Study Notes

1:1 word of the LORD. A claim of authority paralleling that of Jeremiah (1:2,4), Ezekiel (1:3), Joel (1:1), Jonah (1:1; 3:1), Micah (1:1), Zephaniah (1:1), Haggai (1:1,3; 2:1,10,20), Zechariah (1:1,7; 9:1; 12:1) and Malachi (1:1). Hosea. Means “salvation.” Uzziah. Reigned 792–740 bc; also known as Azariah (see 2Ki 14:21 and NIV text note). Jotham. 750–732. Ahaz. 735–715. Hezekiah. 729–686. Some of the reigns overlapped, the coregency of Ahaz and Hezekiah being the longest (see note on Isa 36:1). Jeroboam. Jeroboam II, 793–753. Hosea was a contemporary of Isaiah, Amos and Micah (see the similar first verse in their prophecies).

1:2 marry a promiscuous woman. Likely describing her activity even before her marriage to Hosea, representing Israel’s inherent unfaithfulness. Another interpretation is that this describes Gomer’s unfaithfulness to Hosea after he married her, representing Israel’s unfaithfulness to God after he entered into a covenant relationship with her. (see Introduction: Special Problems). unfaithfulness. The one great sin of which the Lord (through Hosea) accuses Israel (see Ex 34:15 and note).

1:3 Gomer. Not mentioned outside this book. him. The omission of this word in vv. 6,8 may perhaps indicate that Hosea was not the father of Gomer’s next two children (cf. 2:4–5).

1:4 Jezreel. Means “God scatters,” here used to reinforce the announcement of judgment on the reigning dynasty (see notes on v. 11; 2:22). Jeroboam II was of the dynasty of Jehu (841–814 bc), which was established at Jezreel by the overthrow of Ahab’s son Joram (see 2Ki 9:14–29; see also 1Ki 19:16–17 and notes). Jehu’s dynasty ended with the murder of King Zechariah in 753 (2Ki 15:8–10).

1:5 Israel’s bow. Israel’s military power, broken in 725 bc, though Samaria held out under siege for three years longer (see 2Ki 17:5–6 and notes). Valley of Jezreel. Located east of Megiddo, it provides the only major pass through the mountain range that traverses Israel from north to south and was therefore a major battleground in ancient times (see map).

1:6 Lo-Ruhamah. The naming represents a reversal of the love (compassion) that God had earlier shown to Israel (see Ex 33:19; Dt 7:6–8 and note on 7:8) but that later was promised again (see notes on 2:19,22–23 and NIV text notes on 2:23).

1:7 Yet. See v. 10 and note. Judah . . . I will save. God’s people were saved from Assyria by the Lord in 722–721 bc and again in 701 (2Ki 19:32–36).

1:9 Lo-Ammi. The naming represents a break in the covenant relationship between the Lord and Israel (see Ex 6:7; Jer 7:23 and note), which later, however, would be restored (v. 10; 2:1,23; see notes there). The warnings became more severe in moving from the first to the third child.

1:10 Cited in Ro 9:26; 1Pe 2:10 (see note there) and applied to the mission to the Gentiles. Yet. The threatened punishment (vv. 4–6,9) would be for only a limited time, and a period of blessing would follow. sand on the seashore. See the promise to Abraham and Jacob (Ge 22:17; 32:12; cf. Jer 33:22 and note; Heb 11:12). children of the living God. Contrasts with “children of adultery” (2:4; cf. 1:2). living God. Contrasts with idols—“Which are not God” (Dt 32:17).

1:11 come together. Israel and Judah would become one nation again. out of the land. Possibly the land of exile (cf. Ex 1:10). Another interpretation is that they would spring up from the ground as plants do. Jezreel. Here “God scatters” (see note on v. 4) refers to sowing or planting, a positive image indicating a reversal of the message of judgment implied in the meaning of the first child’s name (see 2:21–23 and notes).

2:1 My people . . . My loved one. The negatives [Lo = “not”] associated with the names of Hosea’s children (see notes on 1:6,9) are dropped.

2:2 Using the analogy developed in ch. 1, the Lord now accuses Israel of being unfaithful by speaking to Hosea’s children. Rebuke your mother. Refers to Israel by means of the analogy with Gomer. not my wife. Like the marriage between Hosea and Gomer, the “marriage” between Yahweh and Israel was broken by unfaithfulness, but reconciliation, not divorce, was sought (cf. vv. 7–15).

2:3 strip her. The husband supplied the wife’s clothing (Ex 21:10; Eze 16:10), and here her unfaithfulness was exposed (Jer 13:26; Eze 16:39). bare. As Israel was when the Lord found her in Egypt—in slavery and with nothing (cf. Eze 16:4–8; Na 3:5).

2:4 children of adultery. This contrasts with being “children of the living God” (1:10; cf. 11:1).

2:5 go after. The wife was chasing other men, as Israel pursued other gods (v. 13; Jer 3:2; Eze 16:33–34). lovers. See vv. 7,10. The reference is to Canaanite deities (such as Baal), whose worshipers hoped to gain agricultural fertility (see note on Ex 34:15). who give me my food . . . my drink. Ugaritic texts attribute crops to rain given by Baal. wool . . . linen . . . olive oil . . . drink. The agricultural staples of the Holy Land. Israel does not know the true source of her blessings.

2:6 block her path . . . wall her in. Rather than punish Israel with death (cf. Dt 22:21; Eze 16:39–40; 23:47; Na 3:5–7), the Lord would isolate her.

2:7 look for. See 5:6,15 (“seek”). not find. See 5:6 and note. go back. The Hebrew for this expression often means “repent.” my husband. The Lord.

2:8 She has not acknowledged. Along with the Canaanites, the Israelites attributed to Baal “the grain, the new wine and oil” (see Dt 7:13; Joel 1:10; Hag 1:11 and notes). silver and gold. Used for making idols (8:4; 13:2). Baal. The Canaanite god who was believed to control the weather and the fertility of crops, animals and people (see note on Jdg 2:13).

2:9 take away. By withholding the fruits of field and flock, the Lord made known the true source of those blessings.

2:10 expose her lewdness. Israel, compared to the unfaithful wife, would be exposed to public shame (La 1:8; Eze 16:37; 23:29). no one will take her. Baal had no power.

2:11 stop . . . celebrations. In exile these joyous seasons would be only a memory. yearly festivals. See Ex 23:14–17; Dt 16:16 and notes. See also chart. New Moons. See 2Ki 4:23; Isa 1:14; Am 8:5 and notes. Sabbath. See Ex 20:8–11.

