1. Cobb, “Asserting a Global Indigenous Identity.”
2. C. Warrior, “How Should an Indian Act?,” 2.
1. Clifford and Marcus, Writing Culture; Behar and Gordon, Women Writing Culture; Rosaldo, Culture and Truth. Both of Turner’s essays can be found in Turner, Rereading Frederick Jackson Turner, quote at 21. For Philip Deloria’s take on the importance of reflexivity in American Indian Studies, see Deloria, “Historiography,” 21.
2. P. Deloria, “Historiography”; P. C. Smith and McMullen, “Making History.”
3. P. C. Smith, “Narration.”
4. For a review of the literature, see Axtell, “Columbian Encounters.” Among those leading the way into the twentieth century were Iverson, “We Are Still Here”; V. Deloria and Lytle, Nations Within; Hoxie, “Exploring”; Fixico, Termination; Philp, Termination Revisited; and Bernstein, American Indians.
5. On historiography, see Edmunds, “Native Americans.” On innovative methods, see Fogelson, “Ethnohistory”; DeMallie, “ ‘These have no ears.’ ” Emblematic works include Hudson, Knights of Spain; Merrell, Indians’ New World; Richter, Ordeal; Calloway, American Revolution; White, Middle Ground; Green, Politics; G. C. Anderson, Kinsmen; Hoxie, Parading; Hosmer, American Indians.
6. Axtell, “Columbian Encounters,” 336; Cobb, “Continuing Encounters,” 57–69.
7. Comaroff and Comaroff, Of Revelation and Revolution, vol. 1; Scott, Weapons of the Weak; Fowler, Shared Symbols, Contested Meanings; Cobb, “ ‘Us Indians’ ”; Cobb and Fowler, Beyond Red Power.
8. P. C. Smith and Warrior, Like a Hurricane. For quote, see P. C. Smith, Everything You Know, 32. In their preface to Like a Hurricane, viii, Smith and Warrior did express their hope for a broader perspective on the era.
9. Vine Deloria Jr., interview by author, 18 October 2001.
10. Cobb, Native Activism. Paul Rosier has also made critical interventions in his important essay “ ‘They are ancestral homelands.’ ” Sleeper-Smith et al., Why You Can’t Teach.
11. Vine Deloria Jr., interview by author, 18 October 2001.
12. Hoxie, Talking Back; Hoxie, “ ‘Thinking like an Indian’ ”; Rosier, Serving Their Country; Martinez, The American Indian Intellectual Tradition. Cobb, “Asserting a Global Indigenous Identity,” 443–72.
13. I took the liberty of making silent corrections to some of the transcriptions. This included, for the most part, matters of grammar and spelling. I very selectively inserted into the text additional information in brackets and, on a few occasions, adjusted paragraphing when it allowed for more fluid reading and efficient presentation.
1. On allotment as a multifaceted form of what Michel Foucault terms “subjection,” see Biolsi, “Birth of the Reservation.” Theodore Roosevelt alluded to some of the larger implications when he noted that it “acts directly upon the family and the individual.” Roosevelt, “First Annual Message,” 3 December 1901.
2. Hoxie, Final Promise. On allotment and citizenship as a form of incorporation, see Bruyneel, Third Space.
3. Silva, Aloha Betrayed; Kauanui, Hawaiian Blood; Kaplan and Pease, Cultures of United States Imperialism; Goldstein, Formations.
4. Britten, American Indians in World War I, 51–72.
5. Hagan, American Indians, 120–25; Holm, Great Confusion, 182–98; Hoxie, Talking Back, 139–174; Ellis, “ ‘We don’t want your rations.’ ”
6. Kennedy, Over Here, 332, 354, 358–63; Hoxie, Talking Back, 129–33.
7. Bruyneel, Third Space, 1–25; Hoxie, Talking Back, viii; Comaroff and Comaroff, Of Revelation and Revolution, vol. 1, 26.
8. Lili‘uokalani, Hawaii’s Story by Hawaii’s Queen, 366, 233–34, 237–38, 323–25, 368–70, 372–74.
9. Kualapai, “The Queen Writes Back”; Proto, Rights of My People.
10. Lili‘uokalani used the now obsolete term “Sandwich Islands” because it would have been familiar to non-Hawaiian or haole readers.
11. Here Lili‘uokalani referred to men’s and women’s antiannexation organizations, Hui Hawaii Aloha Aina and Hui Hawaii Aloha Aina o Na Wahine, respectively.
12. William McKinley was inaugurated as president of the United States in March 1897.
13. After McKinley signed a treaty of annexation in June 1897, a grassroots action on the part of Native Hawaiians resulted in a “Petition against Annexation” signed by more than 21,000 Kanaka Maoli—over half the population according to the most recent census. Excerpts of the 556-page document, which served a pivotal role in delaying annexation, can be found at http://www.archives.gov/education/lessons/hawaii-petition/ (accessed 24 January 2015).
14. John L. Stevens was the United States Minister to the Kingdom of Hawai‘i and an ally of the “Committee of Safety,” which orchestrated the overthrow of the monarchy and founding of the Republic of Hawai‘i.
15. In his 1823 annual message to Congress, President James Monroe expressed United States opposition to further European colonization efforts in the Western Hemisphere.
