2

UNDERSTANDING HALAL HOSPITALITY

Nor Hidayatun Abdul Razak, C. Michael Hall, and Girish Prayag

Introduction

This chapter first discusses the relationship between halal and Shariah law in general, followed by an account of how the halal rules and regulations affect the commercial aspect of hospitality requirements. Differences in perspectives among different Islamic traditions as well as issues on halal hospitality practices are also examined. A final section then highlights the understanding of the concept and the action taken to overcome some of the difficulties with codifying halal hospitality and tourism.

Halal and Shariah law

Al-Qaradawi (1992) indicates that halal and haram are integral to Shariah law (also known as Shariah principles or Islamic law). The main goal of Shariah law is to protect humankind from harm in all aspects of life, including superstition and evil as well as bring benefits to humankind in their daily activities, including business, entertainment, and travel. Halal (the lawful) refers to anything that is permitted and haram (unlawful) is anything that is prohibited as per Shariah law. Ahmat, Ridzuan and Zahari (2012) note that Shariah law refers to ‘the path’ that guides a Muslim’s lifestyle.

The Quran, Sunnah, Ijma, and Qiyas are central to Shariah law. Din (1982) stated that the concept of halal in the production, transaction, and trade of any products and services must be based on the Quran (which is a revelation from God), Sunnah (the traditions and customs of the Prophet Muhammad), Ijma (consensus as to the Prophet’s teachings), Qiyas (that which is assigned to the Prophet’s teachings as a result of deduction or analogy), and Fatwa (advice from Islamic authorities). Shariah law provides guidance in the aspects of belief (Aqidah), law (fiqh), and behaviour (akhlak) of Muslims, which involve halal and haram of certain acts and behaviours (Kamali 2015). Aqidah in Islam is about faith, in which Muslims believe that there is no God except Allah. Anything done by a Muslim is meant to get His blessing. Fiqh is about value structures or jurisprudence of Islam. There is guidance in all acts and behaviours as well as rewards and punishment for a right and wrongdoing. Akhlak specifically focuses on individual behaviour and how an individual should behave towards Allah and others. The combination of the various elements that comprise Shariah law mean that some areas of Shariah are akin to Western notions of law and jurisprudence while others reflect teachings as to how to live life in accordance with God’s will.

All Muslims follow Shariah law, although they belong to different legal traditions or schools of thought, or mazhabs. For example, there are currently four mazhabs of Sunni jurisprudence, the Hanafi, Maliki, Shafi’i, and Hanbali; two Shia schools, the Ja’fari and Zaidi; the Ibadi school (dominant in Oman); and the Zahiri school. The latter sometimes is regarded as a fifth Sunni school. The mazhabs are characterised by doctrinal differences with respect to the recognition of Hadith, Islamic history, theology, and jurisprudence, although they may recognise each other’s interpretation of Shariah law they have their own principles of thought. Although not well researched or generally appreciated in the English language literature on Islamic tourism, the different mazhabs may have implications for hospitality practices with respect to approach towards non-believers, slightly different interpretations of what is halal, as well as the degree of conservatism they exhibit. In addition to religious teachings, the wider cultural context and living conditions also influence the customary practices of Muslims.

Conformity to Shariah law creates restrictions on society, especially in countries in which religion and state are inseparable, such as Iran and Saudi Arabia (Zamani-Farahani & Henderson 2010; Seyfi & Hall 2019). Nevertheless, customary practices have influenced different choices and preferences with respect to what is halal in some areas, such as with respect to the eating of sea creatures. For example, in the Shafi’i and Hanbali traditions it is permissible to eat all kinds of seafood as long as it lives only in the water (e.g. oyster, shrimp, and shark). In the Maliki tradition all seafood can be eaten except eel; and in Hanafi it is only permitted to eat sea creatures that are in the form of ‘fish’ (i.e. must have scales and fins), meaning that hagfish, eel, oyster, shrimp, and lobster are not allowed (Eum 2008). The reason for this is that some fish and shellfish are perceived as being unclean (e.g. have sand in shells) and are, therefore, not safe for consumption, while hagfish and eels have no scales.

Differences in definitions of what is halal are also strongly influenced by the school’s interpretation of the Quranic verses (Hassan 2005) because different mazhab interpret the Quran with reference to different Hadiths. This has led to confusion and misunderstanding in some cases as to what can be consumed and has become a significant challenge for some hospitality providers with the development of global tourism and an international Muslim consumer market. Ideally, the existence of a global halal standard would facilitate understanding and avoid confusion with dietary regulations (Eum 2008). But, as Hamdan (2007) argues, the existence of different schools of Islamic thought within Muslim societies raises difficulties in standardising halal requirements in a commercial context. Fischer (2008) argues that setting halal standards is further complicated when halal requirements are framed in terms of being marketable products and services, which also involve providers, halal authorities, and Muslim and non-Muslim customers. Nevertheless, despite the absence of a global standard, providers cannot ignore the travel and worship needs of Muslim customers in domestic and international markets.

Travel and worship

Travel is integral to Islam. The Prophet Muhammad (PBUH) encouraged Muslims to travel to gain knowledge and to spread the Islamic religion. Travel in Islam can be divided into several forms, musafir, rehlah, siyahah, umrah, and hajj (Eickelman & Piscatori 1990; Hasan, Mahyuddin & Mohd Ahsrof Zaki 2010; Taheri 2016; Gannon et al. 2017) (Table 2.1). Travel in Islam can be performed for many reasons, such as to obtain knowledge, education, experience, business, recreation, relationship, and to commit religious ritual (Sahida, Zulkifli, Rahman, Awang & Man 2014), and the objective for each reason is similar, to learn the greatness of Allah and to worship Him always. Travelling in Islam is about improving the spiritual aspect of the individual by observing and appreciating the creations of God (Din 1982). Hashim, Murphy and Hashim (2007) indicate that many verses on travelling in the Quran encourage Muslims to see the creations of Allah and feel for His greatness. These verses include Al-Imran (The Amramites) 3:137; Al-An’am (Livestock) 6:11; Yunus (Jonah) 10:22; Yusuf (Joseph) 12:109; Al-Nahl (The Bee) 16:36; Al-Hajj (The Pilgrimage) 22:46; Al-’Ankaboot (The Spider) 29:20; Al-Rum (The Romans) 30:42/9; Saba’ (Sheba) 34:18; Faater (Initiator) 35:44; Ghafer (Forgiver) 40:82/21; Muhammad 47:10; and Al-Mulk (Kingship) 67:15. In such a context halal hospitality clearly becomes an important means of facilitating Islamic travel (Hayati, Khadijah & Manan 2012).

Table  2.1  Travel in Islam

Term	Use	Origin
Musafir	Means a traveller, but is also used for guest	Originated from the Arabic word Safara, meaning going, walking, and wandering Al-Maidah: verse 6
Rihlah	Also rehlah or rihla. Refers to both a journey and the oral, written, and more recently visual, i.e. documentary, account of that journey. In the Middle Ages rihla consisted of three types: Rihla—a journey within a region, particularly Morocco, usually to meet other pilgrims before travelling beyond the local area. Rihla hijaziyya—a journey to the Hejaz (the western coastal region of the Arabian Peninsula which includes the holy cities of Mecca and Medina). Rihla sifariyya—a journey to both Muslim and non-Muslim lands. The most famous rihla based on such a journey is The Travels of Ibn Battuta (Riḥlat Ibn Baṭūṭah).	Originated from the Arabic word Rahala, meaning travelling/trading Quraish: verse 6
Ziyarah	A visit to the tomb of a saint or a holy person, including a visit to the tomb of the Prophet Muḥammad in the mosque at Medina. This may occur for reasons of gaining a blessing or cure although the legitimacy of such a visit is debated depending on the perspective of different schools of Islamic thought.	Originated from the Arabic word Zara, meaning visiting or paying a visit Al Takathur: verse 2; Al Kahfi: verse 17
Siyahah	Often used as synonymous with travel and tourism. However, it is also connected to gaining knowledge and learning, including travelling to see the wonders of creation.	Originated from the Arabic word Saha, meaning wander the earth Al Taubah: verse 112
Umrah and haji	Umrah is an Islamic pilgrimage to Mecca that can be made at any time of year. It is sometimes referred to as the minor pilgrimage. In contrast, the Hajj (also Hadj, Hadji or Haj) is the major pilgrimage that is a required religious duty for Muslims that must be undertaken at least once in the lifetime of all adult Muslims who are financially and physically able to make the journey. The hajj is one of the pillars of Islam that according to Islamic teaching go back to the time of Prophet Abraham. Hajj is performed over five or six days, beginning on the eighth and ending on the thirteenth day of Dhu al-Hijjah, the last month of the Islamic lunar calendar.	Originated from the Arabic word Saha, meaning a worshipping obligation for capable Muslims Ayat surah Al Baqarah: 196

Source: Gannon et al., 2017; Hasan et al., 2010; Eickelman & Piscatori, 1990; Taheri, 2016.

One of the most famous, and oft-cited, Muslim travellers was Ibn Battuta, who travelled as far as China and India around 1325 and 1354 and who learnt and wrote about the customary practices of the places where he went including the culture and food (Morgan 2004). In this he reflects on the way in which travel within Islamic traditions is meant to be a two-way enrichment between host and guest and in which hospitality is integral to Islamic custom. Islam is therefore imbued with a substantial, and often explicit, focus on the provision of hospitality which also affects the expectations of its adherents (Kamali 2011). In providing halal hospitality, organisations and individuals must therefore consider whether the activities, values, purposes, products, and services offered are compliant with Shariah law (Abdullah & Mukhtar 2014).