2:12 pay from her lovers. The prostitute’s pay (v. 5; 9:1; Dt 23:18; Eze 16:33; Mic 1:7). Israel attributed their agricultural products to the false gods they worshiped rather than to the Lord (Dt 11:13–14).

2:13 days. Festival days. Baals. See v. 17; 11:2. Hosea used the plural here, suggesting the idols at the many local shrines (see Jdg 2:11–13 and notes; Jer 2:23,28 and note; 9:14). went after. See note on v. 5. forgot. The opposite of “acknowledge” (see note on v. 20) in Hosea (see 13:4–6 and note on 13:6; see also note on 1Sa 12:9).

2:14 into the wilderness. For a second betrothal (vv. 19–20). It refers back to the days of Israel’s wilderness wandering, before they were tempted by the Baals in Canaan. speak tenderly to. Reassure, encourage, comfort (cf. Ge 34:3; Ru 2:13; Isa 40:2). God continually shows love in the midst of judgment.

2:15 Valley of Achor. Near Jericho (Jos 7:24, 26; Isa 65:10). As the prophet reversed the meaning of the names of his children (1:7,10–13), so also the meaning of Achor (see NIV text note)—where God first judged his people in the promised land—became a symbol of new opportunity.

2:16–17 master . . . Baals. A play on words since “master” and “Baal” translate the same Hebrew word (see NIV text note on v. 16). Later, Israel reacted so vigorously against Baal worship that they no longer used this Hebrew word to refer to the Lord.

2:18 make a covenant. See 6:7; 8:1. Animals, the instruments of destruction in v. 12, as well as birds and insects, would no longer threaten life. Nature and history combine in a picture of peace (see Isa 11:6–9 and note; 65:25). Bow and sword and battle. See 1:5,7. War is terminated. land. Israel (see 1:2; 4:1,3; 9:3 and note; 10:1). lie down in safety. See Jer 33:16; Eze 34:24–28.

2:19–20 Rather than money, these five traits necessary to the covenant relationship make up the bride-price (see Ex 22:16; 1Sa 18:25 and notes).

2:19 betroth. See notes on Joel 1:8; Mt 1:18. righteousness. See 10:12; Ps 4:1; Jer 23:6 and notes. justice. See Am 5:24 and note. love. See 4:1; 6:4; 10:12 and note; 12:6. compassion. A reversal of God’s threatened withdrawal of compassion (see 1:6 and note). “Lo-Ruhamah” means “not loved” or “not shown compassion” (cf. Ps 51:1; 103:3–14).

2:20 faithfulness. Dependability (Dt 32:4; Ps 88:11). acknowledge. Refers to active acknowledgment of a covenant partner (see 6:3 and note; 8:2; 13:4).

2:21 respond. Israel responded to the Lord’s overtures (vv. 14–15); now God would respond to their new behavior. The land would also respond by becoming productive (vv. 21–22).

2:22 Jezreel. Here used in the sense “God plants” (see NIV text note and v. 23; see also 1:4,11 and notes). The threats represented by the names of the children are turned into blessings (see 1:10 and note).

2:23 my people . . . my God. The basic statement describing the covenant relationship was “I will be your God and you will be my people” (Jer 7:23; see notes on Ex 6:7; Zec 8:8). You are my God. The people respond to God’s graciousness. This verse is quoted in part in Ro 9:25–26 (see note there); 1Pe 2:10 and applied to Gentiles coming into the church.

3:1 said to me. Ch. 3 is narrated in the first person, ch. 1 in the third person. Go . . . love . . . your wife. Hosea’s love for unfaithful Gomer illustrated God’s love for unfaithful Israel. God’s love for his unfaithful people (see 11:1 and note; 14:4) is the basic theme of the book. other gods. See Ex 20:3; Dt 31:20. raisin cakes. Offered to Baal in thanksgiving for harvest.

3:2 Gomer had evidently become a slave, and Hosea bought her back. fifteen shekels. Half the usual price of a slave (see Ex 21:32 and note) or of the redemption value of a woman’s vow (Lev 27:4). lethek. See NIV text note. It appears that half her price was paid in money (silver) and half in produce (barley)—for a total value of 30 shekels.

3:3–5 A picture of exile and return.

3:3 live with. Suggests a period of isolation (see 2:6 and note), comparable to Israel’s exile. many days. Not forever. There would be an “afterward” (v. 5), a future (Jer 29:11).

3:4 king. See 1:4; 5:1; 8:4,10; 10:15; 13:10–11. prince. See 7:3,5; 8:4; 13:10. without sacrifice. See 6:6; 8:11,13. sacred stones. See 10:1–2; 1Ki 14:23 and note; 2Ki 17:10; Mic 5:13. ephod. Here an image associated with idols (see Jdg 8:27; 17:5 and notes). household gods. See Ge 31:19, 30,34 and note on 31:19.

3:5 return. A basic word in Hosea’s vocabulary (see 2:7 [“go back”]; 5:4; 6:1; 7:10; 11:5; 12:6; 14:1–2). seek. Israel’s repentance is envisioned (see 5:15 and note)—the reverse of her present stubborn rebellion (7:10). LORD their God. See 12:9; 13:4; Jer 50:4. David their king. The Messianic king from the dynasty of David (see Jer 30:9; Eze 34:23–24; 37:24 and notes; cf 2Sa 7:11–16; Isa 11:1 and notes). After the death of Solomon, Israel (the northern kingdom) had abandoned the Davidic kings. his blessings. The vineyards and olive groves that had been taken away (2:12) and all of God’s gifts (cf. Jer 31:12–14). last days. The Hebrew for this phrase occurs 13 times in the OT, sometimes simply meaning the future (“days to come,” Ge 49:1), but most of the time, as no doubt here, referring also to the Messianic age (“afterward,” Joel 2:28; cf. Ac 2:17; Heb 1:2).

4:1—14:9 Deals with Israel’s involvement in Canaanite religion, their moral sins and international intrigues.

4:1 Hear the word. See Jer 2:4 and note. charge. As the Lord’s spokesperson, Hosea brought charges against unfaithful, covenant-breaking Israel (cf. v. 4; 12:2; Isa 3:13; Jer 2:9; Mic 6:2). faithfulness. Loyalty (see 2:20 and note) to the covenant Lord (Jos 24:14) and right dealing with others (cf. Pr 3:3). love. See 2:19; 10:12. acknowledgment of God. See 2:20; 6:3 and notes.

4:2 cursing . . . adultery. The sins detailed (paralleled in Jer 7:9) transgress several of the Ten Commandments (see Ex 20:13–16 and notes on 20:1–2). bloodshed. Includes (1) murder (6:8–9); (2) the assassinations following the death of Jeroboam II, when three kings reigned in one year (2Ki 15:10–14); and (3) human sacrifice (Ps 106:38; Eze 16:20–21; 23:37). Where God is not acknowledged (v. 1), moral uprightness disappears.