16. Lili‘uokalani invoked the Old Testament story of Naboth, a man whose land was coveted by King Ahab. After Naboth refused to sell or exchange it, Ahab’s wife, Jezebel, had him falsely accused of a crime and put to death. For killing Naboth and taking possession of his land, the prophet Elijah then warned, the house of Ahab would be punished. I Kings 21:1–29, http://biblia.com/books/nrsv/1Ki21.17 (accessed 21 January 2015).
17. U.S. Congress, Senate, Report of the Select Committee, 1245–55.
18. C. B. Clark, Lone Wolf; Chang, Color of the Land, 97–100.
19. Harjo referred to the attack on Creek sovereignty by the state of Alabama that culminated in the Treaty of Cusseta in 1832, which provided for the cession of all the Creeks’ lands east of the Mississippi River, their removal, and the reestablishment of their nation in the Indian Territory. Green, Politics of Indian Removal, 170–86.
20. In 1861 the Creek Nation signed a treaty of “friendship and alliance” with the Confederate States of America. Chitto Harjo, however, was among a faction of Creeks who remained loyal to the United States, relocated to Kansas, and served in the Union army.
21. The Curtis Act extended the General Allotment Act to the Choctaws, Chickasaws, and Creeks in 1898. Harjo was among a significant number of Creeks opposed to allotment in general and to the Curtis Act in particular.
22. In taking this position, Harjo abandoned an interracial alliance during the early period of the allotment struggle and that would be renewed in later years. See Chang, Color of the Land, 97–100, 102, 141–42.
23. U.S. Congress, Senate, The Cherokee Freedmen, 3–5.
24. Sturm, Blood Politics; Yarbrough, Race and the Cherokee Nation.
25. The Cherokees, among others nations in Indian Territory, argued that the federal courts did not have the right to make determinations of tribal citizenship by creating the 1896 rolls. They were abandoned in 1898 with passage of the Curtis Act and the generation of the Dawes Rolls proceeded between 1898 and 1914. Saunt, “Paradox of Freedom.”
26. This census included the designations “colored citizens,” “colored intruders,” and “colored claimants, not decided.” Reese, “Cherokee Freedwomen.”
27. A. C. Parker, “Making Democracy Safe for the Indians.”
28. Hoxie, Talking Back; D. A. T. Clark, “At the Headwaters,” 70–90; Colwell-Chanthaphonh, Inheriting the Past; Porter, To Be Indian; Britten, American Indians. For more on his complicated approach to identity and change, see A. C. Parker, “Problems of Race Assimilation.”
29. During the half century following its founding in 1824, the Bureau of Indian Affairs, the agency that was intended to symbolize the nation-to-nation relationship between the federal government and tribes and to carry out the former’s obligations to the latter, had become bloated, corrupt, and paternalistic. Rather than protecting tribal sovereignty, it was generally seen as a colonial institution antagonistic to it. And yet its importance as a symbol of the recognition of treaty rights and American Indian sovereignty remained. This tension created the foundation for the debate within Native America over whether it should be abolished.
30. Montezuma, “United States, Now Free the Indians!,” 2–3.
31. Hoxie, Talking Back; Iverson, Carlos Montezuma; Maddox, Citizen Indians; Lomawaima, “The Mutuality of Citizenship and Sovereignty.”
32. Armistice Day was 11 November 1918.
33. Wassaja, which translates as “to signal or beckon,” was both Carlos Montezuma’s Yavapai name and the title of his journal, which he began publishing in 1916. Iverson, Carlos Montezuma.
34. The Paris Peace Conference was held at Versailles, near Paris, France, in the wake of World War I. Some thirty nations attended, but it was dominated by the United Kingdom, France, the United States, and Italy.
35. No Heart et al., to Cato Sells, 7 June 1919, file 109123-17-063, Standing Rock Agency, Central Classified Files, Records of the Bureau of Indian Affairs, Record Group 75, National Archives and Records Administration, Washington, D.C.
36. Stremlau, Sustaining the Cherokee Family; Hagan, Quanah Parker; Adams, Education for Extinction; Lomawaima, They Called It Prairie Light; Archuleta, Child, and Lomawaima, Away from Home; Holm, Great Confusion; Troutman, Indian Blues. On dance and songs during World War I, see Troutman, “Citizenship of Dance”; Meadows, Kiowa, Apache, and Comanche; Powers, Lakota Warrior Tradition.
37. The Treaty of Fort Laramie of 1868 established the boundaries of the Great Sioux Reservation and peace on the Northern Plains, both of which proved temporary.
38. Agency Superintendent James McLaughlin.
39. The Grass Dance, also known as the Omaha Dance or Hethu’shka, originated with the Omahas and spread across the Plains through the late eighteenth and nineteenth centuries. First associated with warrior societies, it came to include social dances as well. Ridington, Hastings, and Attachie, “Songs of Our Elders,” 112–17.
40. U.S. Congress, House Committee on Indian Affairs, Indians of the United States, 599–605.
41. Rosen, American Indians and State Law; Sando, Pueblo Nations.
42. Lorenzo Martinez served as a leader of the peyote way and the governor of Taos Pueblo. For a photo see http://solo505.tumblr.com/post/8577519305/lorenzo-martinez-govenor-of-taos-pueblo-new (accessed 6 September 2014).