The concept of halal hospitality

According to Saad, Ali and Abdel-Ati (2014: 1) halal hospitality is defined as “a hotel that provides services in accordance to the Shariah principles”. Samori and Rahman (2013: 99) defined halal hospitality in a similar fashion to Saad but extend their definition by adding “it is not only limited to serv[ing] halal food and drink, but more than that, is to ensure the entire operation throughout the hotel would also operate in accordance with the Shariah principles.” Another definition is provided by Yusuf (2009), in terms of a hotel where the services offered and financial transactions are based on Shariah principles and it is not only limited to serving halal food and beverages but all parameters that have been designed for health, safety, environment, and the economic benefits of all humankind, regardless of race, faith, or cultures. These definitions emphasise adherence to Shariah law in providing halal hospitality. However, Saad et al. (2014) in their definition only note the hospitality services offered, while Samori and Rahman (2013) focus on diet as well as wider hospitality operations. In part, the different approaches to halal hospitality reflect the different interpretation of halal matters in different countries (Al-Qaradawi 1992) and also the different levels of expertise, knowledge, and awareness of the field (Che Omar, Islam & Adaha 2013). Therefore, there is a range of interpretations over what constitutes halal hospitality, with a narrow perspective focusing on food and drink to a much broader approach that covers the many aspects of hospitality, operational management, financial transactions, services provided, economic contribution, and physical and spiritual aspects of providers and customers. Table 2.2 provides some of the characteristics of halal hospitality service as identified by a number of authors.

Table  2.2  Characteristics of halal hospitality service

Attributes of halal hospitality	Source and location
Prayer mat, Quran, prayer beads, Qibla direction, no alcohol, separated kitchen utensils, no unmarried couple to check in together, no drug-dealing activities.	Din (1982) Malaysia
Provide information on mosque and halal food location.	Hashim et al. (2007) Malaysia
No alcohol, halal foods, Quran, prayer mat, arrow indicating the direction of Mecca, bed and toilet positioned not facing the direction of Mecca, bidets in bathroom, prayer room, appropriate entertainment, no nightclub or adult television channels, predominant Muslim staff, conservative staff dress, separate recreational facilities for men and women, all female floor, guest dress code, Islamic funding.	Henderson (2010) Middle East
Serving halal food and beverages, halal management and operation, design, facilities (separate spa, gym, swimming pool, guest and function rooms for male and female customers), Islamic financing in sharing profit and loss, no interest (riba or usury), Islamic insurance (takaful).	Sahida et al. (2011) Malaysia
Appropriate dress code, hospitality behaviour, physical facilities such as serving halal food, no alcohol, providing separate gymnasium, sauna, swimming pool and comfortable praying area, free interest financing mode, obligation of paying zakat, adhere to Islamic business principles.	Hayati et al. (2012) Malaysia
Have halal certificate, halal logo, Qibla indicator, prayer mat, prayer room, no living being symbol, Quran, no gambling and prostitution, predominant Muslim workers, appropriate dress code, proper behaviour, zakat, prayer time information, toilet facilities, breaking fast and sahur, no unmarried couple in a room.	Samori & Sabtu (2012) Malaysia

Stephenson (2014), writing primarily in a Gulf State context, provides additional characteristics of the concept of halal hospitality which he categorises according to human resources, private rooms, dining quarters, other public facilities, and business operations (Table 2.3). Interestingly, Islamic finance, insurance, charity, and zakat (alms) are infrequently discussed in many articles related to halal hospitality and Islamic tourism. The reasons for this are unknown but perhaps these attributes emphasise the accommodation providers’ responsibility instead of what is requested by customers with respect to halal hospitality offerings. Nevertheless, several authors argue that in order to become a Shariah-compliant hospitality and tourism business, providers should comply with Islamic business principles including the giving of charity and using Islamic finance for capital sources (Nasir & Pereira 2008; Hayati et al. 2012; Samori & Sabtu 2012; Sahida et al. 2014). Saad et al. (2014) in their study on a Shariah-compliant hotel in Egypt present features of operation, design, and finance according to their ranking in importance (Table 2.4). These characteristics complement the characteristics provided by Stephenson (2014) and other researchers as above, with the additional feature of zakat being included as part of the financial characteristics of operations.

Table  2.3  Characteristics of Shariah compliance in halal hotels

Human resources	Traditional conservative dress code for hotel staff and especially female staff; prayer time provision for Muslim employees; restricted working hours for Muslim staff during Ramadan; staff (and guest) adherence to Islamic moral codes of conduct; and guest-centric strategies underpinning service delivery.
Private rooms (bedrooms and bathrooms)	Separate floors with rooms solely allocated to women and families; markers (i.e. Qibla stickers) indicating the direction of Mecca; prayer mats and copies of the Quran; conservative television channels; geometric and non-figurative patterns of decoration (e.g. calligraphy); beds and toilets positioned away from facing Mecca; toilets fitted with a bidet shower or health faucet; and halal-friendly complementary toiletries.
Dining quarter	Separate provision for women and families, in addition to the communal area provision; art that does not depict human and animal form; and no music expressing sexual and/or controversial messages.
Other public facilities	No casino or gambling; separate leisure facilities (including swimming pools and spas) for both sexes; female and male prayer rooms equipped with the Quran (also available at the front desk); built-in wudhu (the ritual ablutions conducted before prayer) facilities located outside prayer rooms; toilets facing away from Mecca; and art that does not depict human and animal form.
Business operation	Corporate social responsibility strategies (linked to Islamic values) and philanthropic donations; ethical practices including marketing and promotion; transactions and investments in accordance to the principles and practices associated with Islamic banking, accounting, and finance.

Source: Adapted from Stephenson, 2014.

Table  2.4  Category and features of a Shariah-compliant hotel in Egypt in rank order of importance

Category	Features in rank order of importance
Operation	Alcohol and pork should not be served
	Female staff for single female floors and male staff for single male floors
	Food products have to be halal
	Quran, prayer mats in each room
	Majority of the staff are Muslim
	Conservative staff dress
	Conservative TV service
Design	Separate facilities for males and females
	Signs indicating the direction of Mecca in every room
	Appropriate entertainment (no nightclubs)
	Beds and toilets placed so as not to face the direction of Mecca
Financial	Hotel financed through Islamic arrangements
	Hotel should follow zakat principles

Source: Adapted from Saad et al., 2014.

The rank order of features presented in Table 2.4 is based on hospitality experts’ views (i.e. academic staff, industry consultants, and providers) in Egypt. Saad et al. (2014) also indicate that the formal concept of halal hospitality in Egypt is still at the early stage of implementation as there are no formal procedures or rules available for authorisation. However, he noted that the halal concept is used more as a marketing strategy in Egypt in line with high expectations for future demand for halal hospitality service.

Nearly all of the characteristics of halal hospitality presented in the literature emphasise the physical or tangible aspects of customers’ needs. Din (1989: 560) even argued that “it is quite difficult to find a Muslim who can provide the services as outlined in Islamic teachings (Sunnah), which reflect the original intent of travelling purpose, namely spiritual aims”. Ahmat et al. (2012) suggested that there is a lack of an ‘internal’ or ‘personal’ aspect in the current promotion of halal hospitality services. Indeed, in Kirillova, Gilmetdinova and Lehto (2014), Muslim respondents considered that hospitality services provided in the context of a business are less genuine because they involve monetary exchange. Ahmat et al. (2012) provided an example of De Palma Hotel in Malaysia that claimed to be the pioneer Shariah-compliant hotel in South East Asia (see also Chapter 7, this volume), yet it only emphasised the tangible aspects in its promotion, even though the management of the De Palma Hotel Group believes that the entire management of hospitality must be halal, which includes adopting a ‘Muslim personality’. Ghozali and Kamri (2015) argue that personality can only be judged and felt by the effect arising from certain acts or behaviour by staff. For example, in the context of attire, female Muslim employees in De Palma Hotel must wear outfits and a headscarf that symbolise ‘Muslim personality’. All Muslim employees must also respect the five-prayer time without compromising their work schedule at the hotel. Therefore, arranging appropriate time for prayer and taking turns for prayer activities are considered as upholding the personality of the hotel operation.

One way of understanding the growth of halal hospitality and tourism in a business context, is the notion of a ‘spiritual economy’ (Rudnyckyj 2009) that combines religion and capitalism in framing ethical behaviour to enhance corporate productivity and competitiveness. The spiritual economy in Indonesia described by Rudnyckyj (2009: 104), “consists of producing spirituality as an object of intervention, reconfiguring work as a form of religious worship, and inculcating an ethic of individual accountability and entrepreneurial responsibility among workers”. From this perspective, management instil understanding of spiritual economies among employees through training. Employees can be trained to understand how their works involve the principle of worship, which is regarded as significant to the spiritual success in life in Islam. For example, practising the ethics of Islam that emphasise both the physical and the spiritual aspects of work life in the forms of work transparency, productivity excellence, personal responsibility, and rationalisation in every action. Such a notion arguably well characterises the commodification of halal in a country such as Malaysia which seeks to position itself as an international hub for halal products and services, including tourism.