4:3 land dries up. God’s judgment on human sin affects all living things in the world (see, e.g., Isa 24:3–6; Jer 4:23–28). waste away. See Isa 19:8; Jer 14:2; 15:9; Joel 1:10.

4:4–9 An indictment against the priests, whose duty it was to be guardians of God’s law and to furnish religious instruction (see Lev 10:11; Dt 31:9–13; 33:10; 2Ch 17:8–9; Ezr 7:6, 10; Jer 18:18; Eze 7:26 and note; Zep 3:4; Hag 2:11; Mal 2:7–9). Hosea warned the priests not to lodge charges against the people for bringing God’s judgment down on the nation, for they themselves were guilty, and the people could also bring charges against them—as Hosea proceeded to do (see v. 9; cf. Isa 28:7; Jer 2:26; 4:9; 23:11).

4:5 stumble. Experience calamity (5:5). prophets. See Mic 2:6, 11; 3:5–7. your mother. The nation (2:2,5; Isa 50:1).

4:6 my people. Israel (vv. 8,12; 2:1,23; 6:11; 11:7; Mic 6:3,5). destroyed from lack of knowledge. Partly because the priests had failed to teach God’s word to the people. rejected knowledge . . . reject you. Punishment in kind. law of your God. Israel’s source of life (see Dt 30:20 and note), which the priests should have been faithfully promoting.

4:7 their glorious God. See Ps 106:20 and note.

4:8 feed on the sins. Priests devoured the sacrifices (see 1Sa 2:13–17 and notes), profiting from the continuation of the sin rather than helping to cure it (see 8:13 and note).

4:9 Like people, like priests. Without exception, all would be punished for their sins.

4:10 eat but not have enough. The punishment (a futility curse; see note on Hag 1:6) fits the sin. prostitution. See vv. 12,18; 2:4; 6:10; 9:1; Jdg 2:17 and note; Ps 106:39. Instead of giving themselves to the Lord, they gave themselves to spiritual prostitution or idolatry (vv. 11–15; see notes on Ge 20:9; Ex 34:15; Ps 73:27).

4:11 old wine. See 7:5. new. See 2:8–9,22; 7:14; 9:2.

4:12 wooden idol. An image of a god (Jer 2:27; 10:8; Hab 2:19). spirit of prostitution. See 5:4. Hebrew idioms often speak of inner tendencies in terms of “spirit.”

4:13 mountaintops. Places commonly chosen for pagan altars (see 10:8; Dt 12:2; 1Ki 3:2 and note; Jer 2:20; 3:6). Clay tablets from Ugarit (see chart) tell of fertility rites carried out by the Canaanites at the high places. oak . . . terebinth. Trees noted for their shade. turn to prostitution. Canaanite fertility rites involved sexual activity (v. 14) that led to general erosion of morals (see, e.g., Nu 25:1–18 and notes).

4:14 not punish. The men would punish their women for immorality, but God would have no part in their hypocrisy. harlots. Common prostitutes (Ge 34:31; Lev 21:14; Eze 16:31). shrine prostitutes. Women of the sanctuaries who served as partners for men in sexual activity that was part of their religious ritual (cf. Ge 38:21 and note; Dt 23:18). without understanding. Contrast 14:9.

4:15 commit adultery. See notes on Ge 20:9; Ex 34:15. Judah. An aside warning (see Introduction: Author and Date). guilty. See 10:2; 13:1. Do not go. The nation as a whole was addressed. Gilgal. A site near Jericho (see 9:15; 12:11; Jos 4:19; 1Sa 11:14 and notes) where the Israelites had established a religious shrine. Beth Aven. A sarcastic substitute name for Bethel (see NIV text note; see also 5:8), site of one of the two major worship centers established by Jeroboam I (see 1Ki 12:29 and note). As surely as the LORD lives. A form of solemn oath (see Ge 42:15 and note; Jdg 8:19; Ru 3:13; 1Sa 14:39; 26:10,16; Jer 4:2; 38:16). Though proper in itself—since it invoked the true God (Dt 6:13; 10:20; cf. Jos 23:7)—it was here forbidden because it was being used deceitfully, as though the Israelites were truly honoring the Lord (see Jer 5:2 and note).

4:16 stubborn. See Ne 9:29; Zec 7:11. stubborn heifer. See Jer 2:20; 31:18 and notes; an apt figure for unruly Israel (Hos 10:11; cf. 11:4).

4:17 Ephraim. Israel’s largest tribe (see notes on 9:11; 13:1), whose name came to be used of the northern kingdom as a whole. idols. The golden calf (see 8:5 and note) and the Baals (see 2:8,13 and notes). leave him alone. Nothing could be done to help (2Sa 16:11; 2Ki 23:18).

4:19 A whirlwind will sweep them away. A metaphor for the sudden violence that would bring the exile. Since the Hebrew for the words “whirlwind” and “spirit” is the same, there is a possible wordplay with the “spirit of prostitution” (see v. 12 and note). shame. By means of their sacrifices they hoped to flourish, but God’s punishment for their idolatry would bring them into disgrace among the nations (10:6).

5:1 priests . . . Israelites . . . royal house. The three groups addressed were all responsible for maintaining justice, but it miscarried at their hands. snare . . . net. Devices for catching animals and birds, here used as metaphors for those who by economic and legal schemes took cruel advantage of innocent people (Job 18:8–10; Ps 140:5; Pr 29:5–6; La 1:13). Mizpah. Either (1) Mizpah in Gilead east of the Jordan (Ge 31:43–49) or (2) Mizpah in Benjamin (see 1Sa 7:5 and note). Tabor. A mountain at the southeastern edge of the Jezreel Valley. Reference must have been to well-known events that illustrated Israel’s corruption.

5:2 discipline. A significant word in the Prophets for God’s corrective action for his people (Isa 26:16; Jer 2:30; 5:3; 7:28).

5:3 Ephraim. See note on 4:17. prostitution. See note on 4:10.

5:4 Their deeds. See 4:9; 7:2; 9:15; 12:2. Persistent sin can make repentance very difficult (Jer 13:23; Jn 8:34; Ro 6:6,16; but see v. 15 for future repentance). spirit of prostitution. See 4:12 and note. not acknowledge the LORD. See 4:6; Isa 1:3 and note.

5:5 arrogance. Stubborn rebellion against the Lord (Dt 1:43; 1Sa 15:23; Ne 9:16; Job 35:12; Ps 10:2; Eze 16:56–57). testifies. In the case God presented against his people (see 4:1 and note). stumble. See 4:5 and note. Judah. See Introduction: Author and Date.

