Page numbers refer to the print edition but are hyperlinked to the appropriate location in the e-book.
Page numbers in italics indicate figures or tables.
active-audience theory, 77
affective reactions, 23–24
Allegheny College Survey of Civility and Compromise in American Politics, 19
America: Allegheny College Survey of Civility and Compromise in American Politics, 19; budget deficit in, 144; civil discourse in, 24–25, 155–156; democratic politics in, 5–6; East Asian cultures and, 33–34; education in, 40; government in, 131–132; history of, 18, 132–133; immigration in, 152–153, 217n1; incivility in, 5–7, 15, 215n5; marginalization in, 146; openness in, 45; political media in, 141–142, 146; race in, 151–152
anxiety, 48; for citizens, 52; in conflict, 56, 60–67, 61, 63–64, 66; conflict orientation and, 196; engagement and, 102–104, 103; morality and, 155. See also Survey Sampling International study
approach motivation, 28–30, 30, 40–41, 47; avoidance motivation compared to, 142–144; conflict-approaching, 4–6, 29–30; entertainment for, 104–105, 105; media for, 108; politics for, 148–149. See also conflict orientation
arguments: about health communication, 28–29; from partisanship, 56–57; persuasion in, 51–52; policy arguments for, 9; in political media, 26–27; political science on, 36–37; psychology of, 47–48; reactions to, 49–50. See also conflict
Arizona Daily Star (newspaper), 79
avoidance motivation, 28–30, 30, 40, 47, 181; approach motivation compared to, 142–144; Big Five traits and, 85–86; CCS and, 65; conflict-avoidance from, 4–6, 25, 29–30; incivility in, 85–86; media for, 108–109; psychology of, 76. See also conflict orientation
Bachelor, The (TV show), 108
Bachelorette, The (TV show), 74
behavior: age and, 38, 39, 40; conflict orientation and, 45–49; emotions and, 23; environmental factors and, 47–48; incivility and, 27, 42; media and, 8; messages and, 28–29; motivation and, 28, 57; political media and, 6–7, 10–11; political science and, 7–8; of politicians, 17–18; in private, 30–31; psychology and, 54; in public, 30–31, 155, 176, 180–181; “Rules of Civility and Decent Behavior,” 12–13; strategies and, 13
Big Five traits: avoidance motivation and, 85–86; in civil discourse, 36–37; of communication, 8; of personality, 36
Bold Type, The (TV show), 1–3
cable television, 10, 10–11; Internet and, 19; politics on, 75
choice: for citizens, 77–78, 145, 188; with conflict orientation, 84–86, 101, 154–155; decisions with, 118–120, 119; incivility and, 102; with media, 76–77; media-choice hypothesis, 83, 86–89, 88; outrage as, 86–89, 88; of political media, 217n3; word choice, 14–15
citizens: anxiety for, 52; choice for, 77–78, 145, 188; civil discourse for, 111, 152–156; conflict for, 118–120, 119; democratic politics for, 25, 26–27; incivility and, 17; information for, 86–89, 88; language and, 153–154; NPR for, 73–75; participation by, 127–128; partisanship for, 43, 43–44, 76–77; Planned Parenthood for, 135, 135–139, 137–138; policy arguments for, 9; political science on, 21; protests by, 113–117, 114; public behavior for, 155; selective exposure for, 97–105, 99, 101–103, 105; tolerance for, 146
Civic Culture, The (Almond, G. and Verba, S.), 111
civil discourse: Allegheny College Survey of Civility and Compromise in American Politics, 19; in America, 24–25, 155–156; Big Five Traits in, 36–37; for citizens, 111, 152–156; conflict orientation and, 113–117, 114; CSPAN and, 98–105, 99, 101–103, 105, 131–135, 135; in elections, 148–150; engagement with, 84–85; history of, 17; information and, 218n9; on Internet, 117–118; language and, 14–15, 80–83, 81, 83; policy and, 146; political science of, 12–13; psychology of, 188; in society, 146; on television, 147. See also incivility