43. In 1848 the United States and Mexico signed the Treaty of Guadalupe Hidalgo and, in so doing, the former agreed to continue to recognize the land grants issued to Pueblos by the Spanish crown.
44. Republican representative Homer Snyder of New York.
45. This is, in fact, an accurate rendering of a long-standing competition over land claims. See Reséndez, Changing National Identities, 116.
46. Carlisle Indian Industrial School, an off-reservation boarding school founded in 1879 to promote assimilation.
47. Democratic representative Carl Hayden of Arizona.
48. Republican representative Benigno Hernandez of New Mexico.
49. It would appear Hernandez is referring to the 1876 Joseph decision, which upheld the right of Pueblo people to sell their lands, citing their being “civilized Indians” for whom federal trusteeship did not apply. It was reversed in 1913 by the Sandoval decision which affirmed the federal trust relationship. Court cases soon followed and would culminate in 1922 with an attempt on the part of Congress to settle the controversy through legislative action. Pueblos united with non-Indian allies to defeat the so-called Bursum Bill because it favored non-Indian settlers. Wenger, “Land, Culture, and Sovereignty,” 382.
50. Republican representative Charles D. Carter of Oklahoma.
51. “Chief Deskaheh Tells Why He Is Over Here Again” (London, August 1923), George P. Decker Collection, Special Collections, Lavery Library, St. John Fisher College, Rochester, New York.
52. Hauptman, Seven Generations, 124–42; Rostkowski, “The Redman’s Appeal.”
53. In 1867 Canada adopted its own constitution, gaining greater autonomy from the British crown. It was initially referred to as the Dominion of Canada, although the name later fell into disuse.
54. The Covenant Chain refers to an alliance the Iroquois Confederacy first forged with the Dutch and then extended to the British. It is, as Deskaheh reminded his readers, a living relationship that continues to reside at the heart of Iroquois conceptions of sovereignty. R. A. Williams, Linking Arms.
55. Council of All New Mexico Pueblos, “Declaration to All Indians and the People of the United States, 5 May 1924, Indian Rights Association Papers, reel 40, Pennsylvania Historical Society, Philadelphia.
56. Sando, Pueblo Nations; Sando, Pueblo Profiles; Wenger, We Have a Religion.
1. The classic exposé is Debo, And Still the Waters Run.
2. Prucha, Great Father, chaps. 15–23. For a case study featuring these coercive practices and resistance to them, see Ellis, “ ‘We don’t want your rations.’ ” For another perspective, see Treglia, “The Consistency and Inconsistency of Cultural Oppression,” 145–65.
3. V. Deloria and Lytle, Nations Within.
4. Philp, John Collier’s Crusade; McMillen, Making Indian Law; McLerran, A New Deal; Kehoe, A Passion.
5. In clear testimony to its marginalization, the Bureau of Indian Affairs moved wholesale from Washington, D.C., to Chicago for the duration of the war. Philp, Termination Revisited.
6. Bernstein, American Indians; Ellis, Dancing People; Rosenthal, Reimagining; LaGrand, Indian Metropolis; Thrush, Native Seattle.
7. Kohlhoff, When the Wind.
8. Fixico, Termination and Relocation; Metcalf, Termination’s Legacy; Arnold, Bartering; Beck, Seeking Recognition; Beck, Struggle for Self-Determination.
9. Meeting of the Commissioner of Indian Affairs.
10. V. Deloria, Indian Reorganization Act; Cohen, On the Drafting; Ramirez, “Henry Roe Cloud.”
11. Minutes of the Plains Congress, March 2–5, 1934. U.S. Department of the Interior Library, Washington, D.C.
12. V. Deloria, Indian Reorganization Act, vii–viii, quote at viii.
13. George White Bull volunteered to serve in World War I and returned home to become involved in cattle ranching. He later served in World War II as well. Iverson, When Indians, 71.
14. The reference here is to the illegal taking of the Black Hills in 1877. The Lakotas fought to have this case heard in the Court of Claims through the late nineteenth and early twentieth centuries. They finally won a monetary settlement, upheld by the Supreme Court in 1980, which they refused. The Lakotas continue to demand the return of the Black Hills.
15. Ralph H. Case served as an attorney for the Lakotas on the Black Hills land claims but would later fall out of favor with them. Lazarus, Black Hills/White Justice.
16. Proceedings of the Conference at Chemawa, Oregon, April 8 and 9.
17. Mourning Dove, Mourning Dove; Mourning Dove, Cogewea.
18. Language had long contributed to difficulties in diplomatic engagements, and few knew this better than citizens of tribal nations in the Pacific Northwest. Chinook, a pidgin trade language used during the treaty-making sessions of the 1850s, contained only five hundred words and, according to lawyer Charles Wilkinson, could not “possibly speak to sovereignty, land ownership, fishing rights, assimilation, freedom, or the futures of societies.” Wilkinson, Messages, 11.
