Annotations for Zechariah

1:1 eighth month of the second year of Darius. The date formula would place the message between the third and fourth oracles of Haggai in 520 BC, so Haggai would have already been active for several months prior to Zechariah’s first message. This was a particularly interesting time in the political history of the Persian Empire (see note on Hag 1:1; see also the Introduction to Haggai: Historical Setting). Iddo. Usually if several ancestors are mentioned in a genealogical note, the last one is someone of importance. In Ne 12:4 there is an Iddo who is mentioned among the priests who returned with Zerubbabel in the first wave in 538 BC. If this is the same Iddo, it indicates that Zechariah is of a prominent family with a priestly heritage.

1:3 Return to me . . . and I will return to you. This is a refrain very similar to the words of several otherwise unknown prophets in 2 Chronicles. Azariah, e.g., tells King Asa, “If you seek him, he will be found by you, but if you forsake him, he will forsake you” (2Ch 15:2). This suggests that a new conditionality has entered into God’s relationship to Israel. Following the destruction of the kingdom of Judah, God will respond as humans make the effort, and the implication is that if the community does not make the effort, God sees no obligation for him to act on the community’s behalf. LORD Almighty. As in Haggai (e.g., Hag 1:2, 5, 7, 9, 14), this title emphasizes God’s omnipotence in the face of the community’s relative lack of earthly power. See note on Hag 1:2.

1:7 twenty-fourth day of the eleventh month. This would be Feb. 15, 519 BC. This would suggest the visions of Zechariah began just prior to Israel’s marking of the New Year. In addition, some scholars believe that Darius marched to Egypt in 519 BC to secure their renewed loyalty and that the preparations of the army for this march was a source of concern for the people of Judah. They could have felt very uncertain about what demands might be made on them and how they would be treated.

1:8 During the night I had a vision. It was common in the ancient Near East for prophets to receive visions in the form of dreams. There are surviving accounts from Neo-Sumerian times (c. 2100–2000 BC) of scribes skilled in the interpretation of prophetic dreams, and by Assyrian times common dream motifs were interpreted by comparing them with earlier dreams. A particularly rich archive reporting of such dream oracles was recovered from the excavation of ancient Mari, and in many cases accounts of the dream are being related to the king since the dreams have implications for royal policies. In one typical example, a report is sent to the king of a prophet who had a dream in which he entered a temple to Dagan and the statue of the god began to speak to him. man mounted on a red horse. The Persians were well known for their mounted couriers who traveled daily through the empire maintaining the most efficient communication system known in the ancient world. myrtle trees. They evoke the image of palace gardens. Persian kings enjoyed the parks of trees that stood beside the audience halls, and they received visitors and reports there.

1:11 the whole world at rest and in peace. The second year of Darius was marked by the new king’s ability to finally gain control over the extensive Persian Empire (see note on Hag 1:1; see also the Introduction to Haggai: Historical Setting). With political disturbances behind him, Darius could focus his rule on organizing and extending his authority throughout the empire. Later Greek writers acclaimed Darius as a lawgiver and enlightened leader, suggesting far-sighted administrative skill. Whether attributable to Darius or not, the fact remains that the empire he commanded became one of the most diverse and peaceful political structures in antiquity.

1:12 these seventy years. According to the prophet Jeremiah, the exile in Babylon was to last 70 years (Jer 29:10). While it is not clear what the prophet meant by this date, the book of Ezra interprets it as marking the end of the exile with the restoration of the temple in Jerusalem (Ezr 1:1).

1:16 measuring line. Prior to modern times, surveying was conducted with a line or other implements of a set length (Eze 40:3). Zechariah’s mention of the measuring line indicates that new construction was underway, so it was necessary for a surveyor to mark the boundaries of the property.

1:18 four horns. “Horn” is often used in the Bible as an image of power (Dt 33:17; 1Sa 2:1). In this case, the horns are representative of generic national powers that have caused the exile of the community. “Horn” is also a common motif for power in the ancient Near East, both as a decorative element on symbols of royal power and as a metaphor for such power. It may be that the prophet is envisioning some specific item adorned with horns, but there is nothing in the description that mandates such a specific reference.

1:20 craftsmen. Among the many categories of Babylonian temple personnel at the end of the sixth century BC was one designated “craftsmen” (ummanu). A number of different guilds were included in this group (those who worked with materials such as wood, metal, leather, gold, cloth, stone and gems, as well as those who carried out tasks such as laundering). This same term was extended to serve as a title of royal advisors believed to be supernaturally endowed. Individuals of this title are also identified as the sages who composed famous pieces of literature. In short, this term referred to various experts in the employ of the palace and temple. The Mesopotamian epic “Erra and Ishum” makes it clear that it was the ummanu who were responsible for crafting divine images. The Hebrew term used here can also refer to a wide range of guild workers, including those who craft images and serve the temples, but it is never clearly extended to sages or royal administrative advisors.