5:6 seek the LORD. Go to him with prayer and sacrifices (see 3:5 and note; Am 5:4–5). not find him. Offering sacrifices in their situation was useless (see 2:7; cf. Isa 1:10–15; Am 5:21–24; Mic 6:6–8). The Lord would be “found” by Israel only when they turned to him with integrity of heart (v. 15; 3:5; Dt 4:29–31; Jer 29:13).

5:7 unfaithful. See 1:2 and note. New Moon. Usually a festive occasion (see, e.g., 2:11; 1Sa 20:5 and note; Am 8:5; Col 2:16), but now a time of judgment. Or the meaning may be that one month would be sufficient to accomplish their punishment.

5:8 Some interpreters suggest that the Aramean (Syrian)-Ephraimite (Israelite) war (see 2Ki 16:5–9; Isa 7:1–9 and notes) forms the background of the message in chs. 4–5. trumpet. Made of a ram’s horn, which here sounds the alarm that an army is approaching (see 8:1; Joel 2:1 and note; Am 3:6). Gibeah. Two miles north of Jerusalem. Ramah. North of Gibeah. Beth Aven. See note on 4:15. lead on, Benjamin. Perhaps a Benjamite war cry.

5:9 laid waste. Destruction and exile. See Jer 25:11,38.

5:10 move boundary stones. See photos here and here. Forbidden by the law (see Dt 19:14 and note; 27:17; Pr 15:25 and note; 23:10; Isa 5:8; Mic 2:2) because the land had been permanently given to the tribes. Judah had seized territory that was not rightly theirs (see 1Ki 15:16–22). See photos here and here. my wrath. See 13:11.

5:12 moth . . . rot. Both consume (Job 13:28).

5:13 sickness . . . sores. Metaphors for the national wounds that Israel and Judah had suffered at the hands of their enemies (Isa 1:5–6; 17:11; Jer 15:18; 30:12–15). turned to Assyria. Assyrian records tell of the tribute paid to Tiglath-Pileser III by the Israelite kings Menahem and Hoshea (cf. 2Ki 15:19–20; 17:3). Paying tribute would have bought Israel protection. not able to cure. The alliances were worthless.

5:14 lion. See 13:7; Am 1:2 and note; 3:8. The Lord might use human agents (see Isa 10:5 and note), but he would ultimately be responsible for Israel’s punishment, from which there would be no escape (Isa 5:29; 42:22; Am 9:1–4).

5:15 return to my lair. God threatened to withdraw from Israel until, out of desperation, they truly repented. lair. See v. 14.

6:1 let us return. A shallow (v. 4) proposal of repentance (using phrases from 5:13–15), in which Israel acknowledged that God, not Assyria (cf. 5:13), was the true physician (cf. 7:1).

6:2 two days . . . third day. A brief time. Israel supposed that God’s wrath would be of short duration.

6:3 acknowledge the LORD. A key concept in Hosea (see v. 6; 2:20 and note; 4:1,6; 5:4). like the winter rains . . . spring rains. Israel believed that, as surely as seasonal rains fell, reviving the earth, God’s favor would return and restore them.

6:4 What can I do . . . ? See Isa 5:4. God saw through Israel’s superficial repentance. Ephraim. See note on 4:17. Judah. See Introduction: Author and Date. love. See 2:19; see also note on v. 6. morning mist . . . dew. Figurative for that which is temporary.

6:5 my prophets. God’s spokespersons had denounced the people’s sin. words of my mouth. The judgments spoken by the Lord’s faithful prophets (see Jer 1:9; 15:19 and notes).

6:6 mercy. Hebrew ḥesed (see article), a word that can refer to right conduct toward one’s neighbor or loyalty to the Lord or both—the sum of what God requires of his servants. Here it perhaps refers to both. The same Hebrew word is translated “love” in v. 4 (see note on Ps 6:4). not sacrifice. Sacrifice apart from faithfulness to the Lord’s will is wholly unacceptable to him (8:13; 1Sa 15:22–23; Isa 1:11–15; Jer 7:21–23; Am 5:21–24; Mic 6:6–8; Mt 9:13; 12:7). acknowledgment of God. See v. 3; 2:20 and notes.

6:7 As at Adam. Adam is probably Tell ed-Damiyeh at the Jordan (see Jos 3:16 and notes on 3:13,15), as suggested by the reference to “there” at the end of the sentence. The allusion in “Like Adam” (see NIV text note) is uncertain since Scripture records no covenant with Adam. A third interpretation (“Like human beings”; see NIV text note) takes Hebrew ‘adam to mean “humankind.” broken the covenant. See 8:1; Jos 7:11.

6:8 Gilead. See 12:11; Jdg 10:17; 12:7. footprints of blood. The allusion is unclear, but Hosea may have been referring to a more recent event than the bloodbath of Jdg 12:1–6—such as Pekah’s rebellion against Pekahiah (2Ki 15:25).

6:9 they murder. The specific event is unknown. Shechem. See Ge 33:18 and note.

6:10 prostitution. See note on 4:10.

6:11 harvest. Figurative for God’s judgments (8:7; 10:12–13; Jer 51:33; Mt 13:30, 39–42; Rev 14:15). restore the fortunes. Paralleling “heal” (7:1), the phrase refers to the restoration of the wounded national body (Joel 3:1; Zep 3:20).

6:11b–7:1a When God took action to heal his people, more of Israel’s sin was brought to light.

7:1 heal. See 5:13; 6:1; 11:3; 14:4; Jer 51:8–9. sins. See 4:8; 5:5; 8:13. Ephraim. See note on 4:17. exposed . . . revealed. Their sin was not hidden from God. crimes. See v. 3. Samaria. Another name for the northern kingdom, of which Samaria was the royal city, selected by Omri to be capital of Israel (see 1Ki 16:24 and note). deceit. See Jer 6:13; 8:10; probably refers to both feigned repentance and treacherous foreign alliances. thieves. See 4:2. bandits. See 6:9; Ge 49:19; Jer 18:22.

7:2 See Ps 90:8 and note. I remember. Everything is open before the Lord, but the wicked believe that God does not see (see Ps 10:6,11 and notes).

7:3 delight the king. Perhaps in conjunction with one of the palace revolts (2Ki 15:8–30). They were entertaining and flattering the king and princes while engaging in the “wickedness” of preparing to stab them in the back (vv. 6–7; see note on v. 7). lies. See 11:12; Ps 10:7 and note; Na 3:1.

7:4 adulterers. See note on 4:15. fire. A metaphor for political intrigue (vv. 6–7). The fire was banked until ready to use; then it broke out.

