Altogether, there are at least 25 Hebrew words or forms found in Isaiah (i.e., in both major divisions of the book) that occur in no other prophetic writing.
Isaiah’s use of fire as a figure of punishment (see
1:31
;
10:17
;
26:11
;
33:11–14
;
34:9–10
;
66:24
), his references to the “holy mountain” of Jerusalem (see note on
2:2–4
) and his mention of the highway to Jerusalem (see note on
11:16
) are themes that recur throughout the book.
The structure of Isaiah also argues for its unity. Chs.
36–39
constitute a historical interlude that concludes chs.
1–35
and introduces chs.
40–66
(see note on
36:1
).
Several NT verses refer to the prophet Isaiah in connection with various parts of the book:
Mt 12:17–21
(
Isa 42:1–4
);
Mt 3:3
and
Lk 3:4
(
Isa 40:3
);
Ro 10:16
,
20
(
Isa 53:1
;
65:1
); see especially
Jn 12:38–41
(
Isa 53:1
;
6:10
).
The great Isaiah Scroll from Qumran (1QIsa) is the oldest complete manuscript of the book of Isaiah (c. 150–125 BC). The complete scroll is 24 feet long.
© John C. Trever, PhD, courtesy of the Trever family
God is the “Holy One of Israel,” who must punish his rebellious people but will afterward redeem them.
Date
Most of the events referred to in chs.
1–39
occurred during Isaiah’s ministry (see
6:1
;
14:28
;
36:1
), so these chapters may have been completed not long after 701
BC,
the year the Assyrian army was destroyed (see note on
10:16
). The prophet lived until at least 681 (see note on
37:38
) and may have written chs.
40–66
during his later years. Assuming he wrote those chapters, his prophetic vision there looked forward to the Babylonian exile (see note on
40:1–66:24
; cf.
39:6–7
and notes), and his message there was specifically intended for the Jews groaning in Babylonian captivity (cf.
Ps 137
). A parallel kind of situation might be Daniel’s vision of the second-century
BC
conflicts between the Ptolemies and Seleucids (see
Da 11
and notes; see also map and accompanying
text
).
Background
Isaiah lived during the stormy period marking the expansion of the Assyrian Empire and the decline of Israel. Under King Tiglath-Pileser III (745–727
BC
) the Assyrians swept westward into Aram (Syria) and Canaan. In about 733 the kings of Aram and Israel tried to pressure Ahaz, king of Judah, into joining a coalition against Assyria. Ahaz chose instead to ask Tiglath-Pileser for help, a decision condemned by Isaiah (see note on
7:1
). Assyria did assist Judah and conquered the northern kingdom in 722–721. This made Judah even more vulnerable, and in 701 King Sennacherib of Assyria threatened Jerusalem itself (see
36:1
and note). The godly King Hezekiah prayed earnestly, and Isaiah predicted that God would force the Assyrians to withdraw from the city (
37:6–7
).
Nevertheless, Isaiah warned Judah that her sin would bring captivity at the hands of Babylonia. The visit of the Babylonian king’s envoys to Hezekiah set the stage for this prediction (see
39:1
,
6
and notes). Although the fall of Jerusalem would not take place until 586
BC,
Isaiah assumes the destruction of Judah and proceeds to predict the restoration of the people from captivity (see
40:2–3
and notes). God would redeem his people from Babylonia, just as he had rescued them from Egypt (see notes on
35:9
;
41:14
). Isaiah predicts the rise of Cyrus the Persian, who would unite the Medes and Persians and conquer Babylon in 539 (see
41:2
and note). The decree of Cyrus would allow the Jews to return home in 538/537, a deliverance that prefigured the greater salvation from sin through Christ (see
52:7
and note).
King Sargon II was one of the kings of Assyria during Isaiah’s ministry. In 722–721 BC Samaria, the capital of the northern kingdom of Israel, was finally taken by Sargon II after a three-year siege started by Shalmaneser V.
Z. Radovan/
www.BibleLandPictures.com
Themes and Theology
Isaiah is a book that unveils the full dimensions of God’s judgment and salvation. God is the “Holy One of Israel” (see
1:4
;
6:1
and notes), who must punish his rebellious people (
1:2
) but will afterward redeem them (
41:14
,
16
). Israel is a nation blind and deaf (
6:9–10
;
42:7
), a vineyard that will be trampled (
5:1–7
), a people devoid of justice or righteousness (
5:7
;
10:1–2
). The awful judgment that will be unleashed upon Israel and all the nations that defy God is called “the day of the
LORD.
” Although Israel has a foretaste of that day (
5:30
;
42:25
), the nations bear its full power (see
2:11
,
17
,
20
and note). It is a day associated in the NT with Christ’s second coming and the accompanying judgment (see
24:1
,
21
;
34:1–2
and notes). Throughout the book God’s judgment is referred to as “fire” (see
1:31
;
30:33
and notes). He is the “Sovereign
LORD
” (see note on
25:8
), far above all nations and rulers (
40:15–24
).