Din (1989) notes how Muslims should provide hospitality to non-Muslims. Nevertheless, there are significant challenges faced by halal hospitality providers in targeting Muslim and non-Muslim customers, such as in satisfying customers’ needs without having any conflicts with religious beliefs and traditions (Henderson 2010). Prohibition of alcohol and no-smoking policies, for example, are appropriate in Islam but are not favoured by some customers. To complicate matters further the level of understanding by both Muslim and non-Muslim providers on the halal hospitality concept may be inadequate for some members of the halal market (Ahmat et al. 2012). Razalli, Abdullah and Hassan (2009) indicate that Muslim customers will consider using halal hotels based on providers’ initiatives in fulfilling halal requirements, although the success of this depends on the extent to which providers understand the foundations of the concept in Islam.

Hospitality in Islam

Islam consists of five pillars. The first pillar is the witness (syahadah) as there is no God except Allah, and Muhammad is the last Messenger of Allah. The second pillar is praying five times a day while the third is giving the zakat (alms). The fourth is fasting in Ramadan, and the last pillar is performing the hajj if one is able to do it. Iman is about affirming the existence of Allah, His angels, His books, His messengers, the Last Day, and believing in good and bad (qada’ and qadar). Ihsan is about worshipping God in which all actions are done for His blessing (ibadah) (Laderlah, Rahman, Awang & Man 2011). The Quran states that:

And I (Allah) created not the jinn and humankind except to worship Me (Alone).

(Adz Dzaariyat, 56)

This verse clearly states that the creation of humankind is specifically to worship Allah. The obligation to worship Allah is a must in sustaining the spiritual aspect of life. However, worship does not only mean fasting, prayers, giving alms, and pilgrimage, but includes all activities in life including business activities. The Quran states that:

By men whom neither trade nor business diverts from the remembrance of Allah and performing of prayer and paying of the poor due (Zakat). They fear a day in which hearts and eyes shall be turned about.

(An Nur, 37)

This verse emphasises the Muslim obligation to worship Allah even in conducting trade or business. In explaining the concept of worshipping God in a hospitality business, specifically from an Islamic perspective, Che Omar et al. (2014) suggested that the Islamic-based hospitality (IBH) concept emphasises the Ruh of Syahadah (soul) and Mardhatillah (the blessing of Allah). This concept emphasises the spiritual aspect (soul) with the aim of gaining a better life, both in this world and in the afterlife. From this perspective, a Muslim will receive a reward in business if he follows the principles of Islam and Iman while conducting business activities. In opening a halal hospitality business, for example, the business owner helps the community to be a better place. In this way the business owner fulfils his communal obligations or fardhu kifayah. If there is no hospitality service available at a place, then offering this service must be considered a personal obligation (fardhu ain) for a Muslim. However, the activities associated with offering hospitality must be done with a genuine intention to gain a blessing from Allah. The Prophet Muhammad says:

Actions are (judged) by motives (niyyah), so each man will have what he intended. Thus, he whose migration (hijrah) was to Allah and His Messenger, his migration is to Allah and His Messenger; but he whose migration was for some worldly thing he might gain, or for a wife he might marry, his migration is to that for which he migrated.

(Al-Bukhari and Muslim)

Theoretically, this notion of religious-based hospitality emphasises both the physical and the spiritual dimensions of hospitality. Likewise, Mohd Sirajuddin, Sahri, Khalid, Yaakob and Harun (2013) discuss the spiritual and the physical aspects of halal hospitality drawing on a thematic approach to understanding halal in four verses of the Quran that specifically mention the words halalan tayyiban (Table 2.5). Mohd Sirajuddin et al. (2013) state that in order to reach halalan tayyiban (e.g. pure, clean, and nourishing) in business practices, there should be a holistic combination between the aspects of tayyib and the physical dimension. Any action, behaviour, and object involved in the business, e.g. products and services, must not relate to evil. From a religious perspective, avoiding sin, sexual immorality, transgression, and changing the status of haram to halal can help individual Muslims to reach this holistic benefit.

Table  2.5  Halal themes in four verses of the Quran

Extracted theme of the verses
Spiritual aspect (Tayyib)		Physical aspect (Halal)
(al-Baqarah:168–169)	(al-Ma’idah:87–88)	(al-Anfal:67–69)	(al-Nahl:114–115)
Avoid evil conduct, i.e. munafiq (being hypocritical) Avoid anything in connection to sin (su’) Avoid anything connected to sexual exposure (fahsya’)	Avoid transgressing in action Avoid changing status of haram to halal and otherwise	Avoid taking for granted non-Muslims in a way that will corrupt Muslim society Avoid fraudulent financial planning	Process Sanitation Ingredients Transportation and supply chain Storages Non-toxic/not harmful Non-pork and alcoholic (khamr)

Source: Adapted from Mohd Sirajuddin et al., 2013.

With respect to halal a Muslim must therefore not be involved in corruption and fraud and must also avoid haram in all aspects of life. It is important for a Muslim to do halal and avoid the haram in order to gain the blessing of Allah. From this perspective it is therefore important to consider what exactly is understood in terms of the halal hospitality concept, and the extent to which providers genuinely provide the service to cater to the needs of their customers and society at large, or whether they are only taking advantage of the business opportunity.

Halal and haram in hospitality services

The principles of halal and haram are integral to halal hospitality and tourism. Providers must have a thorough understanding of what is halal (permissible) and haram (not permissible) in providing Islamic hospitality. This concept of halal and haram covers the entire aspects of hospitality services such as food, facilities, and activities conducted within the business. In Islam, there are four main sources in determining halal and haram: the Quran, Sunnah, Ijma (consensus between scholars), and Qiyas (analogy). Siddiqui (1997) explains the uses of these sources. If the changes required for a better society can be found in the Quran, then these changes can be approved and serve as guidelines to Muslim society. If there is no indication of the changes in the Quran, then Muslim scholars and jurists must refer to the Sunnah. The third source of Ijma (consensus) is used to compare a situation to see whether it is approved or disapproved of in Shariah law. In this case, Muslim scholars and jurists will usually look to what has already been adopted with respect to existing norms. Finally, qiyas is used for making a decision on something that is not comparable to a teaching or situation in the Quran or Sunnah. Islam prohibits all kinds of intoxicants (kharms) from any source (e.g. corn, honey, or barley) (Al-Qaradawi 1992). Using qiyas, narcotics are therefore considered as kharms because they are regarded as bringing more harm than benefit to people. The Prophet Muhammad said:

Truly, Allah has cursed kharms and has cursed the one who produces it, the one for whom it is produced, the one who drinks it, the one who serves it, the one who carries it, the one for whom it is carried, the one who sells it, the one who earns from the sale of it, the one who buys it, and the one for whom it is bought.

(Al-Tirmidhi and Ibn Majah)

For products whose status as halal or haram is unknown because they were not mentioned specifically in the Quran or Sunnah, and/or involve a new means of production, such as energy drinks, such products are categorised as mubah or undecided products that require discussion among Muslim scholars to determine whether such a product is halal or not (De Run, Butt, Fam & Jong 2010). Once their status is decided, a fatwa will be published. The acceptance of this fatwa is up to individual Muslims, for example, the controversial issue surrounding the slaughtering process for animals according to Shariah law (Fischer 2008; Zakaria 2008). In such situations, different interpretations of the status of a product can exist in different locations.

In addition to halal and haram, another important term in Islam is mashbooh (doubtful or questionable). Mashbooh contributes to the complexities of issues related to halal and haram (Wan Hassan 2008; Marzuki 2012), as again there may be different interpretations in different locations. Nevertheless, despite the existence of some areas of question or debate over status, some researchers have argued that it is the responsibility of the provider to ensure that the hospitality service provided is halal and not haram (Prabowo, Abd & Ab 2012). As a result, Marzuki, Hall and Ballantine (2012a, 2012b) stress that hospitality providers must improve their understanding and acceptance of the halal hospitality services. This means, for example, that providers should confirm that the entire supply chain, including the raw material, handling, processing equipment, processing, storage, transport, preparation, and delivery, is Shariah compliant.

Halal hospitality entails a genuine commitment to providing hospitality by following Shariah principles or rules. Shariah is “the totality of Allah’s commands which regulate life for every Muslim in all aspects” (Sahida, Rahman, Awang & Man 2011: 140), and covers all aspects of tourism and hospitality services (Henderson 2010). These rules are becoming increasingly commercialised and commodified in the hospitality industries of Islamic countries as well as some Western countries (Muhamad & Mizerski 2013). According to Che Omar et al. (2014), the hospitality industry overemphasises the extrinsic physical part of halal hospitality, while the intrinsic part is left unattended. The intrinsic part covers the spiritual aspect (soul) with the aim to gain a better life, both in this world and in the afterlife with the God’s blessing. Nevertheless, while Muslims undoubtedly regard both the physical and spiritual aspects of halal hospitality as important, the first encounter of many people, whether Muslim or not, with halal hospitality will be in terms of the information provided by operators prior to the decision by consumers to purchase. In Islam hospitality means to welcome in God’s name (Siddiqui 2015). Unfortunately, all too often, commercial hospitality means to welcome in the name of profit. This chapter therefore examines how the concepts of halal and haram are conveyed in terms of food, entertainment, and business values by hospitality and tourism businesses.

Food

Global tourism and mobility has led to increased diversity in food offerings by hospitality operators (Eum 2008). International tourism also opens up new opportunities for the hospitality industry to explore diversity in food offerings. However, the increasing number of travellers has put pressure on the demand for foods that can be eaten according to various scriptures and traditions (Tieman & Hassan 2015). Table 2.6 provides a comparison between the three Abrahamic religions with respect to: prohibition of animals for food, prohibition of blood, prohibition of alcohol, fasting, animal welfare, slaughtering requirements for livestock and poultry, cases of doubt, and segregation requirements in the food supply chain.