2:2 measure Jerusalem. As the process is begun for the rebuilding of the temple in Jerusalem, preparations must be made. In the ancient world temple-building was a complex undertaking replete with ritual and intended to be a joint act carried out by divine and human parties. Since the temple was sacred space, the dimensions, placement and orientation of the temple were all of great importance (see the article “Temples and Sacred Space”). Deities were called upon to give some of that information. If a temple previously existed on the site, as here, it would be important to rebuild at the same place, and measuring tools would be used to locate that place. Since the temple represented the center of order in the cosmos, it must reflect consummate order and proportioning. A survey of temple-building texts from the ancient world illustrate these concerns. The Ur-Nammu Stele depicts the various steps in temple building. As in most texts, the whole process is begun by the divine command (see 1:16). As a sign of this command, the king is given the rope and rod for measurement; these serve as his authorization to proceed. Once the measurements are complete, they then have to be confirmed by the deity.

2:4 city without walls. Walls were part of a defensive fortification system that protected ancient cities. In the ancient Near East a city would not exist without walls unless the residents were secure in their military power or a larger entity, such as an empire, removed the walls to ensure the urban population was well aware of its vulnerability. When Babylon attempted to rebel against Xerxes, Darius’s successor, he ordered that its walls be taken down. The prophet’s comment shows that either Jerusalem will grow so rapidly that there will be no time to establish the city’s defenses or, more likely, there was no need for defensive works since the empire was ensuring the community’s security.

2:6 land of the north. In Jeremiah, the north was the direction from which the enemy would come (see note on Jer 1:13). Eventually it became clear that Babylon was that enemy from the north. Even though Babylon was located east of Jerusalem, all traffic flowed in an arc around the Syrian desert. Thus Babylonians would come into Judah from the north and Israelites would go to Babylon from the north. Now Zechariah is urging them to flee from the lands of their captors. four winds. See note on 6:1.

2:9 their slaves will plunder them. In ancient Near Eastern thought, social chaos is represented by a reversal of normal human relations. One Egyptian sage observes a reversal when those who at one time were wealthy are now begging for bread, while those who previously were beggars find themselves with plenty. The prophet Zechariah is saying that the situation will be desperate when slaves are able to plunder their masters.

3:1 Satan. In the Hebrew, the use of the definite article (“the”) before satan both here and in Job 1–2 indicates that the author intends a noun describing a function (“adversary”) rather than a personal name. As a common noun, the Hebrew word satan can be used to speak of either human beings (e.g., 1Sa 29:4; 1Ki 11:14) or a variety of supernatural beings (cf. the role of the angel of the Lord in Nu 22:22, 32). See the article “Satan.” The ultimate focus of the accuser’s contentions is God’s policies. When Joshua stands in the presence of God, the adversary opposes Joshua because he is covered with the stains of his and his people’s guilt. God’s policy of forgiveness is therefore questioned.

3:3 Joshua. Joshua, the sitting high priest in this period, shared leadership in the community with Zerubbabel. Though Zerubbabel had legitimate Davidic pedigree and therefore a claim to the throne, the fact that Yehud was under Persian rule necessarily restricted his role. Zerubbabel therefore served as governor; as part of the imperial system, the governor’s range of powers was very constricted. As high priest, Joshua may have enjoyed control over resources and parts of the community that a governor could not access, thus making it critical that both of these individuals cooperate on the rebuilding effort. There are no contemporary extra-Biblical references to the high priest Joshua, but in the Biblical accounts his grandfather, Seraiah, had been executed by Nebuchadnezzar when Jerusalem fell to the Babylonians (2Ki 25:18–21), and Joshua is therefore also likely related to Ezra (see Ezr 7:1).

3:4 standing before him. Since the scene features an accuser and a court setting, we can recognize a type-scene familiar from the ancient world: the heavenly court. Most ancient Near Eastern cultures believed that decisions by which the cosmos was run and human matters resolved were made in the divine council, which was made up of the principal members of the pantheon (see the article “Divine Council”).