7:5 festival of our king. Probably a coronation or birthday that became a drunken orgy. King Elah died in drunkenness (see 1Ki 16:9 and note). mockers. See Pr 1:22 and note. Isaiah (28:1–8,14) condemned Israel’s drunkenness and those among them who scoffed at God’s word.

7:6 The intrigue was kept secret until a suitable time.

7:7 oven. See photo. rulers . . . kings. Four kings were assassinated in 20 years, Zechariah and Shallum in a seven-month period (2Ki 15:10–14). none of them calls on me. The reason for the shameful situation.

7:8 mixes with the nations. See v. 11 and note. loaf not turned over. A metaphor describing unwise policies. Baked on hot stones (cf. 1Ki 19:6), the loaf was burned on the bottom and undone on the top (cf. the expression “half-baked”).

7:9 Foreigners sap his strength. Paying tribute to Assyria (2Ki 15:19–20) and to Egypt (v. 11) had weakened the country economically. hair . . . gray. He was old before his time but ignored the danger signals.

7:10 return to the LORD. A key theme of Hosea (see 3:5; 5:4; Am 4:6–11). search. See 3:5; 5:6,15 and notes.

7:11 dove. See 11:11 and note, where a different image is intended. See also note on Ps 68:13. senseless. See Jer 5:21. Menahem turned to Assyria (2Ki 15:19–20); Hoshea alternated in allegiance to Assyria and Egypt (2Ki 17:3–4).

7:12 my net. The Lord himself was the hunter—not the nations—and Israel was certain to be caught.

7:13 Woe. Often used in conjunction with threats of judgment (9:12). Destruction. See 9:6; Isa 13:6. redeem. See 13:14; also used for deliverance from Egypt (see, e.g., Ex 6:6–8 and notes; Mic 6:4). speak about me falsely. Possibly by ascribing prosperity and destiny to gods other than the Lord (see Jer 44:17–18).

7:14 wail. See Joel 1:13. They slash themselves. See Lev 19:28; 21:5 and notes. grain and new wine. See 2:8,22; 9:1–2.

7:15 I trained them. As children (see 11:3 and note) or, perhaps, as troops. strengthened their arms. See Eze 30:24–25.

7:16 Most High. See 11:7; Dt 32:8 and note. faulty bow. See Ps 78:57. As an arrow misses its mark, Israel missed its purpose for being (see note on 8:8). ridiculed. Egypt would fail to assist Israel and then would belittle God’s power (Dt 9:28). Egypt. See 8:13; 11:5 and notes. There is no record of a forced exile of large numbers to Egypt. Some captives were taken there (2Ki 23:34; Jer 22:11–14), and some fugitives voluntarily went there (2Ki 25:26; Jer 42–44). A return from Egypt is envisioned in 11:11; Isa 11:11; 27:13; Zec 10:10.

8:1 trumpet. See 5:8 and note. your. Hosea’s. eagle. Or “vulture,” referring to Assyria. house of the LORD. The land of Israel, not just the temple (see 9:15 and note; cf. Ex 15:17).

8:2 we acknowledge you. See 2:20; 6:3 and notes; but their worship of the Lord was thoroughly corrupted by pagan notions and practices, as vv. 3–6 indicate (also Am 2:4, 7–8; 3:14; 5:26).

8:3 an enemy. The Assyrians.

8:4 set up kings. After Jeroboam II, five kings ruled over Israel in 13 years (2Ki 15:8–30), three of whom seized the throne by violence (see 7:7 and note).

8:5 Samaria. See note on 7:1. calf-idol. See 10:5; 13:2. Jeroboam I (930–909 bc) had set up golden calves in Bethel and Dan, saying, “Here are your gods” (see 1Ki 12:28–33 and note on 12:28).

8:6 a metalworker has made it. For prophetic satire on idolatry, see Isa 40:20; 41:22–24; 44:9–20; see also Ps 115:4–8 and notes. Israel’s leaders (Ex 32:4) and Jeroboam I had said “These are your gods,” but Hosea said “It is not God.”

8:7 They sow . . . whirlwind. A familiar proverb about the results of doing evil (10:13; Job 4:8; Ps 126:5–6; Pr 11:18; 22:8; 2Co 9:6; Gal 6:7). Israel sowed the wind of idolatry and reaped the whirlwind of Assyria. stalk . . . flour. The prophet played on the similar sound of the Hebrew words. foreigners. Assyria.

8:8 Israel was chosen to be God’s own people (see Ex 19:5; Am 3:2 and notes), but since they had conformed to the other nations they lost their special identity and so became “like something no one wants.”

8:9 wild donkey wandering alone. See Jer 2:24 and note. Ephraim. See note on 4:17. sold herself to lovers. For the prostitute’s fees (see 9:1 and note) of Assyrian protection. Menahem (2Ki 15:19) and Hoshea (2Ki 17:3), kings of Israel, paid tribute to Assyria.

8:10 Even though Israel paid tribute to Assyria, that would not buy their security, for God would send judgment by the king of Assyria. Israel’s real enemy was the Lord himself (see 2:8–13; 7:12 and note).

8:13 offer sacrifices. See v. 2 and note. eat the meat. Some of the sacrifices were partly eaten by the offerer and priests (Lev 7:11–18, 28–36; Dt 12:7; Jer 7:21). not pleased with them. See 6:6 and note. Egypt. Israel, who had trusted in Egypt and Assyria, was to go back to “Egypt,” i.e., into bondage in a foreign land, primarily Assyria (9:3). But see note on 7:16.

8:14 Israel has forgotten. The cause of all their problems (see 2:13 and note; cf. Jdg 2:10). built palaces . . . fortified many towns. Israel’s trust was not in their Maker but in what they themselves had accomplished. Judah. See Introduction: Author and Date. fire . . . that will consume. See Am 1:4 and note.

9:1 This verse begins a section that was probably spoken at a harvest festival, such as the Festival of Tabernacles (Lev 23:33–43; Dt 16:13–15). unfaithful. See 1:2; 2:2–5 and notes. wages of a prostitute. See 2:12 and note; refers to Israel’s spiritual adultery (see 2:12; Ex 34:15 and notes). at every threshing floor. Since the threshing floor at threshing time was a man’s world—the threshers feasted there at the end of the day’s labors and stayed all night to protect the grain (see Ru 3:2–3 and notes)—prostitutes were not uncommon visitors.