Table  2.6  A comparison of religious food law

	Kosher food laws	Christian food laws	Halal food laws
Prohibition of animals for food	According to Leviticus and Deuteronomy, pig, wild birds, sharks, dogfish, catfish, monkfish and similar species, crustacean and molluscan shellfish, other animals from the sea without fins and scales, most insects, rock hyrax, hare, camel, ostrich, emu, rhea are restricted	According to the Old Testament: pig, camel, rock hyrax, hare, animals in the water without fins and scales, eagle, vulture, osprey, kit, falcon, raven, ostrich, nighthawk, sea gull, hawk, owl, cormorant, ibis, water hen, pelican, carrion vulture, stork, heron, hoopoe, bat, most winged insects, swarming things that swarm upon the earth (Leviticus 11); however, very few Christians practise this today	By Quranic verse (Quran 2:173): pig; based on Hadith, wild animals with a canine tooth and any bird with talons are regarded as detestable, but not prohibited
Prohibition of blood	Prohibited and should be as much as possible removed during and after slaughter	According to Genesis 9:3–4	By Quranic verse (Quran 2:173)
Prohibition of alcohol	Not prohibited, but there are strict production requirements on grape-juice-based products such as wine	Not prohibited	Prohibition of intoxicants by Quranic verse (Quran 5:90) and the Hadith
Fasting	Fasting plays a significant role in Jewish religious tradition, including for weddings and events in the Jewish calendar	Christians traditionally fasted during Lent, Advent, and on the eve or day of various saint’s days. Abstinence from red meat traditionally occurred on certain days of the week. However, this practice is continued by few Christians today	Fasting is an important obligation for Muslims, which regulates fasting during Ramadan and optional fasting
Animal welfare	Kindness to animals has a strong foundation in the Torah	The Old Testament defines important principles in animal welfare	Part of Shariah (Fiqh al-Mu’amalah or al-adah) describes the rulings on the relationship between humans and other creatures of Allah
Slaughtering requirements for livestock and poultry	Strictly defined under the laws of shechita; prohibition of pre-slaughter stunning	Undefined for meat that is not used as an offering	Strictly defined under Shariah, but the acceptability of certain procedures (like stunning and machine slaughter) depend on the Islamic school of thought
In case of doubt	Consult Rabbi	Do not eat (Romans 14:23)	Avoid
Segregation requirements in the food supply chain	Segregation between meat products, dairy products, and neutral products (pareve)	Undefined	Segregation between halal and non-halal.

Source: Regenstein et al., 2003; Riaz & Chaudry, 2004; Al-Mazeedi, Regenstein, & Riaz, 2013; Tieman & Hassan 2015.

In the case of the prohibition of animals for food, for example, animals from the sea without fins and scales are prohibited for Jewish, Christian, and Muslims (from the Hanafi school). Blood is prohibited for all three religions, but alcohol is only prohibited for Muslims. However, there is a great deal of diversity within Christianity, with Nicene churches having few, if any, prohibitions as a result of St Peter having a vision in which a voice tells him that it is permissible to eat non-kosher food because God has cleansed them (Ehrman 2006). The New Testament does provide suggestions with respect to eating that some churches have adopted, e.g. Seventh-Day Adventist and Trappist monks avoid eating meat because in Corinthians, Paul of Tarsus comments that some Christians may wish to abstain from meat if it causes “my brother to stumble” into idolatry (1 Corinthians 8:13).

When it comes to fasting, followers of the three Abrahamic religions will fast according to certain days. During the fasting day, there are foods encouraged to be eaten, for example, the demand for dates will increase during Ramadan as it is customary for Muslims to eat dates when breaking the fast as, according to tradition, Muhammad broke fast with three dates. The three religions have concerns for animal welfare but when it comes to slaughtering requirements, only kosher and halal require animals to be slaughtered according to religious rituals (the Armenian Orthodox Church is one of the few Christian churches that retains a degree of ritual when slaughtering occurs). Jews will separate food according to sections for meat, dairy, and neutral products. There is no issue on food segregation for Christians, but Muslims seek segregation of halal and non-halal foods.

In some jurisdictions, providers can be subject to legal action if caught violating the religious food restrictions especially those that are already gazetted in trade and food safety laws. In the case of Malaysia, providers that violate the halal requirements are subject to legal action as stated in the Trade Description Act 2011. However, in Malaysia, government agencies are perceived as not disseminating information on halal knowledge and education to service providers (Said, Hassan, Musa & Rahman 2014). As a result, some providers appear not willing to seek certification for reasons that include a lack of understanding of halal hospitality; therefore education on halal certification is important for increasing the number of operators that provide halal hospitality (Said et al. 2014), although perhaps even more significant is consumer demand.

A study by Sahida et al. (2011) on halal hospitality in Kuala Lumpur, Malaysia, suggests that one of the reasons for providing halal services is to cater to the needs of Muslim travellers who otherwise have difficulty in finding accommodation to suit their lifestyle. Most hotels in Malaysia offer conventional hotel services because of the significance of the international tourism market. Therefore, even in a primarily Muslim country such as Malaysia, it can be quite difficult for religious customers to obtain halal hotel services in large urban centres. Interestingly, Wan Hassan and Hall (2003) found the same difficulty for Muslim travellers in obtaining halal food in New Zealand, despite about 98 per cent of lamb and sheep, 60 per cent of cattle, and 85 per cent of deer grown in New Zealand being halal slaughtered every year.

Halal food is defined as being “free from any component that Muslims are prohibited from consuming” (Riaz & Chaudry 2004: 2). Halal food includes milk (from cows, sheep, camels, and goats), honey, fish, legumes, grains, and plants (that do not intoxicate). Haram food includes swine meat, pork-based products and by-products; carrion or dead animals; blood and blood by-products; animals slaughtered or killed without the name of Allah; intoxicants (e.g. alcohol and narcotics); carnivorous animals; birds of prey; and land animals without external ears, e.g. snakes and worms (Riaz & Chaudry 2004). The Quran states that:

Prohibited to you are dead animals, blood, the flesh of swine, and that which has been dedicated to other than Allah, and (those animals) killed by strangling or by a violent blow or by a head-long fall or by the goring of horns, and those from which a wild animal has eaten, except what you (are able to) slaughter (before its death), and those which are sacrificed on stone altars.

(Al-Maidah, 3)

This verse indicates what can be eaten and what cannot. Furthermore, halal food must be food that is clean, safe, and healthy to consume, while haram food is any food that could harm humans as forbidden by Allah (Isfahani, Pourezzat, Abdolmanafi & Shahnazari 2013). The Quran states that:

You who believe, eat the good things We have provided for you and be grateful to God, if it is Him that you worship. He has only forbidden you carrion, blood, pig’s meat, and animals over which any name other than God’s has been invoked. But if anyone is forced to eat such things by hunger, rather than desire or excess, he commits no sin: God is Most Merciful and Forgiving.

(Al-Baqarah, 172–173)

These verses signify the need to produce halal and tayyib foods that are interpreted as permitted and wholesome. Tayyib is used to refer to a standard that has been revealed in the books of Allah that come prior to the Quran, i.e. the Torah (the Old Testament) and the Injil (the New Testament) (Mohd Sirajuddin, Saad, Sahri & Yaakub 2014). Tayyib highlights a universal standard of food consumption amongst Abrahamic believers, as the Quran states that:

The food of the People of the Book is lawful unto you and yours is lawful unto them.

(Al-Maidah, 5)

This verse refers to the slaughtering method used in Judaism, which is similar to the Islamic slaughtering process, and is regarded as consensually permissible to Muslims among most Muslim scholars including Al-Qaradawi (1992). Both of these religions have firm restrictions to ensure that the food provided is truly kosher or halal and stress ritual cleanliness as a means to achieve spiritual goals (e.g. the blessing from God) (Hashim 2008) (Table 2.7). However, there are issues with respect to the entire production process of halal food given the potential for toxic contamination and inhumane farming practices (Mohd Sirajuddin et al. 2013). In addition, animal feeding, slaughtering methods, packaging, logistics, and contamination are problems in halal food production (Ab Halim & Mohd Salleh 2012; Nasaruddin, Fuad, Mel, Jaswir & Abd 2012), along with serious concerns as to the applicability of halal logistics in order to support the halal supply chain globally (Mohd Sirajuddin et al. 2014; Tieman & Ghazali 2014).