19. An off-reservation boarding school in Salem, Oregon, established during the 1880s.
20. Emma Goldman (1869–1940) was a well-known anarchist, labor organizer, women’s liberationist, and opponent of U.S. involvement in World War I. She was deported to Russia in 1920. In the February 1934, she returned to the United States on a speaking tour.
21. Minutes of the Special Session of Navajo Tribal Council.
22. Iverson, Diné.
23. This is a reference to two boundary bills that were to extend Navajo lands in Arizona and New Mexico. In exchange, the Navajo tribal council was to agree to further stock reductions—including 150,000 goats.
24. Part of the legislative flurry of President Franklin Roosevelt’s first “Hundred Days,” the Emergency Conservation Work (ECW) Act established the Civilian Conservation Corps. Between 1933 and 1942, it put thousands of young men to work across the country in forests, national parks, and rural areas and included an Indian Division.
25. This tells only part of the story. On the central role played by Diné women’s opposition, see Weisiger, “Gendered Injustice,” and Roessel, Navajo Livestock Reduction.
26. Joe Chitto to Commissioner of Indian Affairs, 20 August 1934, file 150-54948-1933, Choctaw, Records of the Bureau of Indian Affairs, Record Group 75, Central Classified Files, National Archives and Records Administration, Washington, D.C.
27. Lowery, Lumbee Indians; Osburn, “ ‘In a name’ ”; Biolsi, Organizing.
28. Elizabeth and Roy Peratrovich to Ernest Gruening, 30 December 1941, National Archives Microfilm Publication (MF Pub M939), General Correspondence of the Alaska Territorial Governor, 1909–58 (Washington, D.C., 1973), microfilm reel 273, file 40–4b.
29. Their efforts were bolstered by an Inupiat teenager named Alberta Schenck (1928–2009), who was arrested for refusing to leave the “whites only” section of a movie theater in Nome in March 1944. Cole, “Jim Crow.”
30. Ibid.
31. U.S. Congress, Senate Committee on Indian Affairs, Protesting the Construction of Garrison Dam, North Dakota, 4–8.
32. The Mandan, Hidatsa/Gros Ventre, and Arikara/Sahnish.
33. Lawson, Dammed Indians Revisited. On the gendered dimension of the violence done by the Garrison Dam, see A. K. Parker, “Taken Lands.”
34. Democratic senator Joseph O’Mahoney of Wyoming.
35. Republican senator Edward H. Moore of Oklahoma.
36. Republican senator William Langer of North Dakota.
37. Between April 1946 and 1953, the Garrison Dam was constructed, with all of the attendant dislocation, hardship, and destruction anticipated by Cross and others. The Three Affiliated Tribes lost more than 150,000 acres of land, which included home sites, agricultural lands, burial grounds, and places of historical and spiritual significance. An effort spearheaded by Martin Cross’s youngest son, Raymond Cross, culminated in additional reparations in 1992. VanDevelder, Coyote Warrior.
38. To the President, 28 March 1949, attached to “The Hopi Stand,” folder 2, box 1, Hopi Traditionalist Movement Papers, Department of Special Collections, University of Arizona, Tucson, Arizona.
39. Bernstein, American Indians; Hauptman, Iroquois Struggle; Cobb, “Politics in Cold War Native America”; Clemmer, “Hopi Traditionalist.”
40. The North Atlantic Treaty Organization, established on 4 April 1949.
41. U.S. Congress, House Subcommittee on Indian Affairs, Payment of More Adequate Compensation, 17–22.
42. Hoxie, Talking Back, 148–55; Baird, “Indian Rodeo Cowboys,” 222; U.S. Congress, House Subcommittee on Indian Affairs, Payment of More Adequate Compensation, 31.
43. It may be for this reason that Oglala Sioux Tribe president Bryan Brewer indicated that nine hundred families had to move. Brewer, “Time for the Tribal National Park,” http://indiancountrytodaymedianetwork.com/2014/10/20/time-tribal-national-park-properly-honor-native-culture (accessed 25 January 2015).
44. The United States was engaged in the Korean Conflict (1950–53) at the time of Herman’s testimony.
45. Among those evicted were survivors of the 1890 Wounded Knee Massacre and families of soldiers serving in World War II. http://www.oglalalakotanation.org/oln/History.html (accessed 24 January 2015).
46. The Badlands Bombing Range was in use for thirty years. Portions were returned beginning in 1960, and more than 100,000 acres of it were set aside as the Badlands National Monument in 1968. The Air Force and Oglala Sioux Tribe oversaw the removal of the last unexploded munitions in late 2014. http://www.oglalalakotanation.org/oln/History.html (accessed 24 January 2015); “Cleanup Is Wrapping up at Pine Ridge Range,” http://www.argusleader.com/story/news/2014/11/05/cleanup-wrapping-pine-ridge-range/18520545/ (accessed 25 January 2015).
47. National Congress of American Indians, Point Four Program for American Indians, 21 November 1954, folder 106, box 10, James E. Officer Papers, Arizona Historical Society, Tucson, Arizona. D’Arcy McNickle originally presented these ideas in 1951. The statistics were updated and the text was adopted by the Executive Council of the NCAI in 1954.
48. Cobb, Native Activism, 8–29; Cobb, Fields, and Cheatle, “ ‘born in the opposition’; Hoxie, This Indian Country, 277–335; D. R. Parker, Singing an Indian Song.