comments: flaming reaction to, 215n1; incivility in, 126–127, 127; on Internet, 79, 153; language and, 128–129, 129; as participation, 128; psychology of, 125–126, 145–146; studies on, 116–117; on YouTube, 141
communication: Big Five traits of, 8; of conflict, 10, 10–12, 28–38, 30–31, 33, 38–39, 40–42, 41; face-to-face communication, 117–118; for FCC, 18–19, 110–112; health, 28–29; incivility in, 12–16, 16, 21–22, 24; individualized incivility in, 20–24; messages, 28–29, 54; politeness in, 215n4; in politics, 7–12, 10, 24–25, 46, 54, 215n2; psychology of, 139–140; scholarship on, 75–76. See also Conflict Communication Scale
conflict: activities with, 113–117, 114; anxiety in, 56, 60–67, 61, 63–64, 66; for citizens, 118–120, 119; communication of, 10, 10–12, 28–38, 30–31, 33, 38–39, 40–42, 41; conflict-approaching, 4–6, 29–30; conflict-avoidance, 4–6, 25, 29–30; conflict-resolution, 34–36, 49–50, 166–169; democratic politics and, 45–46; entertainment and, 57, 60–67, 61, 63–64, 66; in GfK study, 32, 174–176; incivility and, 9–10; income and, 41, 41; motivation and, 25–26; political media and, 17–18; psychology of, 2–3, 6, 20–21; in real life, 26; risk as, 145; social conflict, 115–116; strategies for, 10, 10, 30; studies on, 80–83, 81, 83; tune-in hypothesis for, 75–76. See also conflict orientation
Conflict Communication Scale (CCS), 27, 29–30, 122–123, 161–162, 164–165; avoidance motivation and, 65; gender and, 42; in Mechanical Turk study, 180–181; partisanship in, 44; psychology of, 216n2; in SSI study, 58, 171–172; in studies, 33, 33–38, 38, 67; survey questions for, 176
conflict orientation, 2–4, 6, 8, 169, 176; amusement in, 200; anger in, 197; anxiety and, 196; behavior and, 45–49; choice with, 84–86, 101, 154–155; civil discourse and, 113–117, 114; conflict-resolution and, 49–50; demographics in, 151, 205–208; disgust in, 198; emotions during, 20–23, 60–67, 61, 63–64, 66, 70–72; engagement and, 49, 131–139, 135, 137–138; enthusiasm in, 199; during experiences, 67; gender and, 40, 41; in GfK study, 33, 41, 43; in HONY, 27; incivility and, 66–67, 120, 121, 122–127, 123–124, 127, 192, 195–202; on Internet, 32; Leadership Questionnaire for, 25–26; in Mechanical Turk study, 185; for media, 145; media consumption and, 193–194; mediation of, 106–108, 107; mood-management with, 86; OLS regressions in, 37–38, 38; in outrage, 97–105, 99, 101–103, 105; participation and, 209–213; political media and, 139–140, 194; politics and, 42–44, 43, 111–112, 203–204, 218n2; psychology of, 25, 32–34, 33, 143–144, 148, 191; race and, 219n1; in reactions, 52–53; on social media, 74; socioeconomics in, 143; in SSI study, 59, 60; in tune-in hypothesis, 89–90, 91–93, 93–94, 95, 96–97
democratic politics: in America, 5–6; anti-democracy, 14; for citizens, 25, 26–27; conflict and, 45–46; emotions and, 5; incivility in, 152–156
demographics: in conflict orientation, 151, 205–208; of education, 41, 41; ideology and, 45; of media, 218n7; of participation, 205–208; of protests, 151–152, 152; in studies, 189–190
Diane Rehm Show, The (NPR), 215n3
East Asian cultures, 33–34
emotions, 171, 175; behavior and, 23; during conflict orientation, 20–23, 60–67, 61, 63–64, 66, 70–72; democratic politics and, 5; emotional stability, 36–38, 38–39, 191; expression of, 31; in GfK study, 192; incivility and, 51–53, 60–62, 61, 153; mood-management, 48; OLS regressions of, 69, 70–71; outrage and, 106–108, 107; partisanship and, 44, 52, 65; politics and, 53–55; psychology of, 46–47; reactions and, 187; in SSI study, 60–67, 61, 63–64, 66
engagement: anxiety and, 102–104, 103; with civil discourse, 84–85; conflict orientation and, 49, 131–139, 135, 137–138; on Facebook, 72; incivility and, 25, 99, 99–100, 116–117; on Internet, 3–4; with Master Chef, 130–131, 135, 135–139, 137–138; with media, 122–125, 123–124; with political media, 48, 153–154; with politics, 44, 117–118; psychology of, 113; voting and, 149–150