Table  2.7  Comparison of halal and kosher food requirements

Item	Kosher	Halal
Pig, pork, carnivore	Prohibited	Prohibited
Ruminant animals (e.g. buffalo, cattle, goat, and horse) and birds (e.g. chicken, turkey, duck, and goose)	Slaughtered by a trained Jewish sochet	Slaughtered by a Muslim adult
Intention. Pronouncement of God’s name	Must be done as part of a continuous slaughter process. If the process stops the intention must be repeated	Done to each animal slaughtered
Slaughter by hand	Mandatory	Recommended
Mechanical slaughter	Not allowed	Can be done, i.e. if there is a huge number of chickens, but must be supervised
Stunning before slaughtering	Prohibited. The animal must be conscious when killed	A contested issue among Muslim authorities, but if used the animal must not be killed by the stun
Other requirements on meat	Only the front quarter of the animal is used unless the sochet removes sinew and the sciatic nerve; meat is soaked in salt water. Chelev (suet) is also prohibited	All the meat can be used except the penis, testicles, vulva, and glands, and it does not need to be soaked in salt water
Animal blood	Must be drained from carcass. Prohibited	Must be drained from carcass. Prohibited
Fish and seafood	Must have scales and fins	Most Muslim schools consider ocean, sea, or lake creatures as halal. Shi’ites consider that only those with scales are halal, but make an exception for some crustacea, shrimps, and prawns
Microbial and biotechnological enzymes	Allowed	Allowed
Animal enzyme	Must come from kosher animal	Must come from a halal animal
Gelatine	Must come from kosher animal or a vegetable source	Must come from halal animal or a vegetable source
Dairy product	Made by kosher enzyme	Made by halal enzyme
Alcohol (wine)	Allowed	Prohibited
Mixing meat and milk products	Not allowed	Allowed
Insect and insect products	Only kosher locust and grasshoppers accepted	All locust halal; only Maliki school of Islam permits wider eating of insects
Plant substances	All allowed	Those involving alcohol (e.g. wine) strictly prohibited
Sanitation equipment	Cleaned; require a certain period, ritually cleaned	Cleaned as a whole; no specific period required
Special occasion	Restrictive during Passover	Same requirements year-round

Source: Regenstein et al., 2003; Riaz & Chaudry, 2004; Hisham, 2012; Al-Mazeedi et al., 2013

Halal food must be cleaned from any contamination by prohibited items or ingredients that would change its status of halal to haram. Cleanliness is expected from the beginning of production to the end food product, e.g. “from farm to fork” (Wan Hasan & Hall 2003). There are also potential issues of kitchen design in accommodation, given that it is a site of food preparation, preservation, storage, and packaging that requires appropriate food hygiene procedures (Hasri, Taib & Ahmad 2016). Cleanliness is necessary, both in terms of the physical and spiritual aspects of halal hospitality. Food contamination, for example, occurs when hospitality providers do not have a good knowledge of the haram ingredients (Prabowo et al. 2012). Providers must not claim their food as halal if contaminated with haram ingredients (Harvey 2010; Ismaeel & Blaim 2012), such as in using gelatine produced from pigs (Nasaruddin et al. 2012). To avoid food contamination, providers must find alternative materials or ingredients to replace non-halal products. For example, Karim and Bhat (2008) indicate that there are marine sources of gelatine made from fish bones to replace non-halal bovine gelatine. In addition, accommodation providers may perform ritual cleansing or samak if haram contact occurs.

Food contamination can also involve the utensils used during the production processes. Wan Hassan (2008) found that many hospitality providers have misconceptions about the use of kitchen utensils. These providers viewed that the utensils used for non-halal food can be used to cook the halal food after being washed with soap and water, whereas in Islam these utensils must be washed according to Islamic ritual cleansing (use clay and water). According to Kassim, Hashim, Hashim and Jol (2014), a Muslim must go through an Islamic cleansing (samak) process if he/she is in contact with impurities. This cleansing process has to be done before religious activities, such as prayers. There are three categories of impurities (Table 2.8). However, only the extreme category is required to be cleaned with water clay (JAKIM 2013; Tieman 2011). Samak or sertu encompasses the ritual cleansing of transport, containers, truck, machines, utensils, equipment that are used in the preparation, production, and transportation of halal and non-halal products. In order to confirm that the whole process is halal, samak/sertu is necessary to achieve tayyib standards (Shariff et al. 2017). However, issues with samak/sertu for some transportation companies include cost, time, energy, and human resources to undertake samak (Ab Talib, Lim & Khor 2013). For example, the number of halal products marketed by a company may not be sufficient for the business to focus on halal shipping alone (Ab Talib et al. 2013).

Table  2.8  Categories of impurity (najis) and its cleansing method

Classification	Example of najis	Cleansing method
Light	Urine of boys aged less than 2 years old and fully breastfed.	Remove najis and sprinkle water over the contaminated area.
Medium	Vomit, blood, and urine.	Remove najis and wash with free flow clean water until achieving absence of appearance/colour, odour, and feel.
Extreme/severe	Dogs and pigs (khinzir) including any liquids and objects discharged from their orifices.	Remove najis and rinse seven times with clean water; one of which is water that is mixed with soil/clay. This cleansing method is called samak.

Source: Adapted from Kassim et al., 2014.

According to Islamic law, halal permitted animals must be slaughtered hygienically before consumption. Wan Hassan (2008) discussed the animal slaughtering process based on aspects of production allowed by halal certification bodies such as Jabatan Kemajuan Islam Malaysia (JAKIM), Central Islamica Brasileira de Alimentos Halal (CIBAL BRAZIL), Islamic Society of North America (ISNA), Halal Monitoring Committee (HMC), Australian Federation of Islamic Councils (AFIC), and the Federation of Islamic Associations of New Zealand (FIANZ). The key aspects mentioned by Wan Hassan (2008) were updated by Razak (2018) and more halal certification bodies added for comparison purposes (Table 2.9).

Table  2.9  Examples of halal certification bodies and aspects of production allowed

Source: Razak, 2018.

Notes: na—information is not available on their website. Australian Federation of Islamic Councils (AFIC), Central Islamica Brasileira de Alimentos Halal (CIBAL BRAZIL), Federation of Islamic Associations of New Zealand (FIANZ), Halal Food Standards Alliance of America (HFSAA), Halal International Certification Organization (HICO), Halal Monitoring Committee (HMC), Islamic Society of North America (ISNA), Islamic Society of the Washington Area (ISWA), Department of Islamic Development of Malaysia/Jabatan Agama dan Kemajuan Islam Malaysia (JAKIM), and Indonesian Council of Ulama/Majelis Ulama Indonesia (MUI).

There is general agreement that the slaughtering staff must be Muslim and that the verbal recitation of tasmiyah (pronouncing the name of Allah) is required. However, there are differences over stunning, the machine slaughtering process, and the conduct of both halal and non-halal slaughtering at slaughter plants. The sharing of slaughter plants between halal and non-halal meat was not agreed to by six certification agencies for reasons of contamination avoidance and ritual cleansing. Three certification bodies do not support stunning and four do not support mechanical slaughter, both of which are significant points of debate within Islam (Regenstein, Chaudry & Regenstein 2003; Riaz & Chaudry 2004; Wan Hassan 2008).

The differences in halal processes may also have commercial and marketing implications. HMC, for example, claimed that the production of meat using stunning and machine slaughter is not halal. To discourage the use of stunning and machine slaughter, HMC is promoting a marketing strategy that position ‘non-stunned’ meat as ‘authentic’ halal quality (Lever & Miele 2012). In contrast, Abraham Natural Produce, a small company that produce halal organic meat, claims their meat is more authentic even though their slaughtering process involves stunning (Wilson & Liu 2010). The company further claimed that animal care was carried out from the early stage of rearing following ‘organic’ procedures; therefore, they promote their meat as being more authentic and of a high quality. However, the extent to which Muslim consumers perceive the relative authenticity of the two producers is unknown. In addition, to further complicate the stunning debate, slaughtering without stunning is considered cruel by some animal rights activists (Mukherjee 2014).

The ritual and spiritual aspects of slaughtering are mentioned in the Quran in numerous verses including Al-Baqarah, 172–173, Al-Maidah, 1, 3, 4, and 5, and Al-An’nam, 121, which allow the killing of animals by the most humane method. The Prophet Muhammad also says:

Verily God has prescribed excellence in all things. Thus, if you kill (an animal), kill well; and if you slaughter, slaughter well. Let each one of you sharpen his blade so to spare suffering to the animal he slaughters.

(Muslim)

The differences in opinions on the Islamic slaughtering process reflect the various interpretations among Muslim scholars. Other services offered in hospitality are also subject to debate, including entertainment, which is usually regarded as adding to the customer experience (Lugosi 2008).

Entertainment and other services

Wolf (1999) suggests that entertainment is a necessity in customer-oriented businesses. Entertainment can provide pleasure, enjoyment, and a sense of belonging. Hospitality providers can use entertainment to create a pleasing experience for customers such as through shows and themed environments (Teng & Chang 2013). Islam does not forbid its believers from fulfilling their needs in terms of leisure and entertainment so long as they do not contradict Islamic teachings (Al-Qaradawi 1992). Ghani (2009) argues that it is a huge challenge to develop Islamic entertainment in terms of halal and haram. Ghani (2009) also indicates that there are conservative and moderate views among Muslim scholars on the issues of whether some forms of entertainment are halal or are completely haram. For example, for some Muslim scholars entertainment is halal if the objectives and performances emphasise intellectual, moral, and spiritual aspects.

Saad et al. (2014) found that appropriate entertainment, which is “no night club”, is the third most important feature of halal hotel design after segregated facilities and signs such as the Qibla. The authors indicate that many religious Muslims (ulama’) forbid the use of musical instruments, song, dance, and amusement for entertainment purposes because of concerns that they can cause a Muslim to neglect their duty to God. In addition, the behaviour of Muslim artists that are in conflict with Islamic teachings has led to entertainment sometimes being regarded as something negative that harms society (Saad et al. 2014). However, entertainment is about not only songs, dancing, and music, it also involves physical and spiritual aspects of life. For example, religious song, dance, and music is integral to the Sufi traditions of Islam. Similarly, Fikri and Tibek (2014) examined the acceptance of Islamic entertainment (nasyid) in north Sumatra, Indonesia, and found that 86.7 per cent (267 out 308) respondents like nasyid. The reasons given were the lyrics of the nasyid contain advice about life, the attire worn by the nasyid group as well as the moderate body movement is also suited to Muslim culture. This is consistent with the concept of entertainment in Islam that is concerned with always remembering God in every act and keeping with Syariah law (Al-Qaradawi 1992).