1. V. Deloria, Custer Died, 169–95, especially 179.
2. Hagan, American Indians, 137–39, 144–45.
3. Cobb, Native Activism; Shreve, Red Power; P. C. Smith and Warrior, Like a Hurricane.
4. Hagan, American Indians, 143–44, quote at 144.
5. McNickle, Native American Tribalism, 122; Cobb, Native Activism.
6. Joseph Garry, “A Declaration of Indian Rights,” “Emergency Conference Bulletin,” 1954 folder, box 257, Records of the National Congress of American Indians, (NMAI.AC.010), National Museum of the American Indian, Archive Center, Smithsonian Institution, Suitland, Maryland.
7. Rosier, “ ‘They are ancestral’ ”; Cowger, National Congress; Fahey, Saving.
8. Senate Committee on the Judiciary, Stenographic Transcript of Hearings, 10–24.
9. Hauptman, “Alice Lee Jemison”; Cowger, National Congress; Wilkinson, Blood Struggle.
10. U.S. Congress, House Committee on Interior and Insular Affairs, Relating to the Lumbee Indians of North Carolina, 10–19.
11. Metcalf, Termination’s Legacy; Peroff, Menominee DRUMS; Arnold, Bartering.
12. Lowery, Lumbee Indians; Kidwell, “Terminating the Choctaws.”
13. Democratic representative Frank Ertel Carlyle of North Carolina.
14. Democratic representative Wayne Aspinall of Colorado.
15. Democratic representative James Haley of Florida.
16. Philip Martin to Fred A. Seaton, 27 September 1960, folder 11, box 249, Records (MC147); 1851–2013 (mostly 1922–1995), Public Policy Papers, Department of Rare Books and Special Collections, Princeton University Library, Princeton.
17. Osburn, Choctaw Resurgence; Cobb, “The War on Poverty.”
18. During the 1950s, the Bureau of Indian Affairs initiated a voluntary relocation program to encourage Native people to move from their reservation homes to urban centers. On one level it offered the promise of a better standard of living; on another it promoted assimilation and depleted the population of reservations, making it easier to justify termination. Fixico, Termination.
19. Like many African Americans in the Deep South, Choctaws struggled to make ends meet, often as migratory laborers and sharecroppers.
20. The Association on American Indian Affairs was a non-Indian directed Native rights organization based in New York City. LaVerne Madigan served as its executive director during the 1950s and early 1960s.
21. Edward P. Dozier, Keynote Address, American Indian Chicago Conference, n.d. folder 7, box 59, Records (MC147); 1851–2013 (mostly 1922–1995), Public Policy Papers, Department of Rare Books and Special Collections, Princeton University Library, Princeton.
22. Cobb, Native Activism; Lurie, “Voice”; Lurie, “Sol Tax”; Norcini, Edward P. Dozier.
23. American Indian Chicago Conference, The Declaration of Indian Purpose, 5, 15–16, 19–20.
24. Cobb, Native Activism.
25. This document is drawn from three separate sources, each with their own footnote.
26. It was held on the campus of Colorado College from 1956 to 1958 and at the University of Colorado from 1959 to 1968. In 1968, former students offered workshops of their own on multiple university campuses.
27. Cobb, Native Activism, 23–27, 52–58, 62–79, quotes at 27 and 63; Shreve, Red Power, 65–93; McKenzie-Jones, “Evolving Voices.” For Thomas’s thoughts on colonialism, see Thomas, “Colonialism.” For perspectives on his life and work, see Pavlik, A Good Cherokee.
28. Jeri Cross (Caddo) was a senior mathematics major at Wayland Baptist College in Texas at the time of this writing. While the question to which she was responding is not extant, consider how in this reflection on identity she responds to the supposed binary between “Indianness” and “whiteness” and the assumed “inevitability” of assimilation. She would go on to become an eminent potter in the Caddoan tradition. Her work can be found in the National Museum of the American Indian and has also had a place in the Oval Office of President Barack Obama. She later married Osage author Charles Redcorn. Jeri Cross, “A Thought,” 25 June 1962, “Topical Files-Education-Summer Workhsop-1962 Student Papers” folder, Native American Educational Services, Robert Rietz Papers, Special Collections Research Center, University of Chicago Library, Chicago.
29. Sandra Johnson, a Makah from Neah Bay on the Olympic Peninsula in Washington, attended Lewis and Clark College, where she majored in English. Consider how the question pushed her to imagine a different future for her home community and to think about what she might do to realize that vision. Rather than taking twenty years to realize the vision, it took only two. As director of the War on Poverty’s Neighborhood Youth Corps and Head Start programs—and then the entire Community Action Program—at Neah Bay, she inaugurated what amounted to revolutionary changes. This included providing incentives for K-12 students to learn Makah language and culture in the context of summer programs and to pay elders to serve as teachers in the Head Start preschool program. She later trained in media studies, founded Upstream Productions with her husband, Yasu Osawa, and became an acclaimed documentary filmmaker. The full question read: “What do you hope your home community will be like twenty years from now, and why? Answer this question with reference to the terms and concepts of this Workshop. Be realistic, suggesting only what you believe could be possible, and explaining what would have to happen to make it possible.” Sandra Johnson, “Final Examination,” “Topical Files-Education-Summer Workshop-1962 Student Papers” folder, Native American Educational Services, Robert Rietz Papers, Special Collections Research Center, University of Chicago Library, Chicago.