3:5 Put a clean turban on his head. This is clearly an investiture scene (used in the OT and the ancient Near East to portray the elevation of someone to a new position or status, cf. Joseph, Aaron or Daniel), but the interpretive question turns on the significance of the investiture. If it were a vesting of Joshua as high priest, we might expect some reference to the various high priestly garments known from the rest of the OT. As it stands, the only specific piece of clothing referred to is the turban, and the Hebrew word used is not the same as that describing the high priestly turban. Given the larger context of temple building, an alternative that is worth considering is that the headpiece referred to here is the special headpiece used by kings in the ancient Near East to carry the ceremonial first brick for laying the foundation of temples. Numerous examples of this appear in ancient Near Eastern reliefs from the Sumerian period (e.g., the Ur-Nanshe Stele) to the Neo-Assyrian period (notably Ashurbanipal). If this is the nature of the turban here in Zechariah, Joshua is being purified and prepared for his role in the construction of the temple.

3:8 Branch. See note on 6:12.

3:9 seven eyes on that one stone. Since the context of Zechariah speaks of the stone that is set before Zechariah, the discussion would likely concern a foundation stone or the first brick (see note on v. 5). In this regard it should be noted that it was not uncommon in Mesopotamia to include gemstones in the foundation deposit of a temple. Consequently, we might suggest that the foundation stone is being set before Joshua, and seven precious stones are being inlaid on it. In the ancient world, facets were not yet being cut on gems, but there is evidence of gems being cut in the shape of eyes.

4:2 solid gold lampstand with a bowl at the top and seven lamps on it, with seven channels to the lamps. The bowl is to hold the oil to fuel the lamp, and the seven channels direct the oil to the wicks at the ends of the channels. Seven, being a number representing completeness, is an appropriate number of wicks since the lamp seems to represent God’s comprehension of what is happening in the world (v. 10). Theoretically such a lamp can be envisioned, and support can be adduced using artifactual evidence. A seven-spouted lamp was found at Tell Dothan dating to the Late Bronze Age. Other finds suggest that multiple lamps were sometimes arranged around the edge of a bowl. No artifacts combine these features to illustrate the object being described here. An alternative suggestion that has been made on the basis of known artifacts is that the lamp is a kernos ring (see below). Though these terracotta vessels were typically used for libations, examples have been found in Palestine dating to the Persian period that show evidence of their use as lamps.

4:3 two olive trees by it. The vision described here probably concerns that which is or will be inscribed on the foundation stone. In this case the stones referred to in ch. 4 would be the same as the stones mentioned in ch. 3. The lampstand and the trees may then be evaluated in light of the iconography of the ancient Near East, where it is not uncommon for figures to be portrayed flanking a stylized representation of deity. The crescent moon emblem with upturned horns not only represents the deity but also is reminiscent of the bowl of a lamp. In these seals, the symmetry of two trees represents two worshipers, as is also the case in Zechariah’s vision.

4:7 What are you, mighty mountain? Before Zerubbabel you will become level ground. The height on which the temple stood made hauling up construction materials difficult. The speaker is promising that with a commitment to rebuilding the temple, God will make this height seem a trivial matter. the capstone. In Mesopotamia, part of the rebuilding of a temple involved bringing out a stone from the earlier structure to be installed in the new building, demonstrating continuity. It may well be that this is the stone that Zerubbabel is bringing out and why it receives so much attention. If this association is accurate, as seems likely, it would be better to translate this as the foundation stone (with its importance designating it as the “premier” stone). Temple-building accounts refer both to the removal of this stone from the site so that leveling of the site could take place and to reinstalling it at the appropriate time.

5:2 twenty cubits long and ten cubits wide. Given the conventional size of a cubit, the dimensions given would be about 30 feet long and 15 feet wide (9 meters long and 4.5 meters wide). The fact that the prophet can report on these dimensions suggests his vision shows the scroll unrolled. The “flying” component (v. 1) would be a sign of the transitional nature of the scroll, suspended between heaven and earth, like the basket noted in v. 9.

5:3 on one side . . . on the other. Though it is not unheard of for scrolls to have writing on both sides, the terminology here suggests that two side-by-side columns of writing are intended, perhaps one column addressing each of the crimes. every thief . . . everyone who swears falsely. In the temple-building context of Zechariah’s visions, these two offenses would be particularly noteworthy. As in building projects today, the project often calls for raising support from key donors before construction begins. They pledge donations that provide the backing that the project needs to proceed. In the ancient world, such pledges were supported by formal oaths to follow through, and such oaths transformed the pledged gifts into divine property. In this combination, anyone who had pledged gifts to the temple initially but then reneged on their pledges would be guilty first of swearing falsely and then of theft, for they continued to possess that which now technically belonged to deity (cf. Hag 1:4; Mal 3:8–10). The “curse” written on the scroll would bring about the destruction of not only that which had been withheld but also the house of the perpetrators.