entertainment: for approach motivation, 104–105, 105; conflict and, 57, 60–67, 61, 63–64, 66; Master Chef as, 125; from media, 76; motivation and, 156; political media and, 4, 15–16, 24–25, 74–75, 97–98; politics as, 104. See also Survey Sampling International study
environmental factors: behavior and, 47–48; personality and, 8; psychology of, 27; tone and, 21
experimental manipulation, 58–59, 60
experiments, for incivility, 147–148
Facebook, 73; engagement on, 72; policy on, 20; Twitter and, 80, 116
face-to-face communication, 117–118
Federal Communication Commission (FCC): Fairness Doctrine, 18–19; net neutrality for, 110–112
GfK study, 125, 127, 128, 145–148; conflict in, 32, 174–176; conflict orientation in, 33, 41, 43; data from, 157, 158–159, 192, 209; emotions in, 192; incivility in, 67, 70–71, 135, 137–138
government: in America, 131–132; partisanship and, 154
Hamilton, Alexander, 17, 20
Hannity & Colmes (TV show), 75, 78
health communication, 28–29
Hearst, William Randolph, 18, 20
heterogeneous treatment effects, 142–143
Humans of New York (HONY), 26–27
incivility: in America, 5–7, 15, 215n5; avoidance motivation and, 85–86; behavior and, 27, 42; choice and, 102; citizens and, 17; in comments, 126–127, 127; in communication, 12–16, 16, 21–22, 24; conflict and, 9–10; conflict orientation and, 66–67, 120, 121, 122–127, 123–124, 127, 192, 195, 195–202; in democratic politics, 152–156; emotions and, 51–53, 60–62, 61, 153; engagement and, 25, 99, 99–100, 116–117; expectations with, 55–57; experimental manipulation of, 58–59, 60; experiments for, 147–148; feelings about, 64–65; gender and, 212–213; in GfK study, 67, 70–71, 135, 137–138; history of, 19–20; individualized, 20–24; information and, 105; on Internet, 79, 141–142; for journalism, 2; in language, 135, 135–137, 137; media and, 6–7, 19, 78–83, 81, 83; mediation of, 106–108, 107; mood-management and, 201; outrage with, 84–86; partisanship and, 4–5, 111; political media and, 45–49; in politics, 17–20, 52–53, 67–72, 70–71, 188; psychology of, 13–14, 216n2; race and, 13–14, 210–211; reactions to, 3–4, 55–59, 60; “Rules of Civility and Decent Behavior” (list), 12–13; scholarship on, 142–146; sensationalism and, 18; social media and, 2; in SSI study, 67–69, 70–71; studies on, 70–72, 148–152, 152; tone and, 14–16, 16; values and, 13; willingness and, 209
individualized incivility, 20–24
information: for citizens, 86–89, 88; civil discourse and, 218n9; incivility and, 105; information-search hypothesis, 74, 86, 97–105, 99, 101–103, 105, 188, 195; about policy, 84; about politics, 77, 85, 106–108, 107; on social media, 73–74
information processing, 46, 48, 149
Internet: anonymity on, 7; cable television and, 19; civil discourse on, 117–118; comments on, 79, 153; conflict orientation on, 32; engagement on, 3–4; harassment on, 1–3; HONY, 26; incivility on, 79, 141–142; real life and, 6; user psychology on, 13–14
interventions: participation and, 149; psychology of, 156
In-Your-Face Politics (Mutz), 22
journalism: incivility for, 2; politics and, 150
Knapp, Susan Brubaker, 73
language: citizens and, 153–154; civil discourse and, 14–15, 80–83, 81, 83; comments and, 128–129, 129; incivility in, 135, 135–137, 137; psychology of, 78–79
Last Week Tonight (TV show), 110–112
Leadership Questionnaire, 25–26
marginalization: in America, 146; in personality, 34; psychology of, 151–152; in society, 13
Master Chef (TV show), 67–69, 70–71, 100, 144–146; engagement with, 130–131, 135, 135–139, 137–138; as entertainment, 125; Planned Parenthood compared to, 147–148, 192