30. Like Sandra Johnson, Bruce Wilkie (1938–78) was a Makah from Neah Bay. A central figure in NIYC, he became (as Sandra Johnson hoped) the Makah’s general manager just a couple of years after writing this essay and later served as the executive director of the NCAI. Hertzberg, “Indian Rights Movement,” 316. These excerpts respond to two final exam questions: “Describe the consequences for the world and social relations of a folk people under a colonial administration, and explain your reasoning for expecting these consequences to occur in as much detail as you can, using the terms and concepts of this Workshop”; and “What do you hope your home community will be like twenty years from now, and why? Answer this question with reference to the terms and concepts of this Workshop. Be realistic, suggesting only what you believe could be possible, and explaining what would have to happen to make it possible.” Bruce Wilkie, “Final Exam,” n.d., “Topical Files-Education-Summer Workhsop-1962 Student Papers” folder, Native American Educational Services, Robert Rietz Papers, Special Collections Research Center, University of Chicago Library, Chicago.
31. C. Warrior, “On Current Indian Affairs.”
32. Cobb, Native Activism; 52–61, 94–99, 154–172; Shreve, Red Power, 94–138; McKenzie-Jones, “ ‘We are among the poor.’ ”
33. C. Warrior, “Which One Are You?” He addressed the question of identity again in C. Warrior, “How Should an Indian Act?”
34. Bruyneel, Third Space.
35. U.S. Congress, Senate Committee on the Judiciary, Constitutional Rights of the American Indian, 194–201.
36. Cobb, Native Activism, 117–46.
37. A Democrat, LeRoy Collins served as governor of Florida from 1955 to 1961, was considered a moderate on civil rights, and became the first director of the Community Relations Service under the Civil Rights Act of 1964.
38. William A. Creech, Chief Counsel and Staff Director, Subcommittee on Constitutional Rights, United States Judiciary Committee.
39. John L. Baker, Minority Counsel, Subcommittee on Constitutional Rights, United States Judiciary Committee.
40. Glazer and Moynihan, Beyond the Melting Pot.
41. Russell, “Reflections on Montgomery.”
42. This is a reference to Wilkie, “Look for Results and Action.”
43. Nisqually Nation, “Proclamation or Declaration of Facts,” 1 January 1965, folder 11, box 20, Virgil J. Vogel Research and Personal Papers, Newberry Library, Chicago.
44. Wilkinson, Messages; Harmon, Indians in the Making; S. L. Smith, “Indians, the Counterculture, and the New Left.” For quote, see http://frankslanding.org/franks-landing/ (accessed 30 January 2015).
45. Mad Bear Anderson, a Tuscarora activist.
46. Tillie Walker Statement, Press Briefing, United States of America, Department of Interior, 1 May 1968, Della and Clyde Merton Warrior Papers, in author’s possession.
47. Cobb, Native Activism, 147–92; VanDevelder, Coyote Warrior.
48. Again, Tuscarora activist Mad Bear Anderson.
49. “Statement of Demands for Rights of the Poor Presented to Agencies of the U.S. Government by the Southern Christian Leadership Conference and Its Committee of 100, 29–30 April and 1 May 1968,” attached to Ralph Abernathy to Congressman Harris, n.d., folder 30 [1 of 3], box 48, Carl Albert General Collection, Carl Albert Center for Congressional Research and Studies, University of Oklahoma, Norman.
50. Cobb, Native Activism, 147–192; Mantler, Power to the Poor.
1. V. Deloria, quoted in Cobb, “Asserting a Global Indigenous Identity,” 457.
2. The periodic publications Akwesasne Notes and Americans before Columbus demonstrate the bridge-building efforts of this period.
3. Anaya, International Human Rights; Anaya, Indigenous Peoples.
4. Echo-Hawk, In the Light.
5. The Twenty Points are summarized in the introduction to Document 34. Given how often the document has been reprinted, I decided not to include it in this volume. It is, however, essential reading. The full text can be read at http://www.aimovement.org/ggc/trailofbrokentreaties.html (accessed 28 January 2015). See also Josephy, Nagel, and Johnson, Red Power.
6. Hagan, American Indians, 147–56; Wilkinson, Blood Struggle, 229–40.
7. R. A. Williams, Like a Loaded Weapon, 97–114.
8. “Manifesto,” Indians of All Tribes Newsletter 1, no. 3 (1970): 2, folder 2, box 20, Virgil J. Vogel Research and Personal Papers, Ayer Modern Manuscript Collection, Newberry Library, Chicago.
9. Clarkin, Federal Indian Policy; Castile, To Show Heart; Johnson, American Indian Occupation; P. C. Smith and Warrior, Like a Hurricane, 60–83.
10. “We Support Our Brothers at Wounded Knee.”