5:6 basket. While ceramic vessels are the most commonly found examples of standard volume measures, there is ample evidence in narrative and artistic sources to demonstrate that baskets of woven reeds were also used as common containers. Nevertheless, it should be noted that the container is never identified specifically as a basket in the Hebrew text. Special ceremonial containers were used to transport the premier stone as well as to house the foundation deposits. There is no indication what material this basket is made out of. The container used for foundation deposits in Mesopotamia is called a quppu and could be either a wicker basket or a wooden chest.

5:7 cover of lead. Though the NIV interprets this as a “cover,” the Hebrew text of this verse refers to it as a “talent” of lead (a particular weight, usually convex disk shaped); the Hebrew text of v. 8 refers to it as a “stone” of lead. Temple foundation deposits often included metal pieces (gold, silver, iron, bronze, lead)—sometimes small scraps, other times large blocks, and sometimes as square convex tablets or bricks. Nevertheless, its role here cannot presently be illuminated specifically from ancient Near Eastern materials. There is no evidence for the use of lead as a cover for any form of vessel in antiquity. in the basket sat a woman. The small size of the container has led to the conclusion that a figurine of a woman is in the basket. The most logical connection of figurines to temple building would be that figurine pegs were often buried next to the foundation deposit or beneath the door-pivot stone. Such figurines could either indicate dedication to a particular deity or represent an apotropaic (protective) deity. Unfortunately, there are numerous problems with this interpretation. Theologically, it is difficult to see why a figurine, putatively idolatrous, would be accorded the status granted here. Archaeologically, the foundation pegs are not attested anywhere near this time period. The latest examples are from about 2000 BC. Culturally, this practice is not attested in Persian contexts. Iconographically, the pegs were generally not women. Finally, contextually, the other elements in this vision (container, lead) have no connection to foundation pegs. Consequently, unless further examples were to be found in this period, this interpretation should be set aside, and no other information from the ancient Near East can inform our interpretation. In all likelihood, however, this is a figurine.

5:9 two women. The common assumption that these are angels cannot be sustained. In the OT angels are neither portrayed as female nor as having wings. In the broader ancient Near Eastern context, female deities are sometimes portrayed as having wings (e.g., Anat in Ugaritic literature and Ishtar in Mesopotamian literature). Most winged figures in the iconography, however, are protective spirits, which are often seen flanking gods or sacred items (such as the cosmic tree). This interpretation would fit well with the information in this context as apocalyptic imagery drawing on this iconography. stork. The Hebrew term seems to indicate any bird of the long-legged variety. A number of birds in this order are migratory, and at seasonal times they are present in Palestine. As with the scroll (v. 2), the flying component of the image seems to point to a transitional state between heaven and earth.

5:11 build a house for it. The pronoun “it” is feminine, as are the woman and the basket. Since the second part of this verse makes reference to the basket rather than the woman, the house is seen as being built for it rather than for her. This would further confirm that the “basket” should be identified as a foundation deposit that will be set in place in a temple there. house. A word often used for a temple.

6:1 four chariots. These are called the four spirits, the same terms as the “four winds” in 2:6. Ps 104:4 refers to the winds as the messengers of Yahweh, and that is the function these chariots are serving here. The horsemen in ch. 1 were comparable to the Persian courier service, but chariots were not used that way. It is unusual that a chariot should be used by a messenger, because it would only slow him down and tire his horses unnecessarily. In the ancient Near East a supernatural being in a chariot was usually transporting the deity rather than serving as a messenger (see note on 2Ki 2:11). mountains of bronze. It is not entirely clear what the prophet is trying to convey with this image. Some believe it is a reference to a common Mesopotamian image of the sun-god rising between two mountains, the morning light making rock appear bronze in color. Others see in the reference to bronze an allusion to fortifications, bronze being used for gateways and other defensive works. Mountains were often seen as the home of God.

6:12 Branch. It is not clear whom this refers to, and the Hebrew term used here is not the same Hebrew term used in Isa 11:1 to refer to a coming ruler. Scholars tend to argue two ways on the identity of this figure. (1) Given the earlier promise that Zerubbabel will be the one to complete the temple (4:9), the “Branch” is Zerubbabel, and hence the prophet anticipates a coronation of the governor as a king over an independent Judah. (2) This is a future ruler, a Messianic figure, who will benefit from the faithfulness of Joshua and the temple priesthood. There is no indication that Jerusalem at this time period could have envisioned a successful revolt against the Persian Empire since the city was unwalled and impoverished. In the broader ancient Near Eastern context, the term “branch,” or terms based on similar metaphors, have been attested as technical terminology referring to the rightful heir of an established dynastic line.