Yet God will have compassion on his people (
14:1–2
) and will rescue them from both political and spiritual oppression. Their restoration is like a new exodus (
43:2
,
16–19
;
52:10–12
) as God redeems them (see
35:9
;
41:14
and notes) and saves them (see
43:3
;
49:8
and notes). Israel’s mighty Creator (
40:21–22
;
48:13
) will make streams spring up in the desert (
32:2
) as he graciously leads them home. The theme of a highway for the return of exiles is a prominent one (see
11:16
;
40:3
and notes) in both major parts of the book. The Lord raises a banner to summon the nations to bring Israel home (see
5:26
and note).
Peace and safety mark this new time (
11:6–9
). A king (the Messiah) descended from David will reign in righteousness (
9:7
;
32:1
), and all nations will stream to the holy mountain of Jerusalem (see
2:2–4
and note). God’s people will no longer be oppressed by wicked rulers (
11:14
;
45:14
), and Jerusalem will truly be the “City of the L
ORD
” (
60:14
).
The Lord calls the Messianic King “my servant” in chs.
42–53
, a term also applied to Israel as a nation (see
41:8–9
;
42:1
and notes). It is through the suffering of the servant that salvation in its fullest sense is achieved. Cyrus was God’s instrument to deliver Israel from Babylon (
41:2
), but the promised Messiah would deliver humankind from the prison of sin (
52:13–53:12
). He would become a “light for the Gentiles” (
42:6
), so that those nations that faced judgment (chs.
13–23
) would also find salvation (
55:4–5
) and become “servants of the
LORD
” (see
54:17
and note).
The Lord’s kingdom on earth, with its righteous Ruler and his righteous subjects, is the goal toward which the book of Isaiah steadily moves. The restored earth (a new creation: chs.
65–66
) and the restored people will then conform to the divine ideal, and all will result in the praise and glory of the Holy One of Israel for what he has accomplished.
Literary Features
Isaiah contains both prose and poetry, with the main prose material found in chs.
3–9
;
36–39
—the latter constituting the historical interlude that unites the two parts of the book (see Author). The beauty of Isaiah’s poetry is unsurpassed in the OT; it is extremely rich in imagery and wordplay. And the work as a whole employs a larger Hebrew vocabulary than any other OT book.
One of Isaiah’s favorite techniques is personification. The sun and moon are “ashamed” (
24:23
), while the desert and parched land “rejoice” (see
35:1
and note) and the mountains and forests “burst into song” (
44:23
). The trees “clap their hands” (
55:12
). A favorite basic metaphor often exploited is the vineyard. In
5:7
, Israel is the vineyard God has cultivated. Elsewhere, treading the winepress is a picture of divine judgment (see
63:3
and note), and to drink God’s “cup of … wrath” is to stagger under his punishment (see
51:17
and note). And legendary monsters, such as Leviathan and Rahab, represent nations (see
27:1
;
30:7
and notes;
51:9
).
The power of Isaiah’s imagery is seen in
30:27–33
, and he makes full use of sarcasm in his denunciation of idols in
44:9–20
. A forceful example of wordplay appears in
5:7
(see note there), and alliteration and assonance appear in
24:16–17
(see note there). The “overwhelming scourge” of
28:15
,
18
is an illustration of mixed metaphor.
Isaiah often alludes to earlier events in Israel’s history, especially the exodus from Egypt. The crossing of the “Red Sea” forms the background for
11:15
and
43:2
,
16–17
, and other allusions occur in
4:5–6
;
31:5
;
37:36
(see notes on these verses). He also refers to the overthrow of Sodom and Gomorrah (
1:9
), and Gideon’s victory over Midian is mentioned in
9:4
;
10:26
(see also
28:21
). Several times Isaiah draws upon the song of Moses in
Dt 32
(compare
1:2
with
Dt 32:1
;
30:17
with
Dt 32:30
; and
43:11
,
13
with
Dt 32:39
). Isaiah, like Moses, called the nation to repentance and to faith in a holy, all-powerful God. See also note on
49:8
.
The refrain in
48:22
and
57:21
divides the last 27 chapters into three sections of nine chapters each (
40–48
;
49–57
;
58–66
; see Outline, which also reveals the various literary forms employed in the book; see also notes on the various sections).
Outline
Part 1: The Book of Judgment (chs.