Hospitality providers provide a range of facilities to customers such as television, dining areas, and swimming pools. According to Rejab and Lateh (2012) to be in line with Shariah law, the television channel selection should have an Islamic information channel and other appropriate channels, such as education, and ‘unbeneficial’ channels should be avoided. In addition, information such as a prayer schedule, list of mosques, and details of halal restaurants near the hotel should be provided for customers. Moll (2010) in her study on halal entertainment details the producers’ opinion on what should be aired by the halal satellite channel, which covers programmes for devoted Muslim as well as less devoted Muslim customers (Muslims with less knowledge about Islam or those with a different reading or interpretation of Islam). However, the commercialisation of halal entertainment has created confusion between religious and commercial entertainment (Eum 2008). In selecting suitable television channels for halal hospitality services, the provider may want to consider whether their customers are pious or not. Often providers are bound to the number of channels available and the associated costs to subscribe for channels that are not necessarily part of the normal deal. Different providers may have different views on specific channels to subscribe to given that they have to balance both consumer demand and the cost to supply suitable channels that comply with the provision of halal hospitality.

A study on foreign Muslim tourists in Malaysia by Battour, Ismail and Battor (2011) found that they had a high priority for the gender segregation of beaches, swimming pools, and gymnasiums, and the absence of adult video channels in hotel entertainment. However, it was acknowledged that such Islamic entertainment may not be appropriate for Western or non-Muslim guests, although hotels could enable guests to block services to channels as one means of managing what guests can see.

The closure of gaming rooms, unisex hair salons, and alcohol sales licences substantially affected hospitality providers in Iran (Okhovat 2010). As Okhovat (2010) argued, Islam is not the only religion that is professed by Iranians and international visitors and this poses a dilemma for Muslim countries that want to enact Shariah law yet also want to develop tourism and attract international markets. Some countries may choose to continue to isolate tourists from the wider society, as in the Maldives, while others strive to find a relative balance between pleasing the tourist and gaining benefit for the local economy, while still ensuring that religious requirements are respected, as in the case of Muslim-friendly service practices in Malaysia, Turkey, and UAE (Eid & El-Gohary 2015; Razalli et al. 2013). Din (1989) argued that Malaysia, for example, maintains a strict policy for Muslims and a moderate policy for non-Muslims in terms of tourism activities. Some activities, such as avoidance of gambling, no consumption of pork and alcohol, consumption of halal food, and segregation of services and facilities by gender are strictly imposed only on Muslims. Such policy approaches may be adopted by other countries to meet the requirements of secular and religious values within Muslim societies. However, Din (1989) also argued that changes in business services as a result of religious prohibition will only work if there is effective enforcement by authorities.

Business values and philosophy

Business ethics refers to the ethical rules and principles applied in any business activities. Abuznaid (2009: 280) defines Islamic ethics as “the code of moral principles that are prescribed by the Quran and Sunnah”. The basis for Islamic ethics includes: truthfulness, trustworthiness, generosity and leniency, and avoidance of immoral behaviour such as fraud, cheating, and deceit. Rice (1999) suggested that ethical values such as honesty, trustworthiness, and care for the poor are similar under Islam, Judaism, and Christianity, and that there is a common approach within the Abrahamic religions. However, with respect to business, Islamic ethical values cover the entire aspect of business practices and include issues of interest (riba), taxation (alms or zakat), and accumulation of wealth. These are similar to other Abrahamic religions but also depend on scriptural interpretation, the nature of institutions, and religiosity. Muslims are obliged to earn a living (e.g. by doing business) and, if capable, they are expected to pay zakat.. Each Muslim is obligated to use his or her wealth for the sake of fulfilling the values of Islam, such as by fulfilling the needs of the poor. The Quran states that:

Take, [O, Muhammad], from their wealth a charity by which you purify them and cause them increase, and invoke [Allah’s blessings] upon them. Indeed, your invocations are reassurance for them. And Allah is Hearing and Knowing.

(At-Taubah, 103)

Complying with Islamic ethical values in obtaining wealth is integral to religious behaviour in Islam, and not complying is therefore a sin. For example, riba is haram in Islam as it puts a burden on others to pay more for a loan. The accumulation of wealth for personal interest is also haram as the wealth must be distributed to others in need through zakat (Hanzaee & Ramezani 2011). As stated in the verse above, the commitment to zakat can purify an individual’s spirit. The purpose of the life of a Muslim is to receive mercy from Allah by earnest compliance to all the teachings of Islam. By successfully undertaking all the Islamic requirements one will be blessed in this life and the hereafter. However, in contrast, in a commercial context, the focus is on making money and providing satisfaction to customers. Therefore, the possibility of conflict between Islamic and secular goals of service remains, especially where managers and owners of hospitality and tourism operations have other belief systems outside Islam, and when management philosophy is more commercially oriented. Indeed, such conflicts may occur even between Muslims. Rice (1999) argues that there is a gap between the philosophy and practice of Islamic ethics in some Muslim countries, especially in the area of international trade and banking. She stresses that in any business dealing, business people have to know a culture’s ideal set of ethics prior to the actual ethical practice as there are differences between the two. Nevertheless, the differences between the ideal and the reality of Islamic ethics can be very difficult to discuss openly as it may then cross over into broader political, cultural, and institutional debates and conflicts, including what governments or businesses leaders wish to present internationally about their country or organisation, as compared to the actual realities of preferred behaviours.

Another approach to halal in terms of business values and philosophy is that of Mukherjee (2014), who argues that halal is a form of spiritual capital which is disseminated via the aid of halal verification. Mukherjee (2014) highlights the holiness of Islam that encompasses the moral and spiritual aspects of life, yet noted that when it comes to halal and haram matters especially, verification of standards is required given that business practices are often contrary to Islamic teachings. He also argued that halal may be treated as just another product to be exchanged for profit in the global market as some companies are willing to set aside deeper religious requirements in order to achieve substantial profits. Hanzaee and Ramezani (2011) also discuss the participation of business in the halal industry in order to gain profit. They note the profits gained by halal-friendly burgers, tacos, and chicken by companies such as McDonald’s, Taco Bell, and KFC, when joining the halal industry, although such measures raise further questions about the way in which halal hospitality is framed and understood. Nevertheless, the use of halal certification is important in order to be accepted by Muslim customers in many non-Islamic countries as well as in some Islamic countries.

Halal standards and certification

Although there is no single global standard for halal there are numerous national standards and certifications and the development of halal standards is a major point of contention in halal trade and services. Indeed, Dolan (2010: 50) argues that the halal industry is excessively concerned as to “who should lead the industry, who gets to create halal standards, and whose standards are best”. Because of the history and strength of Islam in the Middle East, certification bodies from the region tend to be trusted more by Muslim consumers than those of Australia and South East Asia (Dolan 2010). Muslim scholars also have stronger influence in the implementation of Islamic law in those countries (Zamani-Farahani & Henderson 2010) compared with other Muslim countries in the world.

Harvey (2010) argues about the importance of having a universal halal standard in order to curb fraud in the halal industry. For example, in the United Kingdom, the sale of non-halal meat that is claimed as being halal clearly creates difficulty for Muslims consumers. The presence of a universal halal standard with rules and regulations and specific definitions of halal could help overcome many issues associated with confidence in supply chains. Similar to Dolan (2010), Harvey (2010) raised concerns about who should set the universal halal standard and the difficulties in taking action on fraudulent halal claims if involving businesses outside of its national jurisdiction. Halim and Salleh (2012) also stress the need for uniformity of the halal standard globally to assist the growth of the halal industry. They argue that the absence of a universal halal standard leads to disagreements in many aspects such as animal feed, slaughtering methods, packaging, and logistics. In addition, confusion and misunderstanding exist as a result of countries having different halal standards. However, to produce a universal halal standard, some countries would need to change some of their own standards and procedures and be more transparent in their operation. Nevertheless, such actions may not benefit some countries, such as Malaysia which has been promoting its own JAKIM’s halal standard (Badruldin et al. 2012). Moreover, it is important to note that support for an international standard is not universal, with much less interest, for example, from the European Commission, which already has strong food laws and regulations (Othman, Sungkar & Wan Hussan 2009).

Malaysia has several halal standards that are also used by some other countries to certify their halal products and services. The standards include the MS 1500:2004 which is the most admissible standard for halal food globally; MS 1900:2005 guides the organisation of the principles and practice of quality management from Islamic perspectives; and MS 2610:2015 is for the management of tourism facilities, products, and services for Muslims in hospitality accommodation (HDC 2015). Malaysia has also established halal standards covering the areas of chemicals, hospitality service, packaging, food production and preparation, furs, cosmetics, and quality management system (Table 2.10).