11. V. Deloria, Behind the Trail; P. C. Smith and Warrior, Like a Hurricane, 218–44.
12. John Trudell, “We’ve Got to Have Commitment So Strong . . .”
13. P. C. Smith and Warrior, Like a Hurricane, 245–79.
14. This is a reference to a riot that erupted at the Minnehaha County Courthouse in Sioux Falls, South Dakota, in the spring of 1974. AIM members were being tried for their involvement in an earlier riot in Custer, South Dakota.
15. The Symbionese Liberation Army, Black Panthers, Weathermen, and Students for a Democratic Society were radical organizations targeted by the federal government for subversive activities. They were, of course, very different in character from one another, but all cast themselves as revolutionary. Trudell’s point was that they were all portrayed as equally “dangerous” by the federal government.
16. International Indian Treaty Council, “Declaration of Continuing Independence.”
17. Cobb, “Asserting a Global Indigenous Identity.”
18. “Declaration of Principles for the Defense of the Indigenous Nations and Peoples of the Western Hemisphere.”
19. Coulter, “Commentary”; Anaya, “Indigenous Peoples in International Law.”
20. “Marie Sanchez: For the Women.”
21. O’Sullivan, “ ‘We worry about survival’; Washinawatok, “International Emergence.”
22. “Human Rights from a Native Perspective.”
23. Johnson, Nagel, and Champagne, American Indian Activism.
24. “Affirmation of Sovereignty of the Indigenous Peoples of the Western Hemisphere.”
25. The information on the march is from Akwesasne Notes 10, no. 3 (Summer 1978): 9. It should be noted, however, that Dick Gregory did speak at the event in front of the Washington Monument.
26. U.S. Congress, House Committee on Interior and Insular Affairs, Indian Gaming Regulatory Act, 373–75.
27. Sando, Pueblo Profile; Light and Rand, Indian Gaming and Tribal Sovereignty; Cattelino, High Stakes.
28. U.S. Congress, Senate Committee on Indian Affairs, Religious Freedom Act, 24–26.
29. Fikes, Reuben Snake; Long, Religious Freedom; Calabrese, A Different Medicine; Maroukis, The Peyote Road.
30. In February 1992, Jeffrey Dahmer was sentenced to fifteen terms of life in prison for raping, murdering, and dismembering seventeen men and boys between the late 1970s and early 1990s.
31. The savings and loan crisis, brought on by lax federal regulation of and corruption on Wall Street, precipitated an economic collapse during the 1980s and early 1990s.
32. During public hearings on Clarence Thomas’s nomination to serve on the Supreme Court in October 1991, one of his former employees, Anita Hill, accused him of sexual harassment.
33. Manuel Noriega, a Panamanian military dictator, had received covert support from the United States Central Intelligence Agency for decades. He was ultimately deposed from power in 1989 and found guilty of drug trafficking, murder, and money laundering. His trial had been set to open in April of 1992.
34. The Iran-Contra scandal proved deeply divisive during the late 1980s. Despite an arms embargo, officials within President Ronald Reagan’s administration orchestrated sales to Iran. This money, in turn, was used to support U.S.-allied Contras in a war against the communist Sandinista government in Nicaragua, despite a congressional amendment explicitly prohibiting it. Several high officials in the Reagan administration were convicted for perjury and obstruction of justice.
35. U.S. Congress, House Committee on Interior Affairs, Federal Acknowledgment of Various Indian Groups, 406–8.
36. Perdue, “American Indian Survival”; Ulmer, “Tribal Property”; Loftis, “The Catawba’s Final Battle”; Ulrich, American Indian Nations; Den Ouden and O’Brien, Recognition, Sovereignty Struggles, and Indigenous Rights in the United States; Klopotek, Recognition Odysseys.
37. U.S. Congress, Senate Select Committee on Indian Affairs, Federal Government’s Relationship with American Indians, 11–15; U.S. Congress, Senate Select Committee on Indian Affairs, Tribal Self-Governance Demonstration Project Act, 19–20; U. S. Congress, House Committee on Natural Resources, Oklahoma Tribal Concerns, 8–9.
38. Janda, Beloved Women; Mankiller and Wallis, Mankiller.
1. Tsosie, “BIA’s Apology”; King, “A Tree.”
2. Hagan, American Indians, 147–88.
3. After initially being dated at 9,600 years old, the age was revised down to 8,400 to 9,000 years old. http://www.burkemuseum.org/kennewickman/ (accessed 28 January 2015).
4. Hagan, American Indians, 147–88.
5. The tribe has repeatedly rejected attempts on the part of the U.S. Congress to force it to accept a monetary settlement. In addition to fighting for their grazing rights, the Western Shoshones resisted below-ground nuclear weapons testing and the consolidation of nuclear waste in a facility located on unceded land. Rusco, “Historic Change”; Luebben and Nelson, “The Indian Wars.”
6. Idle No More, “Living History”; Idle No More, “The Story.”
7. M. S. T. Williams, Alaska Native Reader; Fixico, Invasion; Wilkinson, Blood Struggle, 304–28.
8. “Indian Country Renewable”; Castillo and McLean, “Energy Innovation”; Hagan, American Indians, 162–64, 178–80; Idle No More, “Idle No More at the Peoples Climate March.”
