 130, 135
agreement implementation, 45–47f
beyond US trading partners, 136
catalytic linkages, 155–156
climate-related clauses, 149–150, 149f
cross-fertilization, 130, 141, 144, 151, 159–160
diffusion, causal mechanisms, 129, 158f
diffusion, complex adaptive systems, 131–134
diffusion limits, 144–150
dispute-settlement mechanisms, 148–149
effective enforcement, 137f
environmental clauses distribution, 146–147, 146f
environmental exceptions, 135, 159
environmental impact assessments, 147–148
environmental provisions, replication across trade agreements, 146–147, 147f
environmental provisions evolution, five phases, 26–40, 145f, 154–155
European Union agreements, 131, 135, 141
global diffusion, causal mechanisms, 129
goods and services liberalization, 148
homogenization, innovation, 134, 152
investment protection, 139
Latin American PTAs, 144
policy coherence provisions per PTA, 143, 143f
public participation, 138f, 139, 156, 161–163
sectoral provisions per PTA, 142–143, 142f
through coercion, 159
unintended consequences, 160–161
US Trade Act (2002), 21, 34, 63
US trade environmental politics future, 165
US trade-environment linkages
phase one: 1985–1991, 26–30
phase two: 1992–1998, 30–32
phase three: 1999–2001, 32–33
phase four: 2002–2005, 34–35
phase five: 2006–present, 35–40
US Trade Promotion Authority (TPA), 67, 154. See also Trade Promotion Authority (TPA)
US Trade Representative (USTR), 63–64
World Intellectual Property Organization, 54
WTO (World Trade Organization), 1–2
dispute settlement, environmental provisions, 9–11
environmental exemptions, 2–3
Environment Goods Agreement, 171–172
GATT Artical XX, environmental exemptions, 11, 12–13t, 14, 26, 28
relevance, 1
renewable energy disputes in, 170–171
shrimp-turtle dispute, 10
tuna/dolphin dispute, 8–9