Table  2.10  List of Malaysian halal standards

Malaysian Standards (MS)

MS 2594:2015

Halal chemicals for use in potable water treatment—General guidelines

MS 2610:2015

Muslim-friendly hospitality services—Requirements

MS 2565:2014

Halal packaging—General guidelines

MS 1500:2009

Halal food—Production, preparation, handling and storage—General guidelines (second revision)

MS 2200: Part 1: 2008

Islamic consumer goods—Part 1: Cosmetic and personal care—General guidelines

MS 2200-2: 2012

Islamic consumer goods—Part 2: Usage of animal bone, skin, and hair—General guidelines

MS 1900:2005

Quality management systems—Requirements from Islamic perspectives

MS 2300: 2009

Value-based management system—Requirements from an Islamic perspective

MS 2424: 2012

Halal pharmaceuticals—General Guidelines

MS 2400

Series on Halalan-Tayyiban Assurance Pipeline

MS 2393: 2010 (P)

Islamic and halal principles—Definitions and interpretations on terminology

Source: Adapted from HDC—Halal Standards, 2017.

Mohd Sirajuddin et al. (2013) argue that the Malaysian standards emphasise the physical aspect of products, and food and beverage in particular. Other aspects such as services, leisure, and entertainment are not included. Samori and Sabtu (2012), for example, stated that it is important to have a halal standard for hospitality services in order to increase the confidence of customers in Shariah-law compliant practices for products, instruments, operations, and management. However, there is currently no legal standard being developed for hospitality providers to enable them to cover all aspects of their facilities and services when applying for halal certification. The basic requirements of the standards cover the aspects of halal and tayyib such as safety, cleanliness, and quality with respect to food (Table 2.11). The HDC (2015) regard the introduction of MS 2610:2015 as good guidance for providers in managing hospitality services with the Malaysian Government’s Muslim Friendly Hospitality Requirements (MS 2610:2015) using a number of items to represent halal hospitality (Table 2.12).

Table  2.11  Basic requirements for halal food in MS 2610:2015

1	Does not contain any parts or products of animals that are non-halal to Muslims or products of animals which are not slaughtered according to Shariah law
2	Does not contain any ingredients that are najis according to Shariah law
3	Is safe and not harmful
4	Is not prepared, processed, or manufactured using equipment that is contaminated with things that are najis (filth or unclean) according to Shariah law
5	The food or its ingredients do not contain any human parts or its derivatives that are not permitted by Shariah law
6	And during its preparation, processing, packaging, storage, or transportation, the food is physically separated from any other food that does not meet the requirements stated in items 1, 2, 3, 4, or 5, or any other things that have been decreed as najis (filth or unclean) by Shariah law

Source: Adapted from HDC, 2015.

Table  2.12  Muslim Friendly Hospitality Requirements (MS 2610:2015)

No.	Items	Explanation
1	Quran	Islamic scripture containing the revealed words of Allah to the Prophet Muhammad (pbuh) through the medium of Angel Jibrail in Arabic as the primary source of Islamic law.
2	Fasting	The third pillar of Islam. Muslims are prohibited from eating, drinking (including water) and must refrain from smoking, sexual activities, and various other desires and be encouraged to temper negative emotions such as anger and addiction during fasting hours (from dawn to dusk) in the month of Ramadan.
3	Ramadan	The holy month in the Hijri calendar when Muslims perform the obligatory practice of fasting from dawn (fajr) to dusk (maghrib).
4	Halal	An act or product that is lawful and permitted in Islam based on the authoritative sources.
5	Iftar	The meal taken by Muslims at dusk to break their fast.
6	Kiblat	Direction of prayer towards the Kaabah in Makkah.
7	Musalla	Place, space, or room that is reserved for solah.
8	Sajada	A mat generally used by Muslims to perform solah.
9	Recreation	Social, cultural, sporting, and other relevant activities undertaken in leisure time.
10	Recreational facilities	Public and private facilities provided for recreational activities.
11	Sahur	The meal consumed by Muslims before dawn when fasting.
12	Solah	The ritual worship in Islam, as one of the five pillars of Islam, to be performed five times a day.
13	Shariah	Overall legal and regulation of Allah pertaining to life and welfare of mankind for the prosperity of life in this world and in the hereafter.
14	Shariah compliance	Conformity to Shariah.
15	Shariah law	Communication from Allah concerning the conduct of the mukallaf (sane person) which consists of a demand (commandments and prohibitions) and option or an enactment.
16	Wudhu	The rite or act to wash or wipe the specific parts of the body with water to be pure and clean for the solah.
17	Wudhu facility	Appropriate or dedicated area for male and female for wudhu.

Source: Adapted from Department of Standards Malaysia, 2015.

Che Omar et al. (2014) discuss the notion of an Islamic Quality Standard (IQS) for hospitality service. They present 18 requirements divided into seven ranking criteria (Table 2.13). The first rank (IQS1) offers basic quality requirements and the seventh rank (IQS7) presents the highest quality requirements for halal hospitality. In terms of the level of Shariah-law compliance, IQS1 to IQS2 are categorised as weak, IQS3 to IQS5 are moderate, and IQS6 to IQS7 are the highest standard. The IQS are cumulative.

Table  2.13  Proposed Islamic Quality Standard (IQS) for halal hotels

IQS	Requirements
IQS1	Bedroom (1 queen/2 standard size bed and telephone). Convenient accessibility and staff are on duty 24 hours; Qibla direction, prayer mat, and time schedule for prayer; serve halal breakfast; at least 2 prayer rooms
IQS2	Restaurant serving halal food
IQS3	Serving halal food at all times
IQS4	Scheduling of swimming pool or spa according to gender
IQS5	Spacious bedroom for prayer; prayer rooms available by gender
IQS6	Spa and gymnasium by gender; additional facilities, e.g. separate saloon for male and female, boutique arcade; serving sahoor (pre-dawn meal) and Iftar (fast breaking) during Ramadan.
IQS7	2 ≥ swimming pool by gender; 2 ≥ spa by gender; 4 prayer rooms made available for hotel guests; more than 2 restaurants of halal international cuisine; entertainment for family and by gender; bathrooms equipped with bidets

Source: Adapted and modified from Che Omar et al., 2014.

Mathew, Abdullah and Ismail (2014) indicate that although the halal hospitality concept is complex, some of the requirements are possible to implement within organisations. For example, using the halal logo to promote to customers that the services provided are halal compliant. However, with about 122 halal certifying bodies around the world with different halal standards and logos, there are clear implementation and customer recognition difficulties with such proposals (Halim & Salleh 2012). Many countries have developed their own halal standard, e.g. Brunei, Maldives, and Jordan (Halim & Salleh 2012), although greater formal mutual recognition of halal standards in the development of free trade agreements would assist in halal trade (Aziz & Sulaiman 2014).

Depending on the national jurisdiction, halal certificates can be issued by any individual Muslim, Islamic organisation, or agency. The national legal context frames the capacity to both regulate and issue certificates. Social acceptance of such certificates is up to the consumer. However, it is typically the responsibility of the authorised authorities to check compliance with the requirements of halal certification and associated law so as to ensure the safety of consumers (Aziz & Sulaiman 2014; Abdul, Ismail, Mustapha & Kusuma 2013). For example, in Malaysia, providers are subject to legal action if they use the halal logo to promote products that contravene the principles of Shariah law (Manual procedure for Malaysia halal certification (3rd Revision), 2014). Statutes such as the Trade Description Act 2011, Food Act 1983, and Abattoir Act (Private) 1993 can also be used for enforcement purposes (Halim et al. 2014). Issuing bodies for a halal certificate from other countries must get approval from JAKIM or MUI (Majelis Ulama Indonesia) to export products to Malaysia and Indonesia. This is to confirm that the issuing body of the exporting country is following the guidelines provided by JAKIM or MUI (Hanzaee & Ramezani 2011).

Non-Muslim trading companies may also acknowledge the importance of halal certification (Abdullah, Ishak & Bustamam 2012a; Abdullah, Zainoren, Abdurahman & Hamali 2012b). Abdul et al. (2013) found that most of the small size businesses in Jogjakarta, Indonesia, agreed that having a halal certificate can enhance customer satisfaction, confidence, and trust. However, in their research, only 60 per cent (102 out of 153) of the businesses studied were halal certified due to the non-compulsory enforcement of halal certification and the preference of businesses to focus on the local market. It is also a common situation for Muslims to assume that many products and services provided in Muslim countries are halal, even if this may not actually be the case, thus reducing the dependency on halal certification in business operations (Nooh, Nawai, Dali & Mohammad 2007). Wan Hassan (2008) found that more than 50 per cent (out of 99) of halal restaurant providers in New Zealand that she interviewed had no interest in applying for halal certification despite having halal food. Some of the reasons given for this include a belief that Muslim customers have to trust them because they have similar beliefs, and that they have been in the market for such a long time and are already trusted for providing halal hospitality among the local customers. Marzuki et al. (2012a, 2012b) noted the limited participation of hospitality providers in Malaysia in halal certification, while also highlighting that a number of food service providers show the halal logo even though they are not actually certified.

Samori and Sabtu (2012) believe that the use of a halal logo can assist in identifying a product or service that has been certified halal by certification bodies, for example, JAKIM has introduced a standard halal logo for that purpose in Malaysia. Most commonly around the world, the symbols used are in Arabic lettering with the word halal or simply the word halal. Abdullah et al. (2012a, 2012b) also suggest that Muslim customers are more confident with a halal logo from trusted halal certification bodies. Similarly, Hanzaee and Ramezani (2011) agree a logo authorised by a local authority or recognised halal certification bodies contributes to product acceptance and trust, especially for repeat purchase (Aziz & Chok 2013). However, despite academic, consumer and, often, government support for halal certification, there are often significant barriers to businesses obtaining certification.