Mechanical Turk study, 106–108, 107, 147–148, 216n2, 218n2; CCS in, 180–181; conflict orientation in, 185; data from, 157, 158–159; participation study by, 119, 119–120; race in, 219n2; study 1 by, 86–89, 88, 180–185, 193, 204–205, 208, 211, 213; study 2 by, 97–105, 99, 101–103, 105, 185–190, 195–202
media: for approach motivation, 108; Arizona Daily Star, 79; for avoidance motivation, 108–109; behavior and, 8; cable television, 10, 10; choice with, 76–77; conflict orientation for, 145; consumption of, 176, 182–183, 187; demographics of, 218n7; engagement with, 122–125, 123–124; entertainment from, 76; FCC and, 18–19; incivility and, 6–7, 19, 78–83, 81, 83; media-choice hypothesis, 83, 86–89, 88; Meet the Press, 21; new, 80; partisanship in, 11, 18; preferences for, 187; scholarship on, 218n6; searches, 46; sensationalism of, 15–16; substantive disagreement and, 11–12; Twitter as, 142. See also political media; social media
Meet the Press (TV show), 21
methodology, of experiments, 147–148
New York Times (app), 108
New York Times (newspaper), 2
Nightly News with Lester Holt (TV show), 78
ordinary least squares (OLS) regressions: in conflict orientation, 37–38, 38; of emotions, 69, 70–71; in SSI study, 62–64, 63–64
outrage: as choice, 86–89, 88; conflict orientation in, 97–105, 99, 101–103, 105; emotions and, 106–108, 107; with incivility, 84–86; political media and, 74–83, 81, 83, 108–109; politics and, 89–90, 91–93, 93–94, 95, 96–97; psychology of, 73–74; on Twitter, 150–151
participation: by citizens, 127–128; comments as, 128; conflict orientation and, 209–213; demographics of, 205–208; hypotheses for, 112, 115, 118; interventions and, 149; Mechanical Turk study on, 119, 119–120; in politics, 23, 49, 118–120, 119, 121, 122–127, 123–124, 127, 142–143, 177, 181–182, 203, 203–204, 218n8; in voting, 112–117, 114
partisanship, 163, 172, 178, 182, 186; arguments from, 56–57; in CCS, 44; for citizens, 43, 43–44, 76–77; emotions and, 44, 52, 65; government and, 154; homogeneity and, 80; incivility and, 4–5, 111; in media, 11, 18; polarization of, 150
personality: Big Five traits of, 36; environmental factors and, 8; marginalization in, 34; psychology of, 7–8, 28, 36–38, 38–39, 165, 177–178; TIPI, 37–38, 38, 165, 177–178
Planned Parenthood, 67–68, 67–69, 70–71, 146, 219n5; for citizens, 135, 135–139, 137–138; Cummings on, 131–134; Master Chef compared to, 147–148, 192
policy: civil discourse and, 146; compromise for, 149; on Facebook, 20; information about, 84; negotiation and, 149; of Obama, 51; policy arguments, 9; protests against, 152–153; public, 3
political media: in America, 141–142, 146; arguments in, 26–27; behavior and, 6–7, 10–11; choice of, 217n3; confirmation bias and, 149; conflict and, 17–18; conflict orientation and, 139–140, 194; CSPAN as, 67–69, 70–71; debates on, 131–135, 135; The Diane Rehm Show, 215n3; The Dylan Ratigan Show, 58–59, 60; engagement with, 48, 153–154; entertainment and, 4, 15–16, 24–25, 74–75, 97–98; headlines for, 99; incivility and, 45–49; Meet the Press, 21; Morning Joe, 58–59, 60; outrage and, 74–83, 81, 83, 108–109; political discussion hypothesis, 117, 126; reactions to, 4; social media and, 87–88, 144; Trump and, 5–6
political science: on arguments, 36–37; behavior and, 7–8; on citizens, 21; of civil discourse, 12–13; on voting, 38, 40