9:3 LORD’s land. The promised land, which the Lord claimed as his own (see Lev 25:23; Jos 22:19 and note; Jer 2:7; Eze 38:16; Joel 1:6). Ephraim. See note on 4:17. Egypt . . . Assyria. Israel was threatened with exile to the lands it depended on—where the temple sacrifice could not be offered (see v. 4; 7:16; 8:13 and notes). unclean. A foreign country was ceremonially unclean (see Am 7:17 and note). What grew there was likewise unclean, because it was the product of fertility credited to pagan gods (see 2:5 and note; Eze 4:13).

9:4 bread of mourners. Unclean, like bread in a house where there had been a death (see Nu 19:14 and note; Dt 26:14; Jer 16:7). All who touched it became ceremonially unclean. not come into the temple of the LORD. In exile Israel would have no place (not even those places established by Jeroboam I; 1Ki 12:28–33) where they could bring sacrifices to the Lord or celebrate their religious festivals (v. 5).

9:5 appointed festivals . . . feast days. See 2:11 and note.

9:6 Egypt. See 7:16; 8:13; 11:5 and notes. Memphis. The capital of Lower (northern) Egypt. briers, and thorns. Cf. a similar threat against Edom (Isa 34:13).

9:7 Because your sins . . . a maniac. Israel’s sin clouded their judgment to such an extent that they mistook God’s true prophets for people who were deluded. inspired. See Mic 3:8 and note. maniac. See 2Ki 9:11; Jer 29:26 and notes; cf. 1Sa 21:15.

9:8 watchman. See Eze 3:17; Hab 2:1 and notes. snares . . . hostility. Israel showed only hostility toward the watchmen (the true prophets, like Hosea) whom God sent to warn his people of the great dangers that threatened them (Jer 1:19; 11:19; 15:10; Am 7:10–13).

9:9 days of Gibeah. A reference to the corrupt behavior of the Benjamites so graphically described in Jdg 19–21. God will remember. Sins unrepented of are remembered, as well as the accumulated sins of generations (13:12).

9:10 I found Israel . . . I saw your ancestors. The covenant relation is traced back to “the desert” (see 2:14–15 and note on 2:14; 13:5; Dt 32:10). grapes . . . fig. Refreshing delicacies (see SS 2:13; Isa 28:4; Mic 7:1). The images used here (grapes in the desert, early fruit of the fig tree) beautifully convey God’s delight in Israel when they, out of all the nations, committed themselves to him in covenant at Sinai. Baal Peor. Peor was a mountain (Nu 23:28). “Baal Peor” refers to the god of Peor (Nu 25:1–3) and is here used to refer to Beth Peor, “the sanctuary of Peor” (see Dt 3:29 and note; 4:3,46; Jos 13:20). Hosea refers here to the incident in Nu 25. that shameful idol. See Jdg 6:32; Jer 2:26 and notes. became . . . vile. See Isa 5:2, 4,7.

9:11 Ephraim’s glory . . . no conception. Its prosperity and large population, which will be decimated. no birth . . . no conception. The punishment fits the sin. fly away like a bird. Never to return (Pr 23:5).

9:12 Woe. See 7:13 and note.

9:13 Tyre. Noted for its wealth, pleasant environment and security (Eze 27:3–25). slayer. Israel’s invaders or possibly, parents driven to cannibalism due to prolonged siege and famine.

9:14 Hosea did not pray out of hateful vengeance against Israel but because he shared God’s holy wrath against their sins.

9:15 Gilgal. See note on 4:15. hated them . . . no longer love them. Because of their sins, God would revoke for a time his covenantal loyalty (“love”) toward Israel. But when they repent and ask the Lord to forgive them (see 14:1–2 and notes), he will “love them freely” (14:4). hated. See note on Mal 1:3. drive them out of my house. As the unfaithful wife was driven from her husband’s house, so Israel was driven from God’s “house”—i.e., his land (see 8:1 and note).

9:17 My God. Hosea’s words alone, for God was no longer Israel’s God. reject. See 4:6; 2Ki 17:20. wanderers. Like Cain (Ge 4:12–16).

10:1 Israel. The nation personified and called by the name of its ancestor. vine. A frequent metaphor for Israel (see Ps 80:8–16 and note). prospered. The prosperity during the period of Jeroboam II (793–753 bc) is probably in view. sacred stones. See 3:4 and note; see also photo.

10:2 Their heart is deceitful. See Jer 17:9 and note. Israel formally cried out to God, but the people dishonored him by pagan worship (see 8:2 and note).

10:3 We have no king. Such would soon be their condition when Assyria destroyed the nation.

10:4 They make many promises. The last kings of Israel were notoriously corrupt and deceitful.

10:5 Samaria. The royal city of Israel (see note on 7:1). calf-idol of Beth Aven. The idol that Jeroboam I had set up at Bethel (see NIV text note; see also 8:5 and note).

10:6 tribute for the great king. See 5:13 and note. Ephraim. See note on 4:17.

10:8 high places. See 4:13–14 and note on 4:13. wickedness. See NIV text note. Cover us! . . . Fall on us! Cries of utter despair; quoted by Jesus (see Lk 23:30 and note) and alluded to in Rev 6:16.

10:9 Gibeah. See 9:9 and note. As war came on Gibeah, so war and captivity would come on Israel.

10:11 trained heifer. Up to now Ephraim (Israel) had been as contented as a young cow that ate while threshing grain. But now God would cause Israel (here called both Ephraim and Jacob) and Judah to do the heavy work of plowing and harrowing under a yoke—a picture of going into the Assyrian and Babylonian captivities. Judah. See Introduction: Author and Date.

10:12 reap the fruit of unfailing love. If Israel would only do what was right (“unfailing love” translates the Hebrew word ḥesed—see article; see also note on 6:6), God would bless them. break up your unplowed ground. Be no longer unproductive, but repentant, making a radical new beginning and becoming productive and fruitful. righteousness. God’s covenant blessings that in righteousness he would shower on his people if they in righteousness were loyal to him, their covenant Lord.

10:13 deception. Israel had been living a lie—and by lies (see v. 4; 7:3; 11:12; 12:1; cf. 1Jn 1:6).

10:14 Shalman devastated Beth Arbel. The event is otherwise unknown, as are the names mentioned—though Shalman may be an abbreviated form of Shalmaneser V, the Assyrian king who laid siege to Samaria in 725 bc (see 2Ki 17:3–6 and notes). In any event, atrocities against civilians were common in ancient warfare (see 9:13; 13:16; see also Ps 137:9 and note).

10:15 Bethel. See v. 8 and NIV text note; 12:4 and note.