In New Zealand, halal hospitality (food service) providers claimed that the Muslim customer market is not sufficiently significant to their business as New Zealand has a minority Muslim population and many also claimed that the cost of halal certification is expensive (Wan Hassan 2008). Nevertheless, 66 per cent (46 of 70) providers interviewed did have the halal sign on their premises (Wan Hassan 2008). The costs involved in the provision of halal hospitality include the certification fee, maintenance and renovation, and labour (Samori & Rahman 2013). In Malaysia the fee for hotels, catering and convention centres is payable to JAKIM for approval purposes, as well as the provision of halal certificates (Marzuki, Hall & Ballantine 2014). For accommodation establishments, maintenance and renovation costs may be expensive because halal certification involves the specific allocation of rooms for males, females, and families. Providers also need to ensure the presence of prayer rooms by gender. Providers argue that the need for such changes for certification purposes will increase costs for existing establishments (Karim, Ahmad & Zainol 2017), although new hotels can be designed accordingly (Salleh, Hamid, Hashim & Omain 2014). Another area of cost is the hiring and training of staff, especially as to be fully halal compliant there is a need to ensure that an appropriate number of staff is available to handle male and female customers. Such staff costs may be especially high in non-Muslim countries.

Hanzaee and Ramezani (2011) suggest that providers need to gain a clear understanding of the costs involved in the application of halal certification in order to assess its benefits and the repercussions for their business. The cost can be expensive if the process of certification needs to be done annually. In some cases, providers may have to change the ingredients in food production. Consideration also needs to be given to the capacity of halal hospitality and tourism providers to meet the needs of both Muslim and non-Muslim markets (Razalli et al. 2009; Salleh et al. 2014), especially if the business is aimed at international and multicultural customers. As a result, and perhaps almost paradoxically, for many tourism businesses, especially in lodging and food and beverage, the acceptance of halal requirements may therefore be more economically significant in terms of the non-Muslim market.

Conclusions

Halal hospitality attributes have been identified in several studies (Battour et al. 2011; Henderson 2010; Rosenberg & Choufany 2009; Saad et al. 2014; Razzaq, Hall & Prayag 2016). However, the concept of halal has yet to be fully explored in the tourism and hospitality literature. Despite substantial interest from some countries in an effort to attract and promote Muslim markets, implementation of halal certification and regulation is often fraught with difficulties. Although providing halal food, international operators of hotels, resorts, and apartment hotels are often hesitant to develop fully Shariah-compliant properties, unless required to by law in the jurisdictions in which they operate, given that they often target Muslim and non-Muslim markets (Samori & Rahman 2013). For example, hotels in Gulf countries provide separate family sections, all-female wedding receptions, and female staff for female customers in order to fulfil local requirements (Sobh, Belk & Gressel 2012). However, such a situation highlights the extent to which the requirements for halal hospitality are different between countries and jurisdictions, even when they are nominally Muslim countries, raising substantial questions not only about the possibilities for global halal standards but also the importance of recognising that there are different Shariah traditions within Islam as well as different approaches to halal.

In seeking to identify key attributes of halal accommodation Razzaq et al. (2016) noted that the attributes of halal accommodation as identified in the literature, and in their own research, could be identified by both positive and negative attributes of accommodation, while a number of accommodation attributes that may be significant for some accommodation ratings are often neutral for halal tourists (Table 2.14). They also suggest that some accommodation attributes may also be more significant for Muslim travellers on the basis of gender or if they were travelling with family or a group more than others given requirements for appropriate modesty. Or, as in some interpretations of Islam, to segregate gender altogether.

Table  2.14  Value of accommodation attributes for halal tourism among Muslim tourists

	Perception of accommodation attributes
	Perceived more positively	Neutral	Perceived more negatively
All Muslim tourists	Offers halal food Can cater to specific religious needs Can provide prayer times Can provide a prayer mat Can provide a copy of the Quran Has a prayer facility on-site Has a Qibla marker Able to cater to special dietary needs Certified halal items Supports Islamic financial principles	Multilingual staff Family-friendly Provide DVD players Provide satellite or cable television Provide multilingual TV channels Provides movies Offers off-premises food options Dairy-free food options Gluten-free food options Vegetarian food options Has room service Has a dining establishment on-site Has in-unit cooking facilities	Pet-friendly Proximity to ‘red light’ district Proximity to gambling venues Has a mini bar Has a bar on-site Alcohol is served on-site
Male Muslim tourists		Segregated gym on-site Segregated day spa on-site Segregated sauna on-site Segregated spa bath or pool on-site
Male Muslim tourists with family/group travel	Segregated gym on-site Segregated day spa on-site Segregated sauna on-site Segregated spa bath or pool on-site		Non-segregated gym on-site Non-segregated day spa on-site Non-segregated sauna on-site Non-segregated spa bath or pool on-site
Female Muslim tourists with family/group travel	Gender-segregated female-only floors Segregated sauna on-site Segregated day spa on-site		Non-segregated gymnasium on-site Non-segregated spa bath or pool on-site

Source: After Razzaq et al., 2016.

One of the interesting issues that emerges from examining the halal tourism and hospitality literature is that it tends to focus on the more conservative ideals of Muslim behaviour. Such a perspective is also reflected in some of the statements of the OIC regarding tourism. For example, the OIC suggest that as a cultural concept

Islamic tourism includes visions and ideas that outline the inclusion of Islamic religious cultural sites in tourism programs with “pedagogical” and self-confidence building elements. It tries to encourage a reorientation inside the tourist destinations towards less consumption and “western culture” loaded sites towards more Islamic historical, religious and cultural sites.

(OIC 2017: 28)

While visits to Islamic attractions and destinations are undoubtedly important, the OIC (2017) seems to ignore the interests and needs of the large numbers of Muslim travellers to non-Islamic countries and regions as part of their broader interest in the world around them. Similarly, the OIC explicitly describes Islamic tourism as a ‘religious conservative’ concept

The religious conservative concept for Islamic tourism is based on the conservative interpretation and understanding of Islam. Merging elements of the extremely conservative Islamic lifestyle with the modern tourism industry could indeed present new tourism options, spaces, and spheres. For a growing conservative intra Arab and intra Muslim tourism market, the implementation of a religious conservative concept in tourism planning as an extra option and as an insertion into the existing mainstream tourism could indeed have a positive economic and social effect.

(OIC 2017: 28)

Such statements point to the need for a better understanding of the actual behaviours, motivations, and needs of Islamic tourists as well as their understanding of and engagement with halal tourism and hospitality. Similarly, research on providers also suggests that significant gaps exist between government statements on the positioning of destinations for halal tourism and the on-the-ground realities of what is offered and the barriers and constraints that exist for businesses to meet halal standards. For example, there is no significant difference in the communication of halal attributes on the websites of accommodation providers in Malaysia, which is a Muslim-majority country (Razak 2018), and New Zealand, a country with only a very small Muslim population (Razzaq et al. 2016). Similarly, Alserhan et al. (2018) found “Islamic” hotels to be not transparent to their guests who were seeking an Islamically compliant holiday and also to those seeking a conventional hotel experience. They suggested several reasons as to why hotels misrepresent themselves: “self‐orientalisation”, a necessity to present “nice Islam”, an “ethics gap”, and/or a poor understanding of marketing and market positioning.

In some ways providing halal food is one of the easier dimensions of halal services. Far harder is to follow Islamic financial and business principles. Indeed, in her research in Malaysia, Razak (2018) observed that most Muslim accommodation providers understand the provision of hospitality within the context of adherence to the teachings of Islam. However, her respondents often had different interpretations regarding halal between their religious understanding and in relation to the official JAKIM requirements. From a personal religious perspective, her respondents clearly had their own opinions as to when to comply with government halal requirements, with several respondents regarding their sense of religious obligation and social responsibility in hospitality as being more important in obtaining God’s blessing than JAKIM’s (see also Chapter 4, this volume).

Despite the potential value of halal certification of businesses for customer assurance, there appear to be major issues with certification compliance, in part because of the absence of international standards (Abdullah et al. 2012b; Al-Harran & Low 2008; Marzuki et al. 2012a). However, in the absence of effective self-regulation, responsible government agencies need to enforce codes of conduct and ethical standards on businesses for certification to be effective. Lack of enforcement is regularly debated in many halal studies (e.g. Marzuki et al. 2012a, 2012b; Wan Hassan 2008), while a lack of understanding of halal hospitality requirements can also contribute to fraud and the mixing of halal and haram attributes in hospitality and tourism businesses (Fadzlillah, Man, Jamaludin, Rahman & Al-Kahtani 2011). Importantly, this is an issue in many countries, with the relative security of halal certification arguably being better in those countries that also have strong consumer law.

Finally, halal hospitality and tourism reflect the tension that exist between the sacred and the profane (Siddiqui 2015), and the demands and needs of both Muslim and non-Muslim providers and consumers in welcoming others (Kushimoto 2017; Yarbakhsh 2018). Muhammad and Mizerski (2013: 367) suggest that those “who adopt religion as their way of life differ significantly to those who adopt religious teachings when needed or necessary”. There is potentially much truth in this which links strongly to understandings of halal hospitality as an authentic act of personal hospitality in which the guest is cared for and welcomed, rather than an attitude that because it was ensured that there was no pork on the table then halal service requirements were met! But if this is the case then it also needs to be acknowledged that great care of Islamic tourists is also possible from non-Muslims and vice versa and that hospitality should be something that can be shared rather than serve to divide.

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