politics, 162, 172; activism in, 51–52, 112–120, 114, 119; Allegheny College Survey of Civility and Compromise in American Politics, 19; for approach motivation, 148–149; on cable television, 75; The Civic Culture about, 111; communication in, 7–12, 10, 24–25, 46, 54, 215n2; conflict orientation and, 42–44, 43, 111–112, 203–204, 218n2; emotions and, 53–55; engagement with, 44, 117–118; as entertainment, 104; incivility in, 17–20, 52–53, 67–72, 70–71, 188; information about, 77, 85, 106–108, 107; In-Your-Face Politics, 22; journalism and, 150; outrage and, 89–90, 91–93, 93–94, 95, 96–97; participation in, 23, 49, 118–120, 119, 121, 122–127, 123–124, 127, 142–143, 177, 181–182, 203, 203–204, 218n8; political discussion hypothesis, 117, 126; political efficacy, 186; political ideology, 179; psychology of, 148–149, 185–186; of questions, 29–32, 30–31; sarcasm in, 15–16; on social media, 116; on Twitter, 73–74; vitriol in, 5–6
Project Implicit, 86–89, 88, 119, 119–120; data from, 157, 158–159, 193–194, 203, 206–207, 210, 212, 218n1; survey questions for, 176–180
psychology: of affective reactions, 23–24; of anonymity, 7; of arguments, 47–48; of avoidance motivation, 76; behavior and, 54; of CCS, 216n2; of civil discourse, 188; of comments, 125–126, 145–146; of communication, 139–140; of conflict, 2–3, 6, 20–21; of conflict communication, 28–38, 30–31, 33, 38–39, 40–42, 41; of conflict orientation, 25, 32–34, 33, 143–144, 148, 191; of conflict-resolution, 166–169; of depolarization, 5; of emotions, 46–47; of engagement, 113; of environmental factors, 27; of experiences, 57; of face-to-face communication, 117–118; of health communication, 28–29; human nature, 143; of incivility, 13–14, 216n2; of Internet users, 13–14; of interventions, 156; of language, 78–79; of managerial grid theory, 35–36; of marginalization, 151–152; motivation in, 53–54; of outrage, 73–74; personality and, 7–8, 28, 36–38, 38–39, 165, 177–178; of politics, 148–149, 185–186; of violent rhetoric, 153–154; of voting, 11, 71–72, 118–119; of willingness, 209
race, 13–14, 190; in America, 151–152; conflict orientation and, 219n1; incivility and, 210–211; in Mechanical Turk study, 219n2; in studies, 161, 170, 180, 185
reactions: affective, 23–24; in appraisal theory, 56–57; to arguments, 49–50; conflict orientation in, 52–53; emotions and, 187; feelings and, 54; to incivility, 3–4, 55–59, 60; to political media, 4; studies on, 131–139, 135, 137–138
real life: conflict in, 26; Internet and, 6
Roosevelt, Franklin D., 18
“Rules of Civility and Decent Behavior” (list), 12–13
social media, 1–2, 183; anonymity on, 79–80; blogs as, 26–27, 46, 49; information on, 73–74; political media and, 87–88, 144; politics on, 116. See also Facebook; media; Twitter
society, 1–2; civil discourse in, 146; ideology in, 111; marginalization in, 13; pluralism in, 154. See also citizens
socioeconomics, in conflict orientation, 143
strategies: behavior and, 13; for conflict, 10, 10, 30; for conflict-resolution, 34–36
studies: CCS in, 33, 33–38, 38, 67; CNN in, 99, 99–100; on comments, 116–117; on conflict, 80–83, 81, 83; data from, 99, 101–103, 105, 107, 119, 119–120; demographics in, 189–190; gestures in, 59; on ideology, 42–44, 43; on incivility, 70–72, 148–152, 152; primary data from, 160; race in, 161, 170, 180, 185; on reactions, 131–139, 135, 137–138; summary of, 157, 158–159. See also specific studies
substantive disagreement, 11–12
surveys. See specific surveys
Survey Sampling International (SSI) study, 147–148; CCS in, 58, 171–172; conflict orientation in, 59, 60; data from, 157, 158–159; emotions in, 60–67, 61, 63–64, 66; incivility in, 67–69, 70–71; OLS regression in, 62–64, 63–64; survey questions for, 170–172; transcripts of, 173–174
television: cable, 10, 10–11, 19, 75; civil discourse on, 147; debates on, 21–22; radio and, 18–19; reality, 98–105, 99, 101–103, 105. See also media
Trump, Donald J., 73, 150; political media and, 5–6; tweets by, 2
voting, 177, 182; engagement and, 149–150; participation in, 112–117, 114; political science on, 38, 40; protests and, 120, 121, 122; psychology of, 11, 71–72, 118–119
Washington, George, 12–13
West Wing, The (TV show), 141