6:14 Hen son of Zephaniah. While many English translations render “Hen” as a personal name, there is good evidence to see this as a title for a temple steward, so the crown is being entrusted to several individuals, including “Josiah the steward, son of Zephaniah” (see v. 10).

7:1 fourth day of the ninth month, the month of Kislev. Sometime in December of 518 BC, about two years since Zechariah’s opening oracle.

7:3 fast in the fifth month. Fasts typically marked major national disasters, of which there had been many in the recent history of Israel. Since the text provides no explanation of what these fasts in ch. 7 marked, we can only offer suggestions by matching up events with months. We know that Nebuchadnezzar’s destruction of the temple took place in the fifth month (2Ki 25:8–9), and since it is the temple that is being rebuilt, it would make sense that the delegation has come to inquire about whether the fast should be continued.

7:5 fasted . . . in the fifth and seventh months. For the fast in the fifth month, see the previous note. It is much more difficult to identify a historical event that would have occasioned a fast in the seventh month. Of the events that occurred surrounding the destruction of the temple and Jerusalem, the only one that is stated to have taken place in the seventh month is the assassination of Gedaliah (Jer 41), the governor appointed by Nebuchadnezzar after the right to kingship had been revoked.

8:12 all these things as an inheritance. It was common in the ancient Near East to connect the establishment of a temple with the coming of blessing in the form of prosperity (see note on Hag 2:19). Zechariah is expressing the same theme: that prosperity was surely coming since the community was completing the rebuilding of the temple.

8:23 by the hem of his robe. In the ancient Near East, grasping the hem of the robe presumes the petitioner is on his knees, so this is an action of throwing one’s self completely on the mercy of the person receiving the petition.

9:1 Hadrak. Well known from Assyrian sources as Hatarikka (the city over which Zakkur was king), even though it is otherwise absent from the Biblical record. Damascus. An important administrative center in the Persian Empire, it may have been the administrative center of the Persian satrapy of which Jerusalem was part. Both Hadrak and Damascus are in the Persian satrapy of Abarnahara (meaning “across the river”), which was bordered on the east by the Syrian desert and stretched from eastern Sinai and the Gulf of Aqaba up through Syria to the west bank of the Euphrates—thus roughly covering the area of the empire of David and Solomon from earlier times.

9:3 Tyre has built herself a stronghold. Tyre was a growing economic center under the Persian Empire and was the focus on a major campaign by Alexander the Great, who took the city in 332 BC. Tyre was frequently the rival of Sidon, until Sidon was destroyed in 351 BC.

9:5 Gaza will lose her king. During the Persian Empire it appears that Gaza and the regions around it were under a “dimorphic” administration, a provincial governor representing Persian interests and a native king maintaining traditional powers. So Gaza’s loss of its king would anticipate it coming more under the direct control of the empire.

9:6 Ashdod. The 70-acre (28-hectare) site of Ashdod is located near the coast north of Ashkelon. It had the advantage of being on the main coastal highway and close enough to the sea to have a small harbor. The city was destroyed by Nebuchadnezzar, but it was rebuilt in the Persian period. Excavations have uncovered this settlement, though later Hellenistic building activity obliterated major sections of the Persian town.

9:7 Ekron. The site of Ekron (Tel Miqne in the Sorek Valley) is located about 22 miles (35 kilometers) southwest of Jerusalem and about 15 miles (24 kilometers) from the Mediterranean. The site has been extensively excavated and consists of a lower city of about 40 acres (16 hectares), an upper tell of about 10 acres (4 hectares), and an acropolis. Its main industry was the production of olive oil. Archaeological excavations attest to the massive destruction of the town by Nebuchadnezzar in the last years of the seventh century BC. Literarily, this is attested in the Aramaic Saqqarah papyrus (the “Adon” letter) in a letter from the king of Ekron to the Egyptian pharaoh requesting support. No archaeological evidence suggests that it was resettled in the Persian period. This raises the unanswerable question of why the town should be mentioned in a text a century or more after its destruction. like the Jebusites. The comparison of Ekron to the Jebusites most likely indicates that the people of Ekron will be absorbed into the population of Judah.