11:1 A third appeal to history (9:10; 10:9) traces God’s choice of Israel back to Egypt, the exodus from that country (cf. 12:9; 13:4) having given birth to the nation. Israel’s response to the Lord is now illustrated by the wayward son rather than by the unfaithful wife (chs. 1–3). Israel is also referred to as God’s “son/child” elsewhere (see Ex 4:22–23 and notes; Isa 1:2,4). For God as Israel’s “Father,” see Dt 32:6; Isa 63:16; 64:8. Hosea saw God’s love as the basis (see 3:1 and note) for the election of Israel. Matthew, who highlights Jesus as representative Israel, saw in Jesus’ return from Egypt a typological fulfillment of Israel’s deliverance from Egypt (see Mt 2:15 and note).

11:2 Baals. See 2:13 and note. images. See Dt 7:25.

11:3 Ephraim. See note on 4:17. walk. This picture of a parent teaching a child to walk is one of the most tender in the OT. did not realize. See 2:5–8 and note on 2:8. healed. See 5:13; 6:1 and note; 7:1.

11:4 The imagery is unclear, but the figure seems to change to a farmer gently tending his work animals. Another interpretation sees a continuation of the son image, with a parent lifting a son to their cheek. feed them. God supplied miraculous food in the wilderness (Ex 16; Dt 8:16).

11:5 Egypt . . . Assyria. See 8:13; 9:3 and notes. The tender tone (vv. 1–4) changes to threat of exile to the two countries between which Israel has vacillated. It is ironic that the people rescued from Egypt should return there because of their disloyalty to the one who had rescued them.

11:7 Most High. See 7:16 and note.

11:8 The stubborn son was subject to stoning (Dt 21:18–21), but the Lord’s compassion overcame his wrath and he refused to destroy Ephraim (Israel). Admah . . . Zeboyim. Cities of the plain (see Ge 10:19 and note; 14:2,8), overthrown when Sodom was destroyed (Ge 19:24–25; Dt 29:23; Jer 49:18) and symbolizing total destruction (see Am 4:11 and note).

11:9 God, and not a man. God is not capricious or vindictive in his judgment of Israel and he will not be untrue to the love he has shown toward them (vv. 1–4; 1Sa 15:29; Mal 3:6). Israel was to be punished, but not destroyed. the Holy One among you. God’s holiness is alluded to in Hosea both here and in v. 12 (see notes on Ex 3:5; Lev 11:44).

11:10 The return from exile. roar like a lion. Rather than threatening destruction (cf. 5:14; 13:7), God’s roar was now a clear signal to return from exile. the west. The islands and coastlands of the Mediterranean Sea.

11:11 from Egypt . . . Assyria. See 7:16 and note; 9:3. like sparrows . . . like doves. Fear and weakness in the presence of God who roars like a lion (v. 10), yet God has promised to restore them.

11:12 lies . . . deceit. See 10:13 and note. Judah. See Introduction: Author and Date. unruly against God. See Jer 2:31. Holy One. See v. 9 and note.

12:1 Ephraim. See note on 4:17. wind. See 8:7; Ecc 1:14. east wind. See 13:15; Job 15:2; Jer 18:17. Pursuing the wind symbolized Israel’s futile foreign policy, which vacillated between Egypt (2Ki 17:4; Isa 30:6–7) and Assyria (see 5:13; 7:11; 8:9 and notes; 2Ki 17:3).

12:2 charge. See 4:1 and note. Judah. See Introduction: Author and Date. Jacob. Israel (10:11). The Lord indicted both kingdoms—all the descendants of the patriarch Jacob. In their deceitfulness Israel and Judah were living up to the name of their forefather (see NIV text note).

12:3 In the womb. See Ge 25:26; 27:36 and notes. grasped his brother’s heel. See NIV text note on v. 2. God’s covenant people here relived the experiences of their ancestor Jacob and now had to return to God, just as Jacob was called back to Bethel (Ge 35:1–15).

12:4 struggled with the angel. See Ge 32:22–28 and NIV text note on 32:28. Bethel. See Ge 28:12–19 and NIV text note on 28:19; 35:1–15. In Hosea’s time, Bethel was the most important royal sanctuary in the northern kingdom (cf. Am 7:13).

12:6 love. Hebrew ḥesed; see 6:6 (“mercy”) and note; see also article. justice. See Am 5:24; Mic 6:8 and notes.

12:7 merchant. As Hosea had played on the meaning of Jacob in v. 2, he here uses a wordplay on Canaan (the Hebrew for “merchant” sounds like Canaan) to charge that Israel was no better than a Canaanite (see note on Zec 14:21). dishonest scales. See Lev 19:35; Pr 11:1 and notes.

12:8 I am very rich. Riches brought a sense of self-sufficiency (cf. 10:13; Dt 32:15–18; Lk 12:19; Rev 3:17). not find in me any iniquity. Like a dishonest merchant, Ephraim (Israel) was confident that its deceitfulness (see 10:13 and note) would not come to light.

12:9 I have been the LORD your God ever since. See 13:4; Ex 20:2 and note. tents. Recalling the wilderness journey of long ago (cf. 2:14–15). appointed festivals. Probably the Festival of Tabernacles (see Lev 23:33–43 and note on 23:42), which commemorated the wilderness journey.

12:10 spoke to the prophets. See 6:5; Am 2:11 and notes; Heb 1:1. There had been ample warning. visions. Revelations (see Nu 12:6–8 and note; Am 1:1). parables. Containing messages of warning from God (2Sa 12:1–4; Ps 78:2; Isa 5:1–7; Eze 17:2; 24:3).

12:11 Gilead wicked. See 6:8–9 and notes. Gilead was overrun by Assyria in 734–732 bc (2Ki 15:29). Gilgal. See 4:15 and note. The Hebrew contains a wordplay between “Gilgal” and “piles” (Hebrew gallim). Rather than assuring safety, the altars themselves would be destroyed. Their altars . . . like piles of stones. Israelite farmers gathered into piles the stones turned up by their plows. The image shows that their stone altars would become utterly worthless.

12:12 Jacob fled from Esau to Paddan Aram (Ge 28:2,5), serving Laban seven years for each wife (Ge 29:20–28), and then continued six more years as Laban’s herdsman (Ge 30:31; 31:41).

12:13 prophet. Moses (cf. Nu 12:6–8; Dt 18:15; 34:10). cared for him. As Jacob had cared for Laban’s flocks, so the Lord cared for Israel during their wilderness wandering. Earlier leadership by the prophet Moses stands in contrast to Israel’s present disregard for prophets (cf. 4:5; 6:5; 9:7).

12:14 Ephraim . . . aroused his bitter anger. Despite warnings. bloodshed. Cf. 1:4; 4:2; 5:2; 6:8. This refers to violence committed against others, including human sacrifice (see 13:2 and note). In legal passages such as Lev 20:11–27, “their blood will be on their own heads” describes guilt. The prophet drew a contrast between past divine preservation (v. 13) and present divine anger that would bring punishment. repay. See Isa 65:7.

