Index

---

Page locators in bold indicate tables. Page locators in italics indicate figures. This index uses letter‐by‐letter alphabetization.

• AAE see African‐American English
• Aboriginal Australian English (AAusE) 76–77, 390
• Aboriginal Englishes 62
• aboriginal languages see indigenous languages
• acculturation
  • culture wars 460–461
  • genres and styles in world Englishes 368–382
  • karmic cycle of world Englishes 762, 763–766, 770
  • People’s Republic of China 266
  • South Asian Englishes 108
  • speaking and writing in world Englishes 349–367
  • written language, standard language, global language 333–348
• ACE see Australian Corpus of English
• Achebe, Chinua 173–177, 179–188, 194, 460, 574
• acrolect
  • literary dimension of world Englishes 396–397
  • pidgins and creoles 301, 308
  • Russian Englishes 235, 237
• active voice see passive/active voice
• Act of Union (1536) 14
• Adams, William 253
• advertising 616–634
  • approaches 619
  • audience reach and modality choice 618–619
  • bilingual language play 408–409, 416, 419
  • creative acts of gender in world Englishes 579, 586–587
  • cross‐cultural translations and intelligibility 629–630, 630
  • determinants and functions of world Englishes 625–626
  • East Asian Englishes 258
  • English mixing in non‐English advertising 620, 622–623
  • English users and advertising 616–617
  • Euro‐Englishes 222–223, 225
  • genres and styles in world Englishes 372–373
  • international standardized English language proficiency tests 712–713
  • key issues 617–619
  • language choice and language attitude 618
  • laws and regulations 623
  • media and communications 597, 600–607
  • mixing of world Englishes 620, 620
  • mixing of world Englishes accents 621–622
  • multiple mixing and world Englishes 619–623
  • People’s Republic of China 274
  • product naming and world Englishes 621
  • resolving the global versus local paradox 626–630, 627, 628, 630
  • Roman scripts (monoscripting) and language attitudes 623–624, 624, 624
  • Russian Englishes 238–239
  • South American Englishes and Englishes in South America 206–207, 208–209
  • standardization versus adaptation 618
  • think global and act local 627
  • think local and act local 627–628, 628
• affricates 151, 202
• Afghanistan 115–116
• African‐American English (AAE) 314–330
  • Appalachian trajectory of language change 323–324, 324
  • camouflaged forms 317
  • colonial discourse and postcolonial critique 551
  • descriptive base 315–318
  • descriptive grammars 514
  • development of contemporary AAE 321–325
  • distinguishing features 316
  • ethnic varieties of American English 44, 45
  • group‐exclusiveness 316–317
  • Hyde County trajectory of language change 323, 323
  • karmic cycle of world Englishes 770
  • origin and early development 318–321
  • pidgins and creoles 302, 304
  • regional accents/dialects 317–318, 322–325
  • speaking and writing in world Englishes 356
  • Texana trajectory of language change 324, 324
• African English (AfrE)
  • Achebe, Chinua 173–177, 179–188, 194
  • African Englishes and creative writing 173–197
  • Asmara declaration 177–178, 192–193
  • commerce 639
  • communicative competence 679
  • context of English in Africa 175–178
  • creative acts of gender in world Englishes 583–584
  • current study 174
  • descriptive grammars 