9:9 donkey. Though the literature does not always do so, we must distinguish between a donkey (referred to in this passage) and a mule (a hybrid between a horse and a donkey). The mule (Hebrew pered) is preferred over the donkey as an official royal mount. The evidence for a donkey as a royal mount is meager. In Akkadian there is an occasional passing reference to a donkey for the king to ride. A Hittite narrative called The Queen of Qanesh and the Tale of Zalpa has the 30 royal sons driving a donkey, but it does not specify that they ride them. In Ugaritic literature the goddess Athiratu rides on a donkey in one text, thus indicating it as a regal, if not royal, mount. In Biblical texts elites occasionally ride on an ayir (translated “colt” in this verse) or on an aton (translated “foal of a “donkey” in this verse and Balaam’s mount in Nu 22:21–35). Consequently, evidence is lacking to suggest that the king in this verse is being provided with transparently royal trappings. The contrast offered by the specification of his mount is that it would be clear that this king is not coming in a military context (which would have featured a horse, mule or chariot), but he is coming in peace and humility.

9:10 battle bow. In Assyrian texts from the seventh century BC (Esarhaddon), deity breaking the bow of the enemy is a way of describing defeat. In this passage it appears to prevent future battle. In other Biblical texts the same concept is expressed by beating swords into plowshares (see note on Isa 2:4). proclaim peace to the nations. Once a king had taken control of a conquered realm, there was always the fear that he would seek to execute vengeance against those who had opposed him. It was reassuring when the new ruler would “proclaim peace.” When Cyrus captured Babylon, one of his first official acts was to declare a state of peace. from sea to sea. Rather than referring to particular seas, such as the Mediterranean and the Dead Sea, the universal tone of the passage suggests that reference is being made to cosmic seas that encompass all the inhabited lands. See the article “Cosmic Geography.” the River to the ends of the earth. When “river” is used with a definite article, it is usually a name for the Euphrates. Other translations fail to include a definite article, therefore suggesting a more abstract cosmic reference. In Akkadian literature the great cosmic river is known as Apsu; it serves as a suitable contrast to the “ends of the earth.” ends of the earth. Refers to the most distant known places.

9:13 against your sons, Greece. Continual expansion of Greek trade during the Persian Empire led to a wide sphere of Greek influence. At what point this influence was perceived as a potential enemy is unclear. Some think the prophet’s mention is a clear reference to the campaigns of Alexander the Great, though it would be almost a century before he came onto the international scene. On several earlier occasions the Persian Empire and elements of the Greeks were in conflict, which could easily have engendered such comments.

9:14 The LORD will appear. Numerous elements in vv. 14–15 (arrow/lightning, trumpet, storms, shield) indicate that the author is using the divine warrior motif, familiar throughout the ancient world in all periods and cultures. See the article “Divine Warfare.” storms of the south. Israel understood God as traditionally coming from the “south” to manifest himself (Dt 33:2; Hab 3:3).

10:1 Ask the LORD for rain. In the ancient world national gods were not always the ones considered directly responsible for fertility. Rather, a variety of cosmic deities (e.g., storm deities) or city patrons were seen as having that jurisdiction. During the monarchy period the people needed to be reminded that it was not Baal who gave them rain, but Yahweh, their national God (cf. 1Ki 17–18; Hos 2:8–9). Zechariah includes both the warrior aspects of the storm-god (9:14–17) with the fertility aspects indicated here.

10:2 idols. The teraphim referred to just a few other times in Scripture (see the article “Household Gods”). shepherd. Though this context is not entirely clear, it was very common for kings to refer to themselves as a “shepherd” (see note on Eze 34:2), and so the prophet may be alluding to the idea that there is no king to lead this group of people.

10:4 cornerstone. See note on Isa 28:16. tent peg. Though foundation figurine pegs are known from earlier periods, their use is not attested in any context close to the time of Zechariah. The term used here is consistently used for the pegs used to drive ropes into the ground that held up tents. Thus they secure the stability of the tent, just as a cornerstone secures the stability of a building. For metaphoric usage associated with leadership, see Isa 22:23; Ezr 9:8–9.

10:5 horsemen. One of the major innovations the Persian Empire introduced into warfare was the employment of cavalry units that could swiftly outmaneuver foot soldiers.

10:11 Assyria’s pride . . . Egypt’s scepter. Even though the community is under the central control of a single empire, the major reference points of coercive power remained Assyria, which had destroyed the northern kingdom and taken away thousands (2Ki 17:5–6), and Egypt, which had received exiles from Jerusalem when it fell to the Babylonians (2Ki 25:26). In the prophet’s report, Assyria and Egypt will no longer be able to prevent the return of exiles.