13:1 When Ephraim spoke. In accordance with Jacob’s blessing (Ge 48:10–20), Ephraim became a powerful tribe (Jdg 8:1–3; 12:1–6; 1Sa 1:1–4), from which came such prominent leaders as Joshua (Nu 13:8, 16; Jos 24:29–30) and Jeroboam I (1Ki 11:26; 12:20). Ephraim. See note on 4:17. Israel. The 12 tribes. died. The wages of sin was death (cf. Ro 6:23), and the end of the nation was at hand.

13:2 idols. See 4:12; 8:5–6 and notes; 11:2. human sacrifices. See Lev 18:21; 2Ki 16:13; 17:17; 23:10; Jer 7:31 and notes; Eze 20:26; Mic 6:7. For the sense of the NIV text note, see 1Ki 12:26–33. kiss. Show homage to (see Ps 2:12 and note). calf-idols. See 8:5 and note; 10:5.

13:3 “Mist” and “dew” (6:4), “chaff” (see Ps 1:4 and note; 35:5; Isa 17:13; 29:5; Zep 2:2) and “smoke” (Ps 37:20; 68:2; Isa 51:6) are all figurative for Ephraim, which was soon to vanish as a nation.

13:4 I have been the LORD your God ever since. See 12:9; Ex 20:2 and note. The contrast is with Jeroboam’s declaration, “Here are your gods” (1Ki 12:28). acknowledge . . . God. See 2:20; 6:3 and notes. no Savior except me. God tolerates no rivals (Ex 20:2–3).

13:5 wilderness. See 2:14; 9:10 and notes.

13:6 satisfied. See Dt 6:11–12; 8:10–14; 11:15. forgot me. See 2:13; Dt 6:10–12 and notes; 8:11,14,19; 32:18.

13:7–8 The Lord, previously pictured as a shepherd (4:16), would attack like the wild beasts that often ravaged the flocks.

13:7 lion. See 5:14 and note. leopard. See Jer 5:6; Rev 13:2.

13:8 bear robbed of her cubs. See 2Sa 17:8; Pr 17:12 and note.

13:9 helper. See Ps 10:14; 30:10; 54:4.

13:10 Where is your king . . . ? Help comes only from the Lord (Ps 121:2), not from kings. The prophet likely alludes to the royal assassinations of his day (see 7:7; 8:4 and notes). Give me a king. Though all Israel asked for a king in the days of Samuel (see 1Sa 8:5 and note), the reference here is only to the northern monarchy. Israel selected Jeroboam I (1Ki 12:20) in preference to the Davidic kings.

13:11 Reference is to the kings of the northern kingdom of Israel.

13:12 See 9:9 and note; Job 14:17. sins . . . on record. See 7:2 and note; Dt 32:34.

13:13 Pains as of . . . childbirth. Their plight was comparable to that of a woman in childbirth (see Isa 13:8 and note; 21:3; Jer 13:21; Mic 4:9–10; Mt 24:8) who cannot deliver the child (2Ki 19:3). child without wisdom. The metaphor changes from mother to her child in the womb, who is strikingly portrayed as lacking the sense to come out of the womb at the proper time.

13:14 I will deliver. God’s promise of rescue from death in the midst of predictions of judgment. Alternatively, the Hebrew of the first two lines can be translated as rhetorical questions that express God’s coming judgment on Israel. Where, O death . . . ? The personified reference is to the death of the nation (see note on v. 1). Paul applies this passage to resurrection (1Co 15:55). grave. For a description of “the grave” (Hebrew Sheol), see Job 3:13–19; Isa 14:9–10; see also note on Ge 37:35.

13:15 thrives. In Hebrew a wordplay on Ephraim (meaning “fruitful”). east wind. The drought-bringing east wind (see 12:1; Ge 41:7 and note; Job 1:19; Isa 27:8; Jer 4:11; 13:24; 18:17) is here a figure for Assyria, an instrument of the Lord (see Isa 10:5 and note). Assyria invaded the northern kingdom in 734 bc, then crushed it and exiled its people in 722–721. all its treasures. See Na 2:9.

13:16 Samaria. See 7:1 and note; 8:5–6; 10:5,7; here, the northern kingdom. rebelled against. See Ps 5:10; Isa 1:2 and note; Eze 20:8, 13,21. little ones . . . women. For atrocities against women and children, see 10:14; Ps 137:9 and notes.

14:1 Return. Another appeal for repentance (see 10:12; 12:6). Unlike that of ch. 6, this repentance would have to be sincere in order for the people to receive the gracious response from the Lord promised in vv. 4–8 (cf. Ps 130:7–8; Isa 55:6–7).

14:2 Take words. None could appear before the Lord empty-handed (Ex 23:15; 34:20), but animal sacrifices would not be enough. Only words of true repentance would be sufficient. fruit of our lips. As thank offerings to the Lord (see Heb 13:15).

14:3 what our own hands have made. Idols (see v. 8; 13:2 and note). fatherless. Penitent Israel (Ps 10:14; 68:5; La 5:3). find compassion. Cf. the name of the child Lo-Ruhamah (see note on 1:6; see also 2:1,23).

14:4 heal. See 11:3 and note. waywardness. See 11:7. love them freely. That is, love them out of my own free choice (cf. 9:15 and note). love. See 3:1; 11:1 and notes. anger . . . turned away. Contrasts with the burning anger that brought destruction (8:5).

14:5 dew. Here not a symbol of transitoriness (cf. 6:4; 13:3) but of God’s blessing (see Dt 33:13; Mic 5:7 and note). cedar of Lebanon. See notes on Jdg 9:15; 1Ki 5:6; Isa 9:10. cedar. See Ps 80:8–11. Lebanon. See Ps 104:16–18 and note.

14:7 shade. Protection (see Jdg 9:15 and note; SS 2:3; Eze 31:6). vine. Israel is frequently compared to a vine (see 10:1; Ps 80:8–16 and note; cf. Jn 15).

14:8 Ephraim. Israel (see note on 4:17). flourishing juniper. Only here in the OT is God compared to a tree. For The imagery points to God as the giver of life (see Eze 31:3–7; Da 4:12). fruitfulness. Ephraim (“fruitful”; see Ge 41:52 and note) received their fruitfulness from the Lord (cf. 2:8).

14:9 ways of the LORD. See Ps 18:21; 25:4 and note. The prophet concludes by offering each reader the alternatives of walking or stumbling (cf. 4:5; 5:5)—of obedience or rebellion and of life or death (Dt 11:26–28; 3:15–20; Jos 24:14–15). right. See note on Ps 119:121.