NOTE ON SOURCES
This account is drawn from memoirs, legal and medical records, and scholarly literature. To a large extent, though, it is a story grounded in press accounts, and, as everybody knows, newspapers provide a good, but imperfect, window into the past. The big Buffalo papers saw eye-to-eye with business interests in the city, for instance, even while they differed politically, and they did not offer much detail on the concerns of working-class, African American, or immigrant communities. They also differed in their approach to accuracy. While a few Buffalo newspapers—especially the Buffalo Morning Express—took pride in “truth and accuracy,” others proudly printed embellishments. To the degree it is possible, this account favored the papers that applauded careful reporting, and, in other sources, looked for verification elsewhere. The truth of bygone days, though, as any historian knows, is a slippery thing.
Even as they provided somewhat obstructed views into historical events, the publishers, editors, and reporters described here deserve enormous credit. Not only could some journalists craft the most artful sentences imaginable; they also evoked scenes in ways both compelling and persuasive. On occasion, they also championed the underdog. The papers here were big boosters of the Pan-American Exposition and served as proud spokesmen for its backers and its ideals. Yet they knew a good story when they saw it. To the degree that this narrative discusses the interplay of power, then, and forecasts the social battles of the upcoming century, we must be grateful to the tireless, talented newsmen.
NEWSPAPER ABBREVIATIONS USED IN NOTES
Buffalo Commercial: Com
Buffalo Courier: Courier
Buffalo Enquirer: Enq
Buffalo Evening News: News
Buffalo Morning Express: Express
Buffalo Times: Times
PROLOGUE
1. Jumbo in the stadium: Mark Goldman, High Hopes: The Rise and Decline of Buffalo, New York (Albany: State University of New York Press, 1983), 18–19; Courier, Nov. 10, 1901; Illustrated Buffalo Express, Nov. 10, 1901; Newark Advocate, Nov. 9, 1901; Charlotte Daily Observer, Nov. 12, 1901. Electricity and civilization: William S. Aldrich, “Mechanical and Electrical Features of the Pan-American Exposition,” Engineering Magazine 21 (April–September 1901): 842; Jürgen Martschukat, “‘The Art of Killing by Electricity’: The Sublime and the Electric Chair,” Journal of American History 89, no. 3(December 2002): 901. Animal King: Richard H. Barry, Snap Shots on the Midway of the Pan-Am Expo (Buffalo: Robert Allan Reid, 1901), 111. Latin America in expositions: Lisa Munro, “Investigating World’s Fairs: An Historiography,” Studies in Latin American Popular Culture 28 (2010): 80–94. Color scheme: C. Y. Turner, “The Pan-American Color Scheme,” The Independent 53 (April 25, 1901): 948–49. The vanishing world: Times, Sept. 8, 1901; John Grant and Ray Jones, Niagara Falls: An Intimate Portrait (Guilford, CT: Globe Pequot, 2006), 87.
2. The grand age of fairs: Robert W. Rydell, All the World’s a Fair (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1984), 2–3. With his groundbreaking work, Rydell launched a generation of scholarly work on these remarkable (and remarkably common) events. For excellent overviews of fair historiography and methodology, see James Gilbert, Whose Fair? Experience, Memory, and the History of the Great St. Louis Exposition (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 2009), esp. 1–36, 53–68; and Lisa Munro, “Investigating World’s Fairs: An Historiography,” Studies in Latin American Popular Culture 28 (2010): 80–94. New pocket money: Wisconsin Weekly Advocate, May 16, 1901. Convenient stopping-off place: Express, Jan. 23, 1899. Early popularity of fair: Enq, June 27, 1901; Thomas Leary and Elizabeth Sholes, Buffalo’s Pan-American Exposition (Charleston, SC: Arcadia Publishing, 1998), 77. Critics: See, for example, comments made (in a generally favorable review) by William H. Hotchkiss, “The Pan-American on Dedication Day,” in The American Monthly Review of Reviews 23 (June 1901): 679; and Robert Grant, “Notes on the Pan-American Exposition,” Cosmopolitan (September 1901), http://panam1901.org/documents/cosmoarticle.html.
CHAPTER 1: RAINBOW CITY
1. The White City: See Erik Larson’s masterful narrative, The Devil in the White City: Murder, Magic, and Madness at the Fair That Changed America (New York: Crown Publishers, 2003).
2. Chicago’s numbers: A thorough discussion of visits versus numbers of visitors can be found in Gilbert, Whose Fair?, 14–16; Omaha exposition: W. A. Rodgers, “The Exposition at Omaha,” Harper’s Weekly, Oct. 8, 1898, quoted in David J. Peavler, “African Americans in Omaha and the 1898 Trans-Mississippi and International Exposition,” Journal of African American History 93 (Summer 2008): 337; Rydell, All the World’s a Fair, 124.
3. Pan American fundraising and banquets: Express, Jan. 23, 25–29, 31, 1899; Com, Jan. 27, 1899; Frank Baird, unpublished memoir, private collection.
4. Trip to Washington: Express, Jan. 30, 1899. Pan-American Themes: Pan-American Exposition Buffalo: Its Purpose and Plan (Buffalo: Pan-American Exposition Company, 1901), 6, http://digital.hagley.org/cdm/ref/collection/p268001coll12/id/6749, accessed Oct 1, 2015; United States as comrade and friend: Rydell, All the World’s a Fair, 128.
5. Buffalo’s assets and achievements: Express, Jan. 31, 1899; Com, Feb. 1, 1899; Oct. 6, 1900; Express, Feb. 2, 1899; May 5, 1901; Pan-American Exposition Buffalo: Its Purpose and Plan, 6; Samuel G. Blythe, “Buffalo and her Pan-American Exposition,” Cosmopolitan 29 (May–October 1900): 507–12; Goldman, High Hopes, ch. 3, 6.
6. Sinister signs: News, April 17, 21, 1901. Albany helping: William I. Buchanan, Pan American Exposition: Report of William I. Buchanan, Director-General (Buffalo, 1902), 54, Special Collections, Buffalo and Erie County Public Library. Albany ultimately allotted $100,000 for the New York State Building, while the City of Buffalo and the Historical Society supported the permanent construction with $25,000 each. Thanks to Susan Eck for this information.
7. Dedication Day: Express, May 19, 1901; Com, May 20, 1901; News, May 23, 1901.
8. Optimism: Enq, June 27, 1901; News, May 5, 1901; Wisconsin Weekly Advocate, May 16, 1901. Excursionists: Com, July 9, 1901. Mexico: Courier, May 19, 1901. Canada: Express, May 4, 1901. Toronto also put on a popular provincial exposition every fall, and that may have deflected some interest away from Buffalo. See Keith Walden, Becoming Modern in Toronto: The Industrial Exhibition and the Shaping of Late Victorian Culture (Toronto: University of Toronto Press, 1997), 20. Tesla and Edison: Express, March 23, 1901; Courier, March 22, July 21, 1901; Times, Oct. 20, 1901; Western Electrician 29 (August 1901): 103, accessed at http://library.buffalo.edu/pan-am/exposition/electricity/development/edisonatexpo.html.
9. Cleveland on the costs of the fair: Cleveland Plain Dealer, June 13, 1901. Leon Czolgosz (Fred Nieman): L. Vernon Briggs, The Manner of Man That Kills: Spencer—Czolgosz—Richeson (Boston: Richard G. Badger, 1921), 275; A. B. Spurney to H. C. Eyman, Feb. 16, 1902, Dr. Walter Channing Papers, Massachusetts Historical Society; Com, Sept. 7, 8, 1901; News, Sept. 8, 1901; Express, Sept. 9, 1901; Courier, Sept. 25, 1901. On Czolgosz’s background and murderous act, see also the excellent analysis by Eric Rauchway: Murdering McKinley: The Making of Theodore Roosevelt’s America (New York: Hill and Wang, 2003).
10. Mabel Barnes: Mabel E. Barnes, “Peeps at the Pan-American. An account of Personal Visits in the Summer of 1901 from Notes jotted down on the Spot and put in Permanent Form during Fourteen Years,” Vols. I–III, handwritten scrapbook, Buffalo History Museum Archives, Mss. W-119. Barnes, who made $600 in annual salary in 1899, lived at 64 Johnson Park and taught second grade at the East Delevan Avenue School. See Annual Report of the Superintendent of Education 1898–1899 (Buffalo: The Wenborne-Sumner Co. Printers, 1900.) The identity of Barnes’s companion Abby Hale, described as “Miss Hale” in the scrapbooks, is safe conjecture. Mabel Barnes lived as a boarder under Abby Hale (who was twenty-seven years older than Barnes) in 1900. They lived together for much of their adult lives, with Barnes assuming the “head of household” position as Hale entered her eighties. See US Federal Census reports for 1900, 1910, 1930, National Archives and Records Administration, accessed at http://home.ancestry.com/.
11. The colors: Turner, “The Pan-American Color Scheme”: 948–49; Katherine V. McHenry, “Color Scheme at the Pan-American,” Brush and Pencil 8 (June 1901): 151–56, accessed at http://www.jstor.org/stable/25505650.
12. The Electric Tower and the Goddess of Light: Isabel Vaughan James, “The Pan-American Exposition,” Adventures in Western New York History 6 (1961): 3, accessed Sept. 30 2015, at http://bechsed.nylearns.org/pdf/The_Pan_American_Exposition.pdf. Tower and manhood: Rydell, All the World’s a Fair, 134–36. Mabel at the fair: “Peeps,” Vol. II, pp. 65, 82.
13. The Illumination: “Peeps,” Vol. II, pp. 142–49; Vaughan James, “Pan-American Exposition,” 10; Express, May 5, 1901; Com, Aug. 17, 1901.
14. The Midway: News, Mar. 26, 1899; Barry, Snap Shots on the Midway of the Pan-Am Expo, 1, 19–20, 34; Barnes, “Peeps,” Vol. II, pp. 171, 196. The Midway at night: New York Times, June 16, 1901.