11:12 thirty pieces of silver. While this is often connected to the price of a slave who was accidentally killed (Ex 21:32), that price represents a different economic stage in Israel’s history. Since the 30 pieces of silver is being paid for a wage, it is more likely that this reflects an ancient Near Eastern expression for an insultingly low wage.

11:13 Three possible explanations have been given for this verse, and it is difficult to decide between them. (1) It is likely that there was a pottery shop in the vicinity of the temple that served the temple’s needs. But why would this money be thrown there? (2) The Hebrew word for potter simply means “fashioner,” so some have suggested that here it refers to a metalworker who is perhaps going to make a figurine out of the silver. This may offer an explanation of why the silver is thrown here, but it requires an unusual meaning to be applied to a fairly common noun. (3) It has been observed that the Hebrew word rendered “potter” can, with very little change, be understood as “treasury.” Some of the early translations take this route, and it can find some support in the NT as well (Mt 27:5–6, though Matthew also refers to the potter [Mt 27:7]). Each interpretation has its difficulties, and no information from the ancient Near East can shed light that explains the actions of the prophet.

11:16 eat the meat. Herds of sheep were rarely used for meat. The wool was far more valuable. A shepherd’s main responsibility was to preserve the life and health of the sheep so as to vouchsafe their continued productivity. Eating the meat spoke of a shortsighted self-indulgence of undisciplined appetites rather than wise management of long-term resources. tearing off their hooves. May represent an attempt to persuade the owner that the sheep had been devoured by a wild animal so that the shepherd would not be held accountable (see notes on Ex 22:11; 1Sa 25:16; Am 3:12).

12:2 cup . . . reeling. The Hebrew expression “cup of reeling” is used also in Isa 51:17, 22, but here in v. 2 the text actually speaks of a bowl (saph) rather than a cup. It is possible that the author chose the word “bowl” in order to execute a wordplay. The Hebrew word saph also means “threshold.” Just as the drink from a vessel could cause drunkenness and stumbling, a threshold could easily cause stumbling because a part of the threshold was raised above ground level. The threshold consisted of a large stone slab that featured sockets on each end into which the door pivots were fitted (though large gates would have separate sockets sunk into the ground). The door would close against the protruding threshold. This threshold slab could also then be the “immovable rock” in v. 3.

12:3 immovable rock. If the word translated “cup” in v. 2 is doing double duty as a reference to the threshold, then this would likely refer to the threshold slab (see note on v. 2). As an integral part of the gate structure, the threshold stone would probably be dislodged when the gates were destroyed. This would be a prime objective of a besieging army. Tearing down gates is mentioned in Neo-Babylonian texts, but the taking up of the threshold is not specifically referred to. A Sumerian lament over Eridu reports that the doorframe was ripped out. Akkadian texts describe the high grade of stone that was used and the function these slabs served as a foundation for both gates and walls. When Sennacherib destroyed Babylon he tore out the foundations of temples and walls and threw them into the canal. Temple thresholds were often inscribed with prayers for protection.

12:11 the weeping of Hadad Rimmon in the plain of Megiddo. Both Hadad and Rimmon were names for West Semitic storm-gods that some Canaanite texts relate to Baal. The only time they appear in a compound form is here. As a consequence, many have taken the “weeping” to refer to some ritual mourning festival associated with the death and return of a Canaanite deity. But it would be very strange for the prophet to be using an idolatrous ceremony to illustrate an event that causes deep sorrow. Others have noted that the “weeping” is not over Hadad Rimmon, so possibly the name is of a place or town. The “weeping” may be connected to the sense of loss the community experienced when Josiah was killed in battle on the plain of Megiddo, a lament that was made into a tradition (2Ch 35:24–25). Unfortunately, we do not know if the tradition was still being observed into the Persian period.

12:12–13 David and Levi are recognizable as the royal and priestly lines, respectively. Nathan and Shimei are more difficult in that there are numerous individuals in the Bible with those names. Since Nathan is one of the sons of David (2Sa 5:14) and Shimei is one of the grandsons of Levi (Nu 3:17, 21), many see in these verses a reference to clans and subclans. Also of interest is the possibility that all of these clans have a relationship to Zerubbabel. He descends from David through Nathan and through Levi (Lk 3:29, 31), and Zerubbabel’s brother is named Shimei (1Ch 3:19).

13:4 prophet’s garment of hair. The distinctive prophet’s cloak is most likely made of animal skin and is hairy in appearance—though not all cloaks were so made. Very little is said about prophetic garb in the ancient Near East, so comparison is difficult. It may be of interest that Assyrian inscriptions beginning at this period portray a few individuals wearing lion-headed cloaks. Where it can be determined, these individuals are involved in ritual activities (dance) and accompany deity. It is guessed that they may be exorcists.