1–39
)
I. Messages of Rebuke and Promise (chs.
1–6
)
A. Introduction: Indictment of Judah for Breaking the Covenant (ch.
1
)
B. The Future Discipline and Glory of Judah and Jerusalem (chs.
2–4
)
1. Jerusalem’s future blessings (
2:1–5
)
2. The Lord’s discipline of Judah (
2:6–4:1
)
3. The restoration of Zion (
4:2–6
)
C. The Nation’s Judgment and Exile (ch.
5
)
D. Isaiah’s Unique Commission (ch.
6
)
II. Prophecies Occasioned by the Aramean and Israelite Threat against Judah (chs.
7–12
)
A. Ahaz Warned Not to Fear the Aramean and Israelite Alliance (ch.
7
)
B. Isaiah’s Son and David’s Son (
8:1–9:7
)
C. Judgment against Israel (
9:8–10:4
)
D. The Assyrian Empire and the Davidic Kingdom (
10:5–12:6
)
1. The destruction of Assyria (
10:5–34
)
2. The establishment of the Davidic king and his kingdom (ch.
11
)
3. Songs of praise for deliverance (ch.
12
)
III. Judgment against the Nations (chs.
13–23
)
A. Against Babylonia and Assyria (
13:1–14:27
)
B. Against Philistia (
14:28–32
)
C. Against Moab (chs.
15–16
)
D. Against Aram (ch.
17
)
E. Against Cush (ch.
18
)
F. Against Egypt and Cush (chs.
19–20
)
G. Against Babylon (
21:1–10
)
H. Against Dumah (Edom) (
21:11–12
)
I. Against Arabia (
21:13–17
)
J. Against the Valley of Vision (Jerusalem) (ch.
22
)
K. Against Tyre (ch.
23
)
IV. Judgment and Promise (the Lord’s Kingdom) (chs.
24–27
)
A. Universal Judgments for Universal Sin (ch.
24
)
B. Deliverance and Blessing (ch.
25
)
C. Praise for the Lord’s Sovereign Care (ch.
26
)
D. Israel’s Enemies Punished but Israel’s Remnant Restored (ch.
27
)
V. Six Woes: Five on the Unfaithful in Israel and One on Assyria (chs.
28–33
)
A. Woe to Ephraim (Samaria) and also to Judah (ch.
28
)
B. Woe to David’s City (Jerusalem) (
29:1–14
)
C. Woe to Those Who Rely on Foreign Alliances (
29:15–24
)
D. Woe to the Obstinate Nation (ch.
30
)
E. Woe to Those Who Rely on Egypt (chs.
31–32
)
F. Woe to Assyria but Blessing for God’s People (ch.
33
)
VI. More Prophecies of Judgment and Promise (chs.
34–35
)
A. The Destruction of the Nations and the Avenging of God’s People (ch.
34
)
B. The Future Blessings of Restored Zion (ch.
35
)
VII. A Historical Transition from the Assyrian Threat to the Babylonian Exile (chs.
36–39
)
A. Jerusalem Preserved from the Assyrian Threat (chs.
36–37
)
1. The siege of Jerusalem by Sennacherib and the Assyrian army (ch.
36
)
2. The Lord’s deliverance of Jerusalem (ch.
37
)
B. The Lord’s Extension of Hezekiah’s Life (ch.
38
)
C. The Babylonian Exile Predicted (ch.
39
)
Part 2: The Book of Comfort (chs.
40–66
)
VIII. The Deliverance and Restoration of Israel (chs.
40–48
)
A. The Coming of the Victorious God (
40:1–26
)
B. Unfailing Strength for the Weary Exiles (
40:27–31
)
C. The Lord of History (
41:1–42:9
)
D. Praise and Exhortation (
42:10–25
)
E. The Regathering and Renewal of Israel (
43:1–44:5
)
F. The Only God (
44:6–45:25
)
G. The Lord’s Superiority over Babylon’s Gods (ch.
46
)
H. The Fall of Babylon (ch.
47
)
I. The Lord’s Exhortations to His People (ch.
48
)
IX. The Servant’s Ministry and Israel’s Restoration (chs.
49–57
)
A. The Call and Mission of the Servant (
49:1–13
)
B. The Repopulation of Zion (
49:14–26
)
C. Israel’s Sin and the Servant’s Obedience (ch.
50
)
D. The Remnant Comforted Because of Their Glorious Prospect (
51:1–52:12
)
E. The Sufferings and Glories of the Lord’s Righteous Servant (
52:13–53:12
)
F. The Future Glory of Zion (ch.
54
)
G. The Lord’s Call to Salvation and Covenant Blessings (
55:1–56:8
)
H. The Condemnation of the Wicked in Israel (
56:9–57:21
)
X. Everlasting Deliverance and Everlasting Judgment (chs.
58–66
)
A. False and True Worship (ch.
58
)
B. Zion’s Confession and Redemption (ch.
59
)
C. Zion’s Peace and Prosperity (ch.
60
)
D. The Lord’s Favor (ch.
61
)
E. Zion’s Restoration and Glory (
62:1–63:6
)
F. Prayer for Divine Deliverance (
63:7–64:12
)
G. The Lord’s Answer: Mercy and Judgment (ch.
65
)
H. Judgment for False Worshipers and Blessing for True Worshipers (ch.
66
)
a quick look