9. Cross, “A Tribe.”
10. Minthorn, “Human Remains Should Be Reburied.”
11. McKeown, In the Smaller; Fine-Dare, Grave Injustice; Mihesuah, Repatriation Reader.
12. Russell Jim Interview, “Voices of the Manhattan Project,” Atomic Heritage Foundation, http://www.manhattanprojectvoices.org/oral-histories/russell-jims-interview, accessed 10 April 2014.
13. Bush, “Yakama Nation”; Jacob, Yakama Rising.
14. Testimony Submitted by J. Kēhaulani Kauanui, Ph.D., Regarding S. 344, for the Hearing Record, personal communication with author. The hearing before the Senate Committee on Indian Affairs took place on 25 February 2003. This testimony does not appear to have been included in the print version of the hearings. U.S. Congress, Senate Committee on Indian Affairs, Policy of the United States Regarding Relationship with Native Hawaiians.
15. Kauanui, Hawaiian Blood; H.-K. Trask, From a Native Daughter; Goodyear-Kaopua, Hussey, and Wright, Nation Rising; Goldstein, Formations.
16. Democratic senator Daniel Akaka of Hawai‘i.
17. The United Nations Study on Treaties, Agreements and Other Constructive Arrangements between Indigenous Peoples and Nation States recommended that Hawai‘i be relisted as a non-self-governing territory—that is, a territory “whose people have not yet attained a full measure of self-government”—and that decolonization procedures follow. M. B. Trask, “Hawaiian Sovereignty.”
18. U.S. Congress, Senate Committee on Indian Affairs, Indian Trust Reform Act, 93, 95, 218–37.
19. Wilkins, Hollow Justice.
20. Also known as the Marias Massacre, in which 173 Piegan Blackfeet men, women, and children at peace with the United States were murdered on 23 January 1870. Calloway, Our Hearts, 106.
21. The Trust Reform and Cobell Settlement Workgroup established fifty principles to guide legislation.
22. Dennison, “The Will of the People: Citizenship in the Osage Nation,” 5–10.
23. Dennison, Colonial Entanglement.
24. U.S. Congress House Committee on Natural Resources, ANWR: Jobs, Energy, and Deficit Reduction, 76–79.
25. Banerjee, Arctic Voices; Bass, Caribou Rising.
26. Schilling, “Susan Allen.”
27. Driskill et at., Queer Indigenous Studies; Rifkin, When Did Indians Become Straight?
28. The proposed amendment would have modified the state constitution to recognize marriage only between one man and one woman. It failed to pass, making it the first constitutional amendment against gay marriage to be defeated by voters.
29. Transcribed from “Women Senators, Tribal Leader Discuss Importance of VAWA Improvements.”
30. Weaver, “Colonial Context”; Hart and Lowther, “Honoring Sovereignty”; Petillo, “Domestic Violence.”
31. Democratic senator Patty Murray of Washington.
32. Pearl, “3/256.”
33. Fletcher, Singel, and Fort, Facing the Future.
34. The transcription is based on both the print document and the video of the meeting. Many thanks to Dave Posthumus for providing the Lakota words and translations. For text, see U.S. Department of State, Proposed Keystone XL Project Public Meeting, 1:8–13.
35. For historical context on the Lakotas, see Ostler, Plains Sioux; Ostler, Lakotas and the Black Hills.
36. Lyla June Johnston, “Call Me Human,” courtesy of the author.
37. The sacred mountains are Tsoodził (Mount Taylor), Doo’o’k’osliid (San Francisco Peak), Dibé Ntsáá (Hesperus, Colo.), and Sisnajiní (Blanca Peak). The Long Walk refers to a four-hundred-mile forced march more than nine thousand Diné and Apaches had to endure. They were relocated from their homelands to the Bosque Redondo Reservation, where they lived in dire circumstances for four years. Iverson notes that it was not a single event but a series traumatic episodes from August 1863 to the end of 1866. “Nihígaal béé Íina”; Iverson, Diné, 51–66.
38. Brugge, Benally, and Yazzie-Lewis, Navajo People; Pasternak, Yellow Dirt.
39. Energy sovereignty is defined as “the right of conscious individuals, communities, and peoples to make their own decisions on energy generation, distribution, and consumption in a way that is appropriate within their ecological, social, economic, and cultural circumstances, provided that these do not affect others negatively.” Cotarelo et al., “Defining.” The first quote is from Blackhorse, “Fracking.” For second quote, see “Nihígaal béé Íina.”
40. Dadigan, “Stanford.”
1. DeMallie, “ ‘These have no ears,’ ” quotes at 520, 521.
2. B. Anderson, Imagined, 198–99.
3. Consider just a few, such as Buss and Genetin-Pilawa, Beyond Two Worlds; Child, My Grandfather’s; V. Deloria, Indians; Denetdale, Reclaiming; Dennison, Colonial Entanglement; Hosmer and Nesper, Tribal Worlds; Kelman, Misplaced; Lowery, Lumbee Indians; McMillen, Making; O’Brien, Firsting; Simpson, Mohawk; Cobb, “Asserting a Global Indigenous Identity”; Snyder, Slavery; R. Warrior, World of Indigenous.
4. V. Deloria, We Talk.