13:6 wounds. May represent scars from past actions or active wounds that were inflicted by idolatrous prophets to enter into a prophetic state. Such actions are depicted in several places in the OT, such as the prophets of Baal cutting themselves (1Ki 18:28).

14:2 I will gather all the nations to Jerusalem to fight against it. The element of a cataclysmic final battle is seen by many as part of the complex of apocalyptic literature (see Introduction: Literary Setting). In this oracle, the prophet describes a battle in which all human hope would seem to be extinguished until God intervenes to directly make war upon “the nations.” The primary interest of the prophet is not the battle but the result, which is God’s perfect world in which God is enthroned as king over all (v. 9).

14:4 Mount of Olives. Located across the Kidron Valley to the east of Jerusalem. It runs north and south, and its steep ascent impedes easy movement from Jerusalem toward the east and the Jordan River and Jericho. Though the Mount of Olives is well known from the Gospels, this is the only direct reference to it in the OT. split in two. The concept of splitting a mountain to make a way of escape (v. 5) is not attested in the ancient Near East.

14:5 Azel. The Hebrew text at this point is very difficult to interpret. This may be the place-name of a location near Jerusalem that is otherwise unknown, or it may be a noun having the sense of “sides,” with the new valley reaching to the sides of Mount Zion and the Mount of Olives. earthquake in the days of Uzziah. This appears to be a reference to the earthquake mentioned in the opening of the book of Amos (see Am 1:1 and note). There is evidence of a sizeable earthquake in Stratum VI of the excavations at Hazor, dated approximately to 760 BC.

14:6–7 The imagery of these verses take the reader all the way back to Ge 1, where God set up the functioning cosmos. The regular rotation of day and night was the most central aspect of order imposed on the cosmos. In the ancient world the orderly functioning of the cosmos was the most important focus of creative activity. Not only will the markers of time be set aside, but also the indications of weather variation.

14:8 living water. “Living” water refers to water that is moving rather than the still waters of shepherding imagery. As can be seen in Eze 47, living water flows from sacred space as a sign of the benevolent and fructifying presence and kingship of deity (see note on Eze 47:1). This concept is depicted in iconography throughout the ancient world. This includes mythic scenes that portray the gods in connection with flowing waters (Canaanite El, Egyptian Nun) as well as the depiction of a variety of kings and deities of a variety of ranks holding jars from which waters flow (see note on Eze 47:2).

14:10 from Geba to Rimmon. Both place-names appear in the narratives of Nehemiah. Geba is related to a village in the territory of Benjamin (Ne 11:31), and Rimmon is apparently several miles/kilometers north of Beersheba (Ne 11:29). This more or less delineates the provincial boundaries of Yehud in the Persian Empire. See map. Arabah. This term has both specific and general meanings. As a specific geographic designation, it refers to the arid region around the Dead Sea and south to the Gulf of Aqaba. As a general topographic designation, it refers to flat steppe land. The context of this verse demands the latter meaning.

14:12 Among the most common treatments of prominent enemies in the ancient Near East were flaying the skin, putting out the eyes, and cutting out the tongue. Here those are accomplished through “plague.” These symptoms are unattested as connected to any particular plague in the ancient Near East.

14:16 Festival of Tabernacles. Although an enthronement festival per se is unattested in Israelite practice, it is often assumed to exist and, if it does exist, it would most logically be connected to the Festival of Tabernacles (see notes on 1Ki 12:33; Ezr 3:4). That would especially be significant in this context as the nations are expected to attend in order to acknowledge the kingship of Yahweh. Regular enthronement festivals are well known in the ancient world and it would be unusual if Israel did not have one (see the article “Enthronement in the Ancient Near East”).

14:18 no rain. Egypt receives very little rain, and what it receives is not essential to its productivity. Agriculture in Egypt is dependent almost entirely on the annual flooding of the Nile.

14:20 HOLY TO THE LORD. Something with this designation is given sacred status as part of that which is purified for service within the sacred space of the temple precinct where Yahweh’s presence dwelt. In Ex 28:36–38 this was engraved on the golden plate worn by the high priest. bells. Although priests wore bells on their garments (Ex 28:33), this is a different Hebrew word. The Hebrew word used here may simply refer to metal discs that tinkled together. cooking pots. The most common of the temple vessels. sacred bowls. Used for the most significant ritual activities, such as transporting the blood of the sacrificed animals. Both cooking pots and sacred bowls came in a variety of shapes and sizes.