15. What Mabel missed: “Lillian Smith: The On-Target ‘California Girl,’” in http://www.historynet.com/lillian-smith-the-on-target-california-girl.htm, accessed June 9, 2015.
CHAPTER 2: SUMMER IN THE CITY
1. Bostock’s physique: The World’s Fair, Oct. 12, 1912, in http://www.nfa.dept.shef.ac.uk/jungle/index1a4.html. Bostock’s application: Enq, March 16, 1899; News, March 16, 1899; Express, March 17, 1899.
2. Bostock and wife: Sheffield Evening Telegraph, March 4, 1893; Illustrated [London] Police News, March 11, 1893; Dundee [Scotland] Courier & Argus, March 10, 1893, British Library microfilm, accessed April 14, 2012.
3. Lion School: Express, April 1, 1900. Daniel in the Den: Enq, July 27, 1900.
4. Bostock’s boasts: “Frank C. Bostock’s Grand Zoological Congress and Trained Animal Arena” (Buffalo: Courier Co., 1901). Bostock’s animals and race: Enq, March 16, 1899; Courier, Oct. 22, 1901. Captain Maitland: Courier, Oct. 18, 1901. Bostock’s bodyguard: Times, July 7, 1901.
5. Weeden: Courier, June 28, 1901. Tony and Chiquita: Express, Nov. 9, 1901.
6. Chiquita’s birth: Boston Daily Globe, Dec. 13, 1896. Career as performer: Erie [PA] Morning Dispatch, Sept. 29, 1902; Frank C. Bostock v. Espiridiona Alice Cenda Woeckener, Equity Case No. 27; November Term, 1902, Circuit Court of the United States for the Western District of Pennsylvania, Philadelphia Archives.
7. Extraordinary bodies: Rosemarie Garland Thomson, Extraordinary Bodies: Figuring Physical Disability in American Culture and Literature (New York: Columbia University Press, 1997), 55–70. Chiquita as mascot: Com, July 10, 1901. Imagining Cuba: Louis A. Perez, Jr., Cuba in the American Imagination: Metaphor and the Imperial Ethos (Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press, 2008), 71–117. Chiquita and McKinley: New York Times, Feb. 14, 1901. Not a doll: Boston Globe, Dec. 13, 1896.
8. Chiquita and Tony: Erie [PA] Morning Dispatch, Nov. 4, 1901; March 8, 1902; Express, Nov. 9, 1901.
9. Feeling the fair: Diary of Levant F. Hillman, Jan. 4–Nov. 3, 1901, unpublished manuscript, Buffalo History Museum Archives, Mss. A2001–5. Annie Taylor: Orrin E. Dunlap, “Interview with Mrs. Taylor,” Oct. 25, 1901, unpublished manuscript, Stunts and Stunters file, Local History Collection, Niagara Falls [NY] Public Library, hereafter NFPL; Annie Edson Taylor, Over the Falls: Annie Edson Taylor’s Story of Her Life (privately printed, 1902), reprint.
10. Attendance concerns: Com, July 9, 23, 1901; Courier, Aug. 2, 1901. Chicago swelters, Philadelphia languid: Express, July 21, 1901. Reducing admission price: Express, July 21, 1901. Utah Day: Courier, July 25, 1901. Women’s exhibits: Express, April 23, 1901; New York Evening Post, Nov. 21, 1900; Enq, Feb. 2, 1901; Marian DeForest, secretary of the Board of Women Managers, explained that the board wanted to show the work of women “because it was good,” not simply because it was produced by females. However, there were enough women who wanted a distinctive venue that a small space in the Manufactures Building was given over to displaying “women’s” work. The items on display won numerous awards. See DeForest report, Express, Nov. 2, 1901.
11. European exhibits: See Moses P. Handy, ed., The Official Directory of the World’s Columbian Exposition, May 1st to October 30th, 1893. Chicago: W. B. Conkey Co., 1892, accessed May 18, 2015, at https://archive.org/stream/officialdirector00worl/officialdirector00worl_djvu.txt; Buchanan, Pan American Exposition Report, 54. Buenos Aires: Roy Crandall, “Friendly Cooperation,” Pan American Herald 1 (December 1899): 3. Backhanded compliments: Times, Oct. 20, 1901; Express, July 21, 1901; Com, Aug. 28, 1901. See also Mark Bennitt, The Pan-American Exposition and How to See It (Buffalo: The Goff Company, 1901).
12. Midway Day schemes: Courier, July 23, 1901; Express, July 24, 1901.
13. Midway Day parade: Express, Aug. 3, 4, 1901; Com, Aug. 3, 1901.
14. Brooklyn’s Jumbo II: Brooklyn Eagle, May 13, 1900. Bostock’s Jumbo II: Courier, July 24, 31, 1901; Express, July 27, 1901; Com, July 29, 1901; News, Aug. 11, 1901. Photography float: Express, Aug. 3, 4, 1901. Mabel Barnes: “Peeps,” Vol. II, p. 152. Fred Nieman: Briggs, The Manner of Man, 277.
CHAPTER 3: THE FAVORED GUEST
1. Midway Day attendance: Express, Aug. 4, 1901. High noon: Courier, Aug. 2, 1901. Future events: Express, Aug. 18, 1902.
2. Buchanan: Rydell, All the World’s a Fair, 130; American Journal of International Law 4 (January 1910): 160–61; Express, July 24, 1901. Milburn: New York Times, June 23, 1901; San Francisco Call, Feb. 11, 1900; New-York Tribune, June 18, 1901; Susan Eck, “The Milburns and their Famous Home: 1168 Delaware Avenue,” http://wnyheritagepress.org/photos_week_2009/mckinley_marker/milburn_house/milburn_house.htm. Diehl: Buffalo Courier Record, Dec. 20, 1897; Express, Jan. 25, 1899. Diehl and opponents: Com, Feb. 28, 1899; Express, March 3, 1899; New-York Tribune, Oct. 11, 1897; Courier, April 27, 1900.
3. William McKinley: Express, Sept. 14, 1901. Grasshoppers: Howard Wayne Morgan, William McKinley and His America (Kent, OH: Kent State University Press), 472. Emperor: Montgomery [MO] Tribune, Aug. 23, 1901. On McKinley before the fair: See especially Rauchway, Murdering McKinley, 4–8.
4. Ida McKinley: Carl Sferrazza Anthony, Ida McKinley: The Turn of the Century First Lady Through War, Assassination, and Secret Disability (Kent, OH: Kent State University Press, 2013), ebook location 2885; 4852; John C. DeToledo, et al., “The Epilepsy of First Lady Ida Saxton McKinley,” Southern Medical Journal 90 (March 2000): 267.
5. McKinley in Canton: Courier, Sept. 7, 1901. Presidential security: Matthew C. Sherman, “Protecting the First Citizen of the Republic: Presidential Security from Thomas Jefferson to Theodore Roosevelt” (PhD Diss., Saint Louis University, 2011), 22–24; 83–84; 96–98; 140–45; 158, 166, 170.
6. Ida McKinley and George Cortelyou security worries: Anthony, Ida McKinley, ebook, location 3968; 4653; Sherman, “Protecting the First Citizen,” 182, 197, 207. Anarchism in the United States: Chris Vials, “The Despotism of the Popular: Anarchy and Leon Czolgosz at the Turn of the Century, Americana: The Journal of American Popular Culture 3 (Fall 2004), accessed Nov. 30, 2015, at http://www.americanpopularculture.com/journal/articles/fall_2004/vials.htm; Sidney Fine, “Anarchism and the Assassination of McKinley,” American Historical Review 60 (July 1955): 777–80. McKinley’s confidence: Courier, Sept. 9, 1901.
7. Arcusa: Courier, Aug. 12, 1901.
8. Czolgosz remembered: Briggs, The Manner of Man, 277; Express, Sept. 9, 1901; Com, Sept. 8, 1901.
9. Bostock’s invitation: Express, Aug. 16, 1901. Bostock’s popularity: Com, Aug. 12, 1901. Tiny Mite: Express, Aug. 10, 13, 1901; Com, Aug. 10, 1901.
10. Ptolemy: St. John Daily Sun, July 13, 1901.
11. Floodgate: Express, Aug. 26, 1901. Midway smell: Courier, Aug. 26, 1901.
12. McKinley plans: Express, Aug. 17, 1901; Sept. 3, 4, 1901; Com, Sept. 3, 1901.
13. Free from serious crime: Express, July 21, 1901. Bull’s warning: Annual Report of the Board of Police of the City of Buffalo for the Year Ending December 31, 1901 (Buffalo: Wenborne-Sumner Co., 1902), 22–25. Criminal list: Annual Police Report, 35–44; Express, Oct. 22, 1901.
14. Nieman applies to the boardinghouse: Briggs, The Manner of Man, 278–79. Conversations: Express, Sept. 9, 1901; Courier, Sept. 9, 1901. Pumpkin-head: Briggs, Manner, 278.
15. Czolgosz’s illnesses: Briggs, Manner, 293; A. B. Spurney to H. C. Eyman, Feb. 16, 1902, Dr. Walter Channing Papers, Massachusetts Historical Society; Vernon Briggs notes, interview with Emil Schilling, ca. June 1902, in Channing Papers, MHS; Rauchway, Murdering McKinley, 118, 167, 204–5. Eric Rauchway suggests that Czolgosz may have been consumed by fears he had syphilis. See Rauchway, Murdering McKinley, 180–81.
16. Nieman/Czolgosz: work, sickness, and disillusionment: Briggs, Manner, 303–8, 314. Goldman lecture: Courier, Sept. 8, 1901.
17. Czolgosz and Schilling: Vernon Briggs notes, interview with Emil Schilling, ca. June 1902, in Walter Channing Papers, Massachusetts Historical Society. Czolgosz, Goldman, and Isaak: Abraham Isaak to Walter Channing, June 9, 1902, Channing Papers, MHS; Rauchway, Murdering McKinley, 100–4.
18. Milburn on McKinley’s foreign policy: Times, Oct. 30, 1900. Latin America at world’s fairs: Ines Dussel, “Between Exoticism and Universalism: Educational Sections in Latin American Participation at International Exhibitions, 1860–1900,” Paedagogica Historica 47 (October 2011): 601, 605–7, 616; Buchanan, Report of the Director-General,26–27; Alvaro Fernandez-Bravo, “Ambivalent Argentina: Nationalism, Exoticism, and Latin Americanism at the 1889 Paris Universal Exposition,” Nepantla: Views from South 2(January 2001): 115–39;Nancy Egan, “Exhibiting Indigenous Peoples: Bolivians and the Chicago Fair of 1893,” Studies in Latin American Popular Culture 28 (January 2010):7–15.
19. Chilean minister dies: Com, July 20, 1901; Express, August 8, 21, 1901. Mexico at the fair: Janice Lee Jayes, The Illusion of Ignorance: Constructing the American Encounter with Mexico, 1877–1920 (Lanham, MD: University Press of America, 2011), 189; Com, Oct. 1, 1901.
20. Cuba Day remarks: Com, Aug. 29, 1901; Express, Aug. 30, 1901.
CHAPTER 4: THE BLOOD-COLORED TEMPLE
1. Leaving Ohio: Marietta Daily Leader, Sept. 4, 1901; Saint Paul [MN] Globe, Sept. 4, 1901; [Washington, DC] Evening Times, Sept. 4, 1901; News, Sept. 4, 1901.
2. Arrival in Buffalo: Com, Sept. 4, 1901; Express, Sept. 5, 1901; Chris Vials, “The Despotism of the Popular: Anarchy and Leon Czolgosz at the Turn of the Century,” Americana: The Journal of American Popular Culture 3 (Fall 2004), accessed October 8, 2015, at http://www.americanpopularculture.com/journal/articles/fall_2004/vials.htm.
3. Barbershop: Com, Sept. 9, 1901. Gun: News, Sept. 8, 1901.
4. The Triumphal Bridge and government exhibits: Express, Mar. 24, 1901; Vaughan James, “The Pan-American,” 8; Mabel Barnes, “Peeps,” Vol. I, pp. 27, 105–6. Nieman blaming McKinley: Carlos F. MacDonald, “The Trial, Execution, Autopsy and Mental Status of Leon F. Czolgosz, Alias Fred Nieman, the Assassin of President McKinley,” American Journal of Insanity 58 (January 1902): 384, accessed Oct. 10, 2015, at http://mckinleydeath.com/documents/journals/AJI58-3b.htm.
5. The people’s fair: Com, Jan. 24, 25, 30, 1899; Express, Jan. 23, 1899; Enq, Jan. 24, 1899. Strikes: Times, Aug. 20, 25, 1900; Enq, Sept. 20, 1900; Express, Oct. 11, 1900; Com, Oct. 13, 1901. Parade: Com, Sept. 2, 1901. Gompers: Express, Sept. 3, 1901.
6. Workers at the fair at dawn, at night: Com, May 20, 1901; Courier, July 21, 1901; Express, June 29, August 1, 1901. The fair’s working men and women are given only slight mention in the newspapers covered by the twenty-four Pan-American Exposition scrapbooks.
7. Scheme for the poor: Courier, Aug. 17, 1900. Costs of the fair: Leary and Sholes, Buffalo’s Pan-American, 28; Express, June 28, August 2, 3, 1901; Com, Aug. 3, 1901. Women’s Building: Report of Marian DeForest, Express, Nov. 2, 1901; News, June 23, 1901. Labor Day at the fair for the first time: Express, Sept. 3, 1901.
8. President’s Day: Express, Sept. 5, 6, 1901. Mabel’s twenty-second visit: Barnes, “Peeps,” Vol. III, p. 132.
9. McKinley’s speech, suspicious characters: Express, Sept. 6, 1901. Nieman/Czolgosz confession: Iowa State Register, Sept. 8, 1901, accessed at http://mckinleydeath.com/documents/newspapers/ISR46-211gp.htm.
10. Bostock on President’s Day: Com, Sept. 6, 1901. The McKinleys tour and dine: Express, Sept. 6, 1901; News, Sept. 6, 1901. Fireworks: Barnes, “Peeps,” Vol. III, pp. 150–51, 162. Foreboding: News, Sept. 8, 1901. Nieman waits: News, Sept. 8, 1901.
11. James Parker: News, Sept. 8, 1901; Macon [GA] Telegraph Sept. 9, 1901; [Omaha] Morning World Herald, Sept. 16, 1901. McKinley and African Americans: Mitch Kachun, “‘Big Jim’ Parker and the Assassination of William McKinley: Patriotism, Nativism, Anarchism, and the Struggle for African American Citizenship,” The Journal of the Gilded Age and Progressive Era 9 (January 2010): 104; Rauchway, Murdering McKinley, 71.
12. Delightful day: Courier, Sept. 9, 1901.
13. Martha’s stunt: Niagara Falls [NY] Gazette, Sept. 3, 1926; Express, Sept. 7, 1901; Edward T. Williams, “Martha E. Wagenfuhrer, ‘Maid of the Rapids,’” unpublished manuscript in Stunts and Stunters file, NFPL; Orrin E. Dunlap, “Martha E. Wagenfuhrer,” unpublished typewritten account, Stunts and Stunters file, NFPL. (Martha was also known as Maggie Wagenfuhrer.)
14. McKinley at Niagara Falls: McKinley: “The President at Niagara,” Street Railway Journal 18 (Sept. 21, 1901): 330. Forebodings at lunch: Courier, Sept. 9, 1901. Nieman at Niagara Falls: Trial Transcript: “The People of the State of New York against Leon F. Czolgosz.”Unpublished trial transcript. 23–24, 26 Sept. 1901, pp. 59–60, accessed Oct. 11, 2015, at http://mckinleydeath.com/documents/govdocs/transcript.htm.
15. McKinley at the Temple of Music: Courier, Sept. 8, 1901; Trial transcript: “People v. Czolgosz,” 12–13.
16. The reception/attack in the Temple: Express, Sept. 8, 9, 10, 13, 1901; Trial transcript, “People v. Czolgosz,” accessed at http://mckinleydeath.com/documents/govdocs/transcript.htm. Parker: News, Sept. 8, 1901; Courier, Sept. 7, 1901; Rauchway, Murdering McKinley, 61–65.
CHAPTER 5: THE EMERGENCY
1. Shooting aftermath: Trial transcript, “People v. Czolgosz,” accessed at http://mckinleydeath.com/documents/govdocs/transcript.htm; News, Sept. 8, 1901; Express, Sept. 13, 1901; Courier, Sept. 7, 1901;DeB. Randolph Keim, “Personal Notes on the Shooting of President McKinley at Buffalo N.Y. Sept. 7, 1901,” manuscript transcript, accessed Oct. 10. 2015, at http://www.shapell.org/manuscript/eyewitness-account-of-the-assassination-of-president-mckinley.
2. Dr. Park in Niagara Falls: Roswell Park, “Reminiscences of McKinley Week,” typed manuscript, Buffalo History Museum Archives, Mss. A00–390. Drs. Mann and Mynter perform surgery: Presley M. Rixey, Matthew D. Mann, Herman Mynter, Roswell Park, Eugene Wasdin, Charles McBurney, and Charles G. Stockton. “The Case of President McKinley,” Medical Record 60 (Oct. 1901) 601–3, accessed Oct. 20, 2015, at http://mckinleydeath.com/documents/journals/MR60-16dp.htm; “The Case of the Late President McKinley,” British Medical Journal 2 (November 1901): 1348. Dr. Park arrives, urges unity: “Reminiscences,” p. 7.
3. Operating-room issues: Roswell Park, “Reminiscences”; Rixey et al., “The Case of President McKinley”:601–3; “The Case of the Late President,” 1348–49; Jack C. Fisher, Stolen Glory: The McKinley Assassination (La Jolla, CA: Alamar Books, 2001), 75–81; “The Surgical and Medical Treatment of President McKinley,” Journal of Medicine and Science 7 (October 1901): 389–90.
4. The Illumination mistake: DeB. Randolph Keim, “Personal Notes,” p. 7.
5. Frank Baird: Recollections, private collection. Governor: Express, Sept. 7, 1901.
6. Roosevelt learns of shooting: Burlington Free Press, Sept. 7, 1901; [Brattleboro] Vermont Phoenix, Sept. 13, 1901; St. Albans Daily Messenger, Sept. 7, 1901;J. B. Burnham, “Vermont League Outing,” Forest and Stream 57 (September 1901): 208–9.
7. McKinley at the Milburn house: Express, Sept. 8, 1901; Com, Sept. 8, 1901; Courier, Sept. 8, 1901.
8. Reporters: Express, Sept. 9, 13, 1901; Com, Sept. 8, 1901; Courier, Sept. 8, 9, 1901. McKinley holds his own: Com, Sept. 8, 1901; Courier, Sept. 8, 1901. McKinley and wife: Express, Sept. 8, 1901.
9. Nieman/Czolgosz in jail: Express, Sept. 8, 9, 11, 1901; Com, Sept. 9, 11, 1901. Reveals name: Express, Sept. 8, 1901. On anarchy: Rauchway, Murdering McKinley, 17–19.
10. Anarchists attacked: Sidney Fine, “Anarchism and the Assassination of McKinley,” American Historical Review 60 (July 1955): 785–87; Com, Sept. 11, 1901. Lynch law: Com, Sept. 11, 1901;Vials, Despotism of the Popular, p. 8;Kachun, “‘Big Jim’ Parker,” 93–116. Goldman: Com, Sept. 7, 1901; Courier, Sept. 11, 1901. Socialists: Express, Sept. 9, 1901.
11. The Exposition in the wake of the shooting: Courier, Sept. 8, 9, 1901; Com, Sept. 7, 8, 9, 13, 1901; Express, Sept. 9, 1901. Bostock readjusts: Com, Sept. 8, 1901; Express, Sept. 8, 1901.
12. Maud Willard’s fatal trip: Express, Nov. 15, 1901;Edward T. Williams, “Maud Willard Meets Death in Whirlpool,” in Stunts and Stunters file, Maud Willard folder, NFPL; Orrin E. Dunlap, “Maud Willard,”typed account, Willard file, NFPL; Niagara Falls [NY] Journal, Sept. 13, 1901; Niagara Falls [NY] Review, Aug. 23, 1993.
13. Annie Taylor: Orrin E. Dunlap, “Interview with Mrs. Taylor, October 25, 1901,” unpublished typed manuscript, Stunts and Stunters file, NFPL.
14. Cautious optimism: Com, Sept. 8, 1901; Express, Sept. 10, 1901. More certain relief: Express, Sept. 9, 10, 11, 12, 1901; Com, Sept. 8, 9, 10, 1901; Courier, Sept. 8, 1901.
15. Comparison with Garfield: Courier, Sept. 8, 1901; Express, Sept. 10, 1901. Senator Hanna bubbles over: Express, Sept. 10, 1901. Mrs. McKinley: Com, Sept. 12, 1901;Carl Sferrazza Anthony, Ida McKinley: The Turn of the Century First Lady Through War, Assassination, and Secret Disability (Kent, OH: Kent State University Press, 2013), ebook, location 5128 (chapter 16).
16. Suffragists visit: Express, Sept. 8, 9, 1901. Roosevelt on suffrage, 1898, and women’s duty, 1905: “Woman’s Column” XI (January 1898), accessed Oct. 14, 2015, at https://archive.org/stream/WomansColumn18981899/Womans%20Column%201899_djvu.txt; Address by President Roosevelt before the National Congress of Mothers, March 2, 1905. Theodore Roosevelt Collection. MS Am 1541 (315), Harvard College Library. http://www.theodorerooseveltcenter.org/Research/Digital-Library/Record.aspx?libID=o280100. Theodore Roosevelt Digital Library, Dickinson State University. More than a decade later, as a third-party candidate for president, Roosevelt would support women’s right to vote unequivocally. Roosevelt saunters about Buffalo: Courier, Sept. 9, 10, 1901; Express, Sept. 9, 1901. Roosevelt and McBurney leave: Express, Sept. 11, 1901.
17. Jim Parker as hero: News, Sept. 8, 1901; Express, Sept. 10, 1901; Com, Sept. 11, 13, 1901; Washington Post, Sept. 10, 1901; Courier, Sept. 11, 1901.
18. African American representation at world’s fairs: Robert W. Rydell, “‘Darkest Africa’: African Shows at America’s World’s Fairs, 1893–1940,” in Bernth Lindfors, ed., Africans on Stage: Studies in Ethnological Show Business (Bloomington: Indiana University Press, 1999), 135–45; Sara S. Cromwell, “Fair Treatment? African-American Presence at International Expositions in the South, 1884–1902” (MA thesis, Wake Forest University, 2010), ch. 3; Amma Y. Ghartey-Tagoe, “The Battle Before the Souls of Black Folk: Black Performance in the 1901 Pan-American Exposition” (PhD diss., NYU, 2009), 15–18; Ida B. Wells, ed., “The Reason Why the Colored American is not in the World’s Columbian Exposition,”http://digital.library.upenn.edu/women/wells/exposition/exposition.html). Buffalo protests, Mary Talbert: Com, Nov. 12, 1900; Times, Nov. 12, 1900; Express, July 8, 1901; William H. Loos, Ami M. Savigny, Robert M. Gurn, and Lillian S. Williams, The Forgotten “Negro Exhibit”: African American Involvement in Buffalo’s Pan-American Exposition, 1901 (Buffalo: Buffalo and Erie County Public Library and the Library Foundation of Buffalo and Erie County, 2001); Peggy Brooks-Bertram and Barbara Seals Nevergold, Uncrowned Queens: African American Women Community Builders (Buffalo: Uncrowned Queens Publishing, 2005),163; and http://www.buffalonian.com/history/articles/1901-50/ucqueens/negro_exhibit_at_pan_am.htm. Negro Exhibit: Illustrated Buffalo Express, 1901, from http://www.fultonhistory.com/Fulton.html.
19. African American newspapers on the Negro Exhibit: See, for example, [Kansas City] American Citizen, May 17, 1901. Colored American, Aug. 10, 17, 1901. Pan-American Du Bois exhibit: Express, April 24, May 5, 14, 1901; New York Times, Sept. 21, 1901, accessed at http://search.proquest.com/docview/96147725?accountid=8505; Loos et al., “The Forgotten ‘Negro Exhibit.’”
20. African Americans and Africans on the Midway: Express, June 25, 29, 1901. Esau: Courier, Aug. 8, 1901. Mabel Barnes in Darkest Africa: “Peeps,” Vol. III, pp. 70–88;Robert Rydell discusses ways in which African performers resisted or turned tables on visitors in Chicago in 1893.See “‘Darkest Africa,’” 145.
21. Laughing Ben: Com, Aug. 8, 1901; Express, May 12, 1901.
22. Redefining, erasing Jim Parker: Express, Sept. 9, 10, 12, 13, 1901; News, Sept. 8, 1901; Com, Sept. 13, 1901; see also Rauchway, Murdering McKinley.
CHAPTER 6: THE RISE AND THE FALL
1. Buffalo’s doctors and residents praised: Express, Sept. 10, 1901; Courier, Sept. 9, 1901; Brooklyn Eagle, reprinted in Com, Sept. 11, 1901. Buffalo as world’s epicenter: Courier, Sept. 9, 10, 1901; Com, Sept. 9, 1901; Express, Sept. 8, 13, 1901.
2. Upcoming attractions, Railroad Day: Express, Sept. 9–13, 1901; Com, Sept. 9, 1901. Bostock’s new publicity: Express, Sept. 12, 1901; Com, Sept. 10, 13, 1901; Courier, Sept. 13, 1901.
3. National Jubilee Day plans: Express, Sept. 11, 12, 1901; Courier, Sept. 10, 1901.
4. The change: Express, Sept. 11, 12, 13, 1901; Com, Sept. 10, 12, 13, 1901.
5. New symptoms; alarm; sending word: Nelson W. Wilson, “Details of President McKinley’s Case,” Buffalo Medical Journal 57 (October 1901): 216; Rixey et al., “The Official Report on the Case of President McKinley,” Buffalo Medical Journal 57 (October 1901): 280–83; Express, Sept. 13, 1901; Com, Sept. 13, 1901. Kipling: Boston Medical and Surgical Journal 140 (March 1899): 269.
6. Ida McKinley, the weather: Com, Sept. 13, 1901.
7. Roosevelt informed: Jacob A. Riis, Theodore Roosevelt: The Citizen (New York: Macmillan, 1912), 242–49, accessed at http://babel.hathitrust.org/cgi/pt?id=mdp.39015008340195;view=1up;seq=261; New York Sun, Sept. 14, 1901; Com, Sept. 13, 1901; Courier, Sept. 13, 14, 1901.
8. Bulletins, premonitions, desperate efforts: Rixey et al., “Official Report,” 280–83; New York Sun, Sept. 14, 1901; “The People of the State of New York against Leon F. Czolgosz.” Unpublished trial transcript, 23–24, 26 Sept. 1901 (testimony of Dr. Mann), accessed at http://mckinleydeath.com/documents/govdocs/transcript.htm.
9. Morphine; final words: Rixey et al., “Official Report,” 280–83; Courier, Sept. 15, 1901; Com, Sept. 13, 1901; Anthony, Ida McKinley, ebook, location 5397, chapter 16.
10. Superintendent Bull: Express, Sept. 14, 1901; Com, Sept. 13, 1901. Coroner: Express, Sept. 14, 1901. Last minutes of life: Daily Alaska Dispatch, Sept. 18, 1901; “Those Present at the Death-Bed,” Harper’s Weekly (September 21, 1901): 946;Wilson, “Details of President McKinley’s Case,” 207–25; Florence Times, Sept. 20, 1901.
11. Pausch: John Elfreth Watkins, Jr., “M’Kinley Death Mask,” [Indianapolis] Sunday Journal, Dec. 29, 1901; New York Times, Nov. 19, 1901. Autopsy: Rixey et al., “Official Report,” 284–93; “The People of the State of New York against Leon F. Czolgosz,”Trial Transcript, testimony of Herman Mynter; autopsy report of Dr. Harvey Gaylord.Thanks to infectious-disease specialist Robert P. Smith, MD, pathologist Frederick Meier, MD, and trauma surgeon Stanley Trooskin, MD, for contemporary insights into this case.
12. Roosevelt arrives, takes oath of office: Com, Sept. 14, 1901; Boston Globe, Sept. 15, 1901;Marshall Everett, Complete Life of William McKinley and Story of his Assassination (Chicago: C. W. Stanton, 1901), 304–5, accessed at http://babel.hathitrust.org/cgi/pt?id=uc2.ark:/13960/t5fb4x97r;view=1up;seq=7. The Exposition in shock and dark: Express, Sept. 15, 1901.
CHAPTER 7: AFTERSHOCK
1. Exposition in mourning: Express, Sept. 16, 1901. Cortege: Com, Sept. 16, 1901; New York Tribune, Sept. 16, 1901; Courier, Sept. 15, 1901. City Hall mourners: New York Tribune, Sept. 16, 1901; Express, Sept. 15, 16, 1901;Marshall Everett, Complete Life of William McKinley and Story of his Assassination (Chicago: C. W. Stanton, 1901),343–44;Doc Waddell, manager of the Indian Congress, likely wrote Geronimo’s note. See Kevin D. Shupe, “Geronimo Escapes: Envisioning Indianness in Modern America,” PhD diss., George Mason University, 2011.
2. Funeral train, Washington: New York Tribune, Sept. 17, 1901; Com, Sept. 16, 18, 1901; Express, Sept. 18, 1901;Everett, Complete Life of William McKinley, 345–48.
3. Canton: Express, Sept. 17, 19, 20, 1901.
4. Blaming Buffalo surgeons: Express, Sept. 20, 1901; New York World, Sept. 16, 1901; Courier, Sept. 18, 1901. Defending Buffalo surgeons: Express, Sept. 18, 1901; Com, Sept. 18, 30, 1901.
5. Gloom: New York Times, Sept. 23, 1901; Courier, Sept. 16, 1901; Express, Sept. 17, 1901; Com, Sept. 21, 1901; Times, Sept. 22, 1901. McKinley’s shrine: New York Times, Sept. 23, 1901; Courier, Sept. 23, Oct. 1, 2, 1901; Express, Sept. 16, 1901.
6. Bostock rallies: Courier, Sept. 15, 1901. New animals: Com, Sept. 16, 18, 20, 21, 1901; Courier, Sept. 19, 23, 27, 1901; Express, Sept. 16, 1901. Humane Society report: Erie County Society for the Prevention of Cruelty to Animals Annual Report (Buffalo, 1901), 30–33.
7. Czolgosz’s indictment: Express, Sept. 17, 1901. Praise for trial: Com, Sept. 18, 1901; Express, Sept. 17, 1901;Leroy Parker, “The Trial of the Anarchist Murderer Czolgosz,” Yale Law Journal 11 (Dec. 1901): 80–94, accessed at http://mckinleydeath.com/documents/journals/YLJ11-2.htm; Daily Picayune, Sept. 24, 1901. The trial and sentencing: Com, Sept. 24, 1901;Parker, “The Trial of Czolgosz”;Carlos F. MacDonald, “The Trial, Execution, Autopsy and Mental Status of Leon F. Czolgosz, Alias Fred Nieman, the Assassin of President McKinley,” American Journal of Insanity 58 (Jan. 1902): 369–86, accessed at http://mckinleydeath.com/documents/journals/AJI58-3b.htm; “The Trial of Czolgosz,” Outlook 69 (Oct. 1901): 242–43. Goldman and alienists: Emma Goldman, “October Twenty-Ninth, 1901,” Mother Earth 6 (October 1911): 232–35, accessed at http://mckinleydeath.com/quotes/trial.htm; “The Manner of Man that Kills: A Review,” The Journal of Heredity 13 (March 1922): 136.
8. Eliminating Parker: See Mitch Kachun, “‘Big Jim’ Parker and the Assassination of William McKinley: Patriotism, Nativism, Anarchism, and the Struggle for African American Citizenship,” The Journal of the Gilded Age and Progressive Era 9 (January 2010): 99. Conflicting opinions: Omaha Daily Bee, Oct. 7, 1901; Express, Sept. 27, 28, 1901; Courier, Sept. 26, 28, 1901; News, Sept. 27, 1901, Oct. 1, 1901; Kachun, “‘Big Jim’ Parker,” 99. Vine Street Church meeting: Express, Sept. 28, 1901. Parker lectures: Washington Times, Oct. 9, 1901; Colored American, Oct. 12, 1901.
9. Cold weather: Courier, Sept. 15, 21, 24, 27, Oct. 3, 5, 22, 1901; News, Sept. 24, 1901; Express, Sept. 26, 1901; Com, Oct. 7, 1901.
10. Dog feast numbers: Courier, Oct. 6, 1901; Com, Sept. 30, 1901. Geronimo: Express, June 29, Sept. 25, Oct. 5, 1901; Courier, June 29, Sept. 25, 1901; Com, Oct. 1, 3, 1901. Indians turn the tables: Com, Sept. 2, 1901; Enq, June 22, 1901.
11. Dog feasts: Com, Sept. 28, 30, 1901. Native ritual: Omaha World Herald, April 21, 1899, Aug. 21, 1898; Duluth News Tribune, Aug. 16, Nov. 19, 1899; Biloxi [MS] Daily Herald, Oct. 26, 1900. Taking of Buffalo dogs: Express, Sept. 22, 1901; Com, Sept. 24, 1901. Protests: Express, Sept. 25, 1901;ECSPCA, Annual Report, 21–22. Feast: Express, Sept. 27, 1901; Com, Sept. 27, 1901.
12. More animals: Express, Oct. 6, 1901. Chiquita and Tony: [Erie] Daily Times, Nov. 2, 1901; Kalamazoo Gazette, Nov. 13, 1908; Express, Nov. 9, 1901;Al Stencell, “Frank Bostock in America,” in National Fairground Archive, The Sheffield University, accessed Aug. 13, 2014, at http://www.nfa.dept.shef.ac.uk/jungle/index1a1.html.
13. Forsaking fair: Com, Sept. 25, 1901. Railroad Day, Mabel Barnes: Express, Sept. 29, 1901; Com, Sept. 25, 27, 28, 1901;Barnes, “Peeps,”Vol. III, pp. 181–90.
14. Lion-cage wedding: Express, Sept. 29, 1901; Courier, Sept. 29, 1901.
15. Illinois Day; hunger: Express, Oct. 7, 1901. Train accident: Express, Oct. 7, 8, 1901; Com, Oct. 7, 1901. Illinois speeches: Express, Oct. 7, 8, 1901; Com, Oct. 7, 1901.
CHAPTER 8: FREEFALL
1. Mood swings; bank panic: Courier, Oct. 11, 1901; Times, Oct. 1, 1901; Com, Oct. 14, 1901.
2. Czolgosz in prison: Brooklyn Daily Eagle, Oct. 1, 1901; Auburn Weekly Bulletin, Oct. 8, 10, 11, 29, 1901; Elmira Star Gazette, Oct. 26, 1901; Cortland Democrat, Oct. 4, 1901; News, Oct. 15, 1901.
3. Buffalo Day, brainstorming: Com, Oct. 11, 19, 21, 1901; Courier, Oct. 20, 21, 1901.
4. At the West Bay City Cooperage: Bay City Times-Press, Oct. 3, 1901. Leaving Bay City: Bay City Times-Press, Oct. 8, 1901; Daily Cataract Journal, Oct. 17, 1901.
5. Taylor’s early life: Anna Edson Taylor, The Autobiography of Anna Edson Taylor (printed booklet, n.d., n.p., Anna Taylor file, Niagara Falls Public Library), 2–3; Express, Oct. 21, 27, 1901. Texas experiences: Taylor, Autobiography, 3–4. Later escapades: Taylor, Autobiography, 4–8; Express, Oct. 21, 27, 1901;Whalen, The Lady Who Conquered, 1–17;Charles Carlin Parish, Queen of the Mist: The Story of Annie Edson Taylor (Interlaken, NY: Empire State Books, 1987), 31–44. On p. 40, Parish sums up the quandary of most of Taylor’s biographers: “Where does truth end and fantasy begin?” Taylor in Asylum: 1900 United States Federal Census, Traverse City, Michigan, accessed at interactive.ancestrylibrary.com/. Evidence of residence in Texas: Letters in post office for Mrs. David Taylor: Galveston Daily News, Aug. 3, 1879;lot sold to Anna E. Taylor for $5,000: Fort Worth Daily Gazette, March 24, 1887.
6. Mrs. Odell’s visit: Express, Oct. 11, 1901. Annie Taylor: Express, Oct. 21, 1901. Elite Women of Buffalo: See Mary Rech Rockwell, “‘Let Deeds Tell’: Elite Women of Buffalo, 1880–1910,” (PhD diss., State University of New York at Buffalo), esp. ch. 5. Women Managers: Newark Sunday News, Feb. 24, 1901; Express, Sept. 26, 1901;Com, Aug. 16, 1901;Director-General Buchanan to (Pan-American) Executive Committee, June 6, 1901, Buffalo History Museum Archives, Buchanan correspondence, Mss. C 64–6. White City: Enq, Feb. 1, 1901; New York Evening Post, Nov. 21, 1900. Women as women: Harper’s Weekly, Aug. 3, 1901; Com, Oct. 8, 1901.
7. The New Woman and mobility: Virginia Scharff, Women and the Coming of the Motor Age (Albuquerque: University of New Mexico Press, 1999), 4; Amy G. Richter, Home on the Rails: Women, the Railroad, and the Rise of Public Domesticity (Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press, 2005), 45–55, 143–58; Com, Sept. 9, 1901. Bicycles: Ellen Gruber Garvey, “Reframing the Bicycle: Advertising-Supported Magazines and Scorching Women,” American Quarterly 47 (March 1995): 67–69, 72. Warnings: Richter, Home, 45–55;Scharff, Motor Age,25–26, 47, 71–72;Mona Domosh and Joni Seager, Putting Women in Place: Feminist Geographers Make Sense of the World (New York: Guilford Press, 2001), 124–25;Garvey, “Reframing,”70, 74–75, 80.
8. Finding Truesdale: Dwight Whalen, The Lady Who Conquered Niagara (Bailey Island, ME: EGA Books, 1991), 50–52. Answering skeptics: Express, Oct. 21, 1901; Niagara Falls Journal, Oct. 18, 1901; Kalamazoo Gazette-News, Oct. 16, 1901.
9. Niagara River and Falls: Ralph S. Tarr, “Physical Geography of New York State. Part VIII. The Great Lakes and Niagara,” Journal of the American Geographical Society of New York 31 (1899): 324; D. W. Johnson, “Rate of Recession of Niagara Falls,” The American Naturalist 41 (August 1907): 541–42, accessed at http://www.jstor.org/stable/2454830?seq=1#page_scan_tab_contents.
10. Tourists, developers: Linda Revie, The Niagara Companion: Explorers, Artists, and Writers at the Falls, from Discovery through the Twentieth Century (Waterloo, Ont.: Wilfrid Laurier University Press, 2003), 3–4;Patrick McGreevy, Imagining Niagara: The Meaning and Making of Niagara Falls (Amherst: University of Massachusetts Press, 1994), 36–37. Performers: Pierre Berton, Niagara: A History of the Falls (Albany: State University of New York, 1992), 124–40, 189–90.
11. Midleigh/Gardner: New York Times, June 29, 1890. Cat: Bay City Times-Press, Oct. 19, 1901; Express, Oct. 21, 1901.
12. Fairgrounds in disrepair: Express, Oct. 25, 1901. Shows closing: Com, Oct. 24, 1901; Express, Oct. 24, 1901; Courier, Oct. 24, 1901. Buchanan leaving: Com, Oct. 25, 1901. Pessimism and guarded optimism: Com, Oct. 22, 26, 1901; Express, Oct. 21, 23, 1901. Bostock oblivious: Express, Oct. 23, 1901; Com, Oct. 7, 22, 23, 1901; Courier, Oct. 8, 1901.
13. Suspicions, proportions, explanations: Express, Oct. 21, 1901; Niagara Falls Gazette, Oct. 11, 1901. Taylor’s age: Whalen, The Lady Who Conquered Niagara, 2.
14. Impatience: Whalen, Lady Who Conquered, 58; Express, Oct. 21, 1901. Interviews: Whalen, Lady Who Conquered, 59–61. October 23 attempt: Courier, Oct. 24, 1901; Niagara Falls Gazette, Oct. 23, 1901; Express, Oct. 25, 1901; [Niagara Falls] Daily Cataract-Journal, Oct. 24, 25, 1901;Whalen, Lady Who Conquered, 65–68.
15. Annie Taylor goes over the falls: Daily Cataract-Journal, Oct. 23, 24, 25, 1901;Dunlap, “Interview,”Oct. 25, 1901; Express, Oct. 25, 1901; Niagara Falls Review, Oct. 26, 1901; Orrin E. Dunlap, Sr., “Plunging over Niagara Falls in a Barrel,”typed recollection, 1920s, in Stunts and Stunters file, Niagara Falls Public Library; News, Oct. 25, 1901; Fort Worth Register, Oct. 28, 1901; Annie Edson Taylor, Over the Falls: Annie Edson Taylor’s Story of Her Life (privately printed, 1902), 17; Whalen, Lady Who Conquered, 74–87.
CHAPTER 9: THE ESCAPE OF THE DOLL LADY
1. Recovery; recollection; barrel: Daily Cataract-Journal, Oct. 25, 1901. Brain fever: Niagara Falls Gazette, Oct. 26, 1901.
2. Sales pitches: Com, Oct. 28, 1901; Courier, Oct. 27, 1901; Express, Oct. 27, 28, 1901. Midway mayor: Express, Oct. 26, Nov. 1, 1901. Chiquita: Com, Oct. 26, 1901. Shaking hands: Courier, Aug. 4, 1901.
3. Gifts: Com, Oct. 28, 29, 1901; Express, Oct. 30, 1901; News, Oct. 28, 1901. Hearsay: Courier, Oct. 26, 1901; Express, Oct. 29, 1901. Farewell Day: News, Oct. 27, 1901; Com, Oct. 30, 1901.
4. The poor and the Exposition: Express, Oct. 27, 1901; News, Oct. 24, 29, 1901. Farewell Day sham battle: Com, Oct. 28, 29, 30, 1901; Express, Oct. 29, 1901; Courier, Oct. 27, 1901. On Indian community, see, for example, Com, July 13, Sept. 9, 1901; Express, July 17, 25, 1901.On Indian resistance at other fairs, see Josh Clough, “‘Vanishing Indians?’ Cultural Persistence on Display at the Omaha World’s Fair of 1898,” Great Plains Quarterly 25 (April 2005): 67–86, http://digitalcommons.unl.edu/cgi/viewcontent.cgi?article=3472&context=greatplainsquarterly; Nancy Egan, “Exhibiting Indigenous Peoples: Bolivians and the Chicago Fair of 1893,” Studies in Latin American Popular Culture 28 (January 2010): 15–18. Other events, including Taylor: Express, Oct. 28, 29, Nov. 1, 1901; Courier, Oct. 27, 1901.
5. Assassination sites: Courier, Oct. 28, 1901. Czolgosz’s death: Charles R. Skinner, “Story of McKinley’s Assassination,” State Service 3 (Apr. 1919): 20–24, accessed at http://mckinleydeath.com/documents/magazines/SService3-4.htm; New York Times, Oct. 25, 1901; Carlos F. MacDonald, “The Execution of Czolgosz,” Medical News 79 (Nov. 1901): 752–53, accessed at http://mckinleydeath.com/documents/journals/MN79-19a.htm; Auburn Weekly Bulletin, Nov. 1, 1901; “How Czolgosz Will Meet His Death,” Black and White Budget 6 (Oct. 1901): 138–39, accessed at http://mckinleydeath.com/documents/magazines/BWB6-107a.htm; Com, Oct. 29, 1901; St. Louis Post-Dispatch, Oct. 29, 1901.
6. Electricity fears: Jürgen Martschukat, “‘The Art of Killing by Electricity’: The Sublime and the Electric Chair,” Journal of American History 89 (December 2002): 911; Express, Oct. 28, 1901. Current wars: Jill Jonnes, Empires of Light: Edison, Tesla, Westinghouse, and the Race to Electrify the World (New York: Random House, 2004), 148–50, 201, 207;Gilbert King, “Edison vs. Westinghouse: A Shocking Rivalry,”Smithsonian.com, Oct. 11, 2011, accessed at http://www.smithsonianmag.com/history/edison-vs-westinghouse-a-shocking-rivalry-102146036/?no-ist; Martschukat, “The Art of Killing,”900, 915. Kemmler’s death: Martschukat, “The Art of Killing,” 917–18;Jonnes, Empires of Light, 188–89.
7. Packing up: Express, Nov. 1, 1901. Escape, marriage, capture: Erie Daily Times, Nov. 2, 1901; Express, Nov. 9, 1901;Bostock v. Woeckener, Testimony of Thomas Rochford; Courier, Nov. 2, 1901; Kalamazoo Gazette, Nov. 13, 1908. Beating: Boston Daily Globe, Jan. 4, 1902;Bostock v. Woeckener, Testimony of Mrs. C. W. Page.
8. Weather, good-byes: Express, Oct. 29, Nov. 2, 3, 1901; Com, Nov. 2, 1901; Courier, Nov. 2, 1901.
9. The Exposition as civilizer: Courier, Oct. 14, 1901; Express, Oct. 3, 29, 1901. Mixed feelings, resistance: See Nancy Egan, “Exhibiting Indigenous Peoples,”17. Laughing Ben: Macon Telegraph, Sept. 2, Nov. 11, 1901. Filipino resistance: Courier, Sept. 28, 1901. Performer illness, deaths: Rydell, All the World’s a Fair, 150; Express, April 24, May 12, June 9, July 14, July 19, Nov. 10, 1901; Com, May 13, Sept. 9, 1901; Courier, Aug. 9, 25, Oct. 22, 1901.
10. Mabel visits for final time: Barnes, “Peeps,”Vol. III, pp. 195–99; News, Oct. 24, Oct. 27, 1901; Express, Nov. 2, 1901. Carrie Nation: New York Times, Sept. 9, 1901; Express, Nov. 2, 1901.
11. Annie Taylor at the Exposition: Com, Nov. 2, 1901; Courier, Nov. 3, 1901. Compliments and criticism: Express, Oct. 27, 1901; Com, Oct. 28, 1901; Bay City Tribune, Oct. 27, 1901; Bay City Times-Press, Nov. 5, 1901.
12. Mabel’s last night: Barnes, “Peeps,” Vol. III, pp. 197–99; Express, Nov. 3, 1901. Scavengers, fireworks: Express, Nov. 3, 1901.
13. Temple of Music and lights out: Express, Nov. 3, 1901; Com, Nov. 2, 1901. Destruction: Express, Nov. 3, 1901; Courier, Nov. 3, 1901.
14. Bostock in charge: Kalamazoo Gazette, Nov. 13, 1908. Bostock spins the story: Erie [PA] Morning Dispatch, Nov. 5, 6, 11, 1901; Express, Nov. 3, 1901.
CHAPTER 10: THE ELEPHANT
1. Chiquita and courage: Kalamazoo Gazette, Nov. 13, 1903. Bostock in court: Express, Nov. 9, 1901, Jan. 4, 1902; Com, Nov. 8, 1901; News, Nov. 8, 9, 1901; Erie [PA] Express, Nov. 9, 1901.
2. Maitland’s announcement: Enq, Nov. 7, 1901. Henry Mullen, Tina Caswell: Courier, Nov. 1, 7, 1901; Wilkes-Barre Times, Oct. 31, 1901; Enq, Nov. 7, 1901; Express, Nov. 7, 1901.
3. Jumbo’s antics: Com, July 29, 1901; Courier, July 24, 1901. New, evil Jumbo: Newark [Ohio] Advocate, Nov. 9, 1901; Courier, Nov. 7, 8, 1901; Express, Nov. 9, 1901; Enq, Nov. 8, 1901.
4. Rajah and Trilby: New York Times, April 13, 1901; Com, Oct. 12, 17, 1901; Express, Oct. 12, 17, 20, 1901. Elephant deaths: Courier, Nov. 7, 8, 1901; Com, Nov. 8, 1901; The [Fredericksburg, VA] Free Lance, June 12, 1900. Electrocution: Enq, Nov. 7, 1901; Courier, Nov. 7, 8, 1901. Jumbo advertisement: Courier, Nov. 9, 1901; Express, Nov. 9, 1901; Enq, Nov. 8, 1901.
5. Regrets: Courier, Nov. 10, 1901; Enq, Nov. 7, 1901. Old Bet: G. G. Goodwin, “The First Living Elephant in America,” Journal of Mammalogy 6 (November 1925):257–61, plate 24. See also http://www.naturalhistorymag.com/editors_pick/1928_05-06_pick.html?page=2. Original Jumbo: New York Times, Sept. 17, 1885;Susan Wilson, “An Elephant’s Tale: An Unadulterated and Relatively True Story Chronicling the Life, Death and Afterlife of Jumbo, Tufts’ Illustrious Mascot,” Tufts online Magazine 9 (Spring 2002), accessed at http://www.tufts.edu/alumni/magazine/spring2002/jumbo.html. Bostock’s elephant shows: Com, July 23, 1901;Aug. 3, 29, 1901; Com, Sept. 16, 1901.
6. The Woeckener home: Erie Morning Dispatch, Nov. 4, 6, 1901. Tony’s desperation: Erie Morning Dispatch, Nov. 6, 1901; Express, Nov. 9, 1901;Jan. 5, 1902.
7. Crowds arrive: Courier, Nov. 10, 1901; News, Nov. 3, 1901. Electricity details: Express, Nov. 9, 1901; Courier, Nov. 9, 1901. Protests: Express, Nov. 9, 1901.
8. Mary Lord, Henry Bergh, mules: Margaret F. Rochester, Lest We Forget: Historical Sketch of the Erie County Society for the Prevention of Cruelty to Animals (Buffalo: privately printed, 1916); Buffalo Evening News, Sept. 15, 1965. Mary Lord, Millard Fillmore: George J. Bryan, Biographies of Attorney-General George P. Barker, John C. Lord, D.D., Mrs. John C. Lord, and William G. Bryan, Esq. (Buffalo: The Courier Company, 1886), 150–54; Buffalo Evening News Magazine, June 8, 1968; Frank Severance, ed., Publications of the Buffalo Historical Society XI (New York: Buffalo Historical Society, 1907); Buffalo Historical Society: Annual Report of the Board of Managers for the Year 1898 (Buffalo: Baker, Jones & Co., printers, 1899), 75.
9. Humane Society at the Exposition: Annual Report: Erie County Society for the Prevention of Cruelty to Animals (Buffalo: Turner & Porter Printers, 1901),8–10, 20, 30–33; News, May 29, 1901; Com, May 6, 1901; Courier, Nov. 6, 1901.
10. Social control and animal rescue: See Kathleen Kete, ed., A Cultural History of Animals in the Age of Empire (Oxford: Berg, 2007), 2–4. Bostock cruelty charges, England: Manchester Weekly Times, Aug. 29, 1890; North-Eastern Daily Gazette, March 17, Nov. 4, 1891; York Herald, March 4, 1891; Coventry Evening Telegraph, April 7, 1892.
11. The attempted killing: Express, Nov. 10, 1901; Courier, Nov. 10, 1901; Charlotte Daily Observer, Nov. 12, 1901. Bostock’s new plans: Courier, Nov. 10, 1901. Jumbo II in Boston: Boston Daily Globe, Nov. 29, 1901.
12. Where is Chiquita?: Erie Morning Dispatch, Nov. 18, 1901. Boston court battle: Erie Morning Dispatch, Dec. 14, 1901; Jan. 4, 8, 10, 1902; September 16, 1902;Bostock v. Espiridiona Alice Cenda Woeckener, Equity Case No. 27, November Term, 1902, Circuit Court of the United States for the Western District of Pennsylvania, Philadelphia Archives.
13. Contract: Erie Morning Dispatch, Sept. 16, 1902;Bostock v. Woeckener. Bostock’s offer: Times Jan. 16, 1902; Erie Morning Dispatch, Jan. 11, 1902. Chiquita goes to Glasgow: Times, Jan. 16, 1902; Glasgow Daily Record & Daily Mail, Jan. 23, 1902. Tony relents: Erie Morning Dispatch, Feb. 24, March 3, 1902.
14. Bostock insurance: Erie Morning Dispatch, March 31, 1902; Boston Daily Globe, March 27, 1902. Under the rule of the Badgers: Bostock v. Woeckener; Erie Morning Dispatch, Aug. 28, 1902; Rome Daily Sentinel, Aug. 29, 1902.
15. Escape from Elgin: Erie Morning Dispatch, Aug. 28, 1902. Chiquita in Erie: Erie Morning Dispatch, Aug. 28, 29, 1902. Bostock plots, sues: [Batavia, NY] Daily News, Sept. 14, 1904; Bostock v Woeckener, Exhibit “C”;Al Stencell, “Frank Bostock in America,” in National Fairground Archive, Sheffield University, accessed August 13, 2014, at http://www.nfa.dept.shef.ac.uk/jungle/index1a1.html; Erie Morning Dispatch, Sept. 16, 1902; Elgin [IL] Daily Courier, Aug. 27, 28, 1902. Testimonies: Bostock v. Woeckener. Case closed, Chiquita advertised: Erie Morning Dispatch, Jan. 5, 17, 1903;Bostock v. Woeckener.
CHAPTER 11: THE TIMEKEEPERS
1. Jumbo II tours, arrives in Cleveland: Cleveland Plain Dealer, June 24, 25, 1902. Jumbo at Manhattan Beach: Cleveland Plain Dealer, June 24, 25, 26, 29, July 3, Aug. 30, 1902. Left with Cleveland sheriff: Cleveland Plain Dealer, Oct. 4, 14, Nov. 16, 1902. Bostock takes charge again: Cleveland Plain Dealer, Nov. 16, 1902; Charlotte Daily Observer, Nov. 17, 1902. Jumbo II dies: Cleveland Plain Dealer, Nov. 16, 18, 1902.
2. Bostock, Blondin, Bonavita: Cambridge [MA] Tribune, Sept. 12, 1908; New-York Tribune, March 21, 1917; New York Times, Oct. 9, 1912. Bostock’s death, funeral, tributes: New York Times, Oct. 9, 1912; Al Stencell, “Frank Bostock in America,” The World’s Fair, Oct. 12, 19, 1912, accessed March 22, 2015, at http://www.nfa.dept.shef.ac.uk/jungle/index1a4.html.
3. Topsy: New York Herald, Jan. 5, 1903; New York Press, Jan. 5, 1903. Roosevelt: Theodore Roosevelt, African Game Trails: An Account of the African Wanderings of an American Hunter-Naturalist (New York: Charles Scribner’s Sons, 1910), 2, 9, 29, 283–84; 290–92; on hunting and imperialism, see also Joseph Sramek, “‘Face Him Like a Briton’: Tiger Hunting, Imperialism, and British Masculinity in Colonial India, 1800–1875,” Victorian Studies 48 (June 2006): 659–80. Retiring the herd: See http://news.nationalgeographic.com/news/2015/03/150305-ringling-brosretires-asian-elephants-barnum-bailey/.
4. Chiquita and Tony’s plans, pregnancy: Erie Morning Dispatch, Jan. 5, 1903; [Batavia, NY] Daily News, Oct. 12, 1903; [Syracuse NY] Evening Telegram, Oct. 18, 1903. Later tours: Express, Aug. 29, 1907; Courier, July 3, 1910; Billboard, July 28, 1906. Chiquita’s death: News, April 17, 1928.
5. On “midget” circuses: Robert W. Rydell, John E. Findling, Kimberly D. Pelle, Fair America: World’s Fairs in the United States (Washington: Smithsonian Books, 2000), 82–90. Little People, rights and respect:Robert Bogdan, Freak Show: Presenting Human Oddities for Amusement and Profit (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1988), 30–31, 64–66;Rosemarie Garland Thomson, Extraordinary Bodies: Figuring Physical Disability in American Culture and Literature (New York: Columbia University Press, 1997), 22, 74–75, 78–80.
6. Attendance figures: Isabel Vaughan James lists the final Pan-American admission figure as 8,120,048, with 5,306,859 as paid admissions. See Vaughan James, The Pan-American Exposition, 13; Courier, Nov. 2, 1901. Charleston: Anthony Chibbaro, The Charleston Exposition (Charleston, SC: Arcadia Publishing, 2001), 7–8, 56, 65, 76–77.
7. Taylor exhaustion, age challenges: Bay City Tribune, Oct. 30, Nov. 8, 9, 10, 1901;Whalen, The Lady Who Conquered, 117–22, 133; Niagara Falls Gazette, March 31, 1902.
8. Sanatorium, tours, struggles: Bay City Times-Press, Nov. 15, 1901; Whalen, The Lady Who Conquered, 120–25, 128–30, 132; Bay City Tribune, Feb. 14, 1902. Stolen barrel, despair: Whalen, The Lady Who Conquered, 134–35, 140–42;Annie Taylor to Frank Tanner, March 26, 1902, in the Niagara Falls Gazette, March 31, 1902. The play, with “the original barrel,” was advertised periodically from August 1902 to at least 1906. See the New York Clipper, Aug. 30, 1902 and The [Rock Island, IL] Argus, March 5, 1906.
9. Barrel recovery, new manager: Bay City Times-Press, Aug. 20, 1902; Whalen, The Lady Who Conquered, 150–53; Trenton Evening Times, Oct. 9, 1902. Barrel stolen again: Trenton Evening Times, Oct. 9, 1902; Cleveland Plain Dealer, Oct. 10, 1902;Sept. 17, 1903; Grand Forks Daily Herald, Aug. 30, 1903;Whalen,150–53. Taylor in later life: Niagara Falls Gazette, July 31, 1903; Niagara Falls Journal, July 26, 1911; Nov. 30, 1914; Whalen, 158–59, 160–64. Almshouse: Niagara Falls Gazette, March 4, 7, 1921; Lockport Union-Sun and Journal, April 30, 1921;Whalen,166–69; 172–73, 176.
10. Resenting Taylor’s feat: Charlotte Daily Observer, Sept. 20, 1902.
11. Charleston exposition: Chibbaro, Charleston Exposition, 56;Sara S. Cromwell, “Fair Treatment? African-American Presence at International Expositions in the South, 1884–1902” (MA thesis, Wake Forest University, 2010), 127–35. Ben Ellington: Macon Telegraph, Nov. 11, Sept. 12, 1901; Atlanta Constitution, April 30, 1905.
12. Parker lectures: Washington Post, Dec. 22, 1901; The Colored American, Nov. 30, 1901; Cleveland Gazette, March 23,1907. Parker tours; Hanna; Ida McKinley: Washington Post, Dec. 22, 1901; Topeka Plaindealer, Jan. 3, 1902; The Freeman, Jan. 4, 1902; April 25, 1903; The Worcester Spy, Sept. 17, 1902; Brooklyn Eagle, Aug. 20, 1902; The Colored American, Nov. 30, 1901;March 28, 1903; New-York Tribune, March 23, 1907; New York Times, March 24, 1907;James B. Parker to Ida McKinley, in Anthony, Ida McKinley, ebook location 6053–6057; 6080. Parker hospitalized, dies: Washington Post, March 27, 1908; Broad Axe, April 11, 1908; Cleveland Gazette, April 11, 1908.
13. Mary Talbert and the Niagara Movement: Peggy Brooks-Bertram and Barbara Seals Nevergold, Uncrowned Queens: African American Women Community Builders (Buffalo: Uncrowned Queens Publishing, 2005), 164–81. Du Bois: Brooks-Bertram and Nevergold, Uncrowned Queens, vii.
14. The Goddess of Light falls: News, July 2, 1902; Courier, July 13, 1902; Com, July 1, 2, 1902; Express, July 2, 1902. The fair goes down: Courier, July 13, 1902; Express, June 14, 1903; Express, Jan. 5, 1902. Can’t it be saved? Express, Oct. 21, 27, Nov. 17, 1901; Courier, Oct. 2, 1901; News, Oct. 21, 1901.
15. The balance sheet: Buchanan, Pan American Exposition Report, p. 8; Com, June 24, 1902. Blaming the assassination: Courier, Oct. 29, 1901; News, Dec. 1, 1901. Blaming other circumstances: Express, July 5, 1902; Com, July 8, 1901; Express, Nov. 2, 1901; Buchanan, Pan American Exposition Report, p. 6; Com, Nov. 2, 1901.
16. John Milburn is proud: Courier, Oct. 26, 1901. Pan Americanism accomplished: Courier, Nov. 2, 1901. The eyes of the world: Com, Nov. 2, 1901; Courier, Oct. 26, Nov. 2, 1901. Washington, New York help out: New York Times, July 1, 1902.
17. Structures’ second life: Express, Aug. 8, 1902; Courier, Aug. 11, 1901. While the Courier announced in August 1902 that the “McKinley” flooring was going to Washington to the National History Museum, the Buffalo News announced on September 14, 1902, that plans had changed. New York State Building: http://www.preservationbuffaloniagara.org/buildings-and-sites/buildings-catalog/location:buffalo-historical-society/. Mabel Barnes: Buffalo Courier-Gazette, Jan. 24, 1946, and http://www.buffalolib.org/sites/default/files/pdf/genealogy/subject-guides/Births%20Deaths%20and%20Marriages%20Found%20in%20Local%20Publications.pdf.
18. Buchanan: “William I. Buchanan, Pan-American Diplomat,” Bulletin of the International Union of the American Republics 29 (October–December 1909): 835–37;Harold F. Peterson, Diplomat of the Americas: A Biography of William I. Buchanan, 1852–1909 (Albany: SUNY Press, 1977). Milburn house: Annual Report of the Board of Police of the City of Buffalo (Buffalo: Wenborne-Sumner Co., 1902), 18; Courier, Oct. 21, 1901. Milburn subsequent life and death: New York Times, Aug. 12, 1930; Susan Eck, “The Milburns and their Famous Home: 1168 Delaware Avenue,” http://wnyheritagepress.org/photos_week_2009/mckinley_marker/milburn_house/milburn_house.htm. Diehl: News, March 13, 1902; Express, Feb. 21, 1918; Times, Feb. 15, 1919.
19. Roosevelt on conservation: Jeffrey Salmon, “‘With Utter Disregard of Pain and Woe,’: Theodore Roosevelt on Conservation and Nature,”in Charles T. Rubin, ed., Conservation Reconsidered: Nature, Virtue, and American Liberal Democracy (Lanham, MD: Rowman & Littlefield, 2000), 49. Roosevelt shot: Edmund Morris, The Rise of Theodore Roosevelt (New York: Modern Library, 2001), p. xxxi; Patricia O’Toole, “Assassination Foiled,”Smithsonian 43 (Nov. 2012), accessed on May 26, 2015 at http://web.b.ebscohost.com.lprx.bates.edu/ehost/detail/detail?sid=b2086474-c6f7-4c71-8f7e-5b650711eaa1%40sessionmgr114&vid=7&hid=124&bdata=JnNpdGU9ZWhvc3QtbGl2ZQ%3d%3d#db=a9h&AN=83097307), and Rauchway, Murdering McKinley, 197. Roosevelt’s speech: http://www.businessinsider.com/heres-the-famous-populist-speech-teddy-roosevelt-gave-right-after-getting-shot-2011-10#ixzz3dWyP6oRl. Goldman: “Radical Comment on the President’s Assassination,” Literary Digest 21 (Sept. 1901): 336–37.
20. Ida McKinley in mourning: Anthony, Ida McKinley, ebook, ch. 17. Improving health, death: Anthony, Ida McKinley, ebook, ch. 18.
21. Buffalo steel; Exposition results; Buffalo booming: Courier, July 13, 1902; World’s Fair Bulletin 4 (December 1902): 16; Mark Goldman, City on the Edge: Buffalo, New York (Amherst, NY: Prometheus Books, 2007), 133–35. Needing hustle: Sarah Elvins, Sales & Celebrations: Retailing and Regional Identity in Western New York State, 1920–1940 (Athens: Ohio University Press, 2004), 39–40. Buffalo at midcentury: Elvins, Sales & Celebrations, 48;Goldman, City on the Edge, 99–129, 162–68; Courier Express, June 5, 1963.
22. Saint Lawrence Seaway: Goldman, City on the Edge, 152–53, 315. Layoffs, plant closings: Goldman, City on the Edge, 308–11, 314; Goldman, City on the Lake, 177;Carol J. Loomis, “The Sinking of Bethlehem Steel,” Fortune Magazine, April 5, 2004; “82 Years of History in Lackawanna,” New York Times, December 28, 1982;Ardith Hilliard, David Venditta, eds., Forging America: The History of Bethlehem Steel (Allentown, PA: The Morning Call, 2010), accessed September 13, 2015, at http://www.mcall.com/all-bethsteel-printingchapter-8-htmlstory.html.
23. Population: Census: https://www.census.gov/statab/hist/HS-07.pdf. Centennial meanings: See Michael Frisch’s thoughtful essay, “Prismatics, Multivalence, and Other Riffs on the Millennial Moment: Presidential Address to the American Studies Association,” American Quarterly 53 (2001): 193–231. On the virtual Pan-American, see Susan Eck’s pioneering website, “Doing the Pan,”at http://panam1901.org/. This site offers a visit to the exposition through a plethora of firsthand accounts and other primary sources; see also the University at Buffalo’s website on the Exposition, with essays on topics from architecture to African American history: http://library.buffalo.edu/pan-am/exposition/. Best-selling novel: Lauren Belfer, City of Light (New York: Dial Press, 1999). Other important centennial work: Kerry L. Grant, The Rainbow City: Celebrating Light, Color, and Architecture at the Pan-American Exposition, Buffalo 1901 (Buffalo: Canisius College Press, 2001);Leary and Sholes, Buffalo’s Pan-American. The Buffalo commemoration: Patrick Klinck, “As a Century Turns: Finding the Light Then and Now—The Pan-American Exposition,” UB Today (Winter 2000): 16–17. Gazing back: Randal C. Archibold, “Buffalo Gazes Back to a Time When Fortune Shone: Much-Maligned City Celebrates the Glory of a Century Ago,” New York Times, Sept. 7, 2001. New York and Buffalo: News, Aug. 30, 1901, quoting the Chicago Record-Herald; Mitchell Moss, Op-Ed, New York Times, March 28, 2010; see also the cartoon by Tom Toro in The New Yorker, Dec. 5, 2011. Buffalo rising: Author conversations with Leslie Zemsky, Mark Goldman, Steve Bell, Michael Frisch. See also Brian Hayden, “Buffalo’s Grain Elevators Reimagined,” accessed November 4, 2015, at http://www.visitbuffaloniagara.com/; and New York Times, Oct. 25, 2015; also, http://www.elkharttruth.com/news/national/2015/10/04/Buffalo-s-industrial-cathedrals-slowly-finding-new-life.html. Legacies, vestiges of Rainbow City: Mark Lozo to author, email correspondence, Sept. 14, 2015;Susan Eck to author, email correspondence, Sept. 30, 2015. It should also be noted that the Buffalo History Museum, along with Forest Lawn Cemetery and Explore Buffalo, offer popular Pan-American–focused tours, and that the museum’s Forest Avenue Resource Center opens its extensive Pan-American exhibit on regular occasions.
24. World’s fairs: Munro, “Investigating World’s Fairs,” 80. Expositions in flux: Rydell, Findling, Pelle, Fair America, 118; Ocala [WA] StarBanner, May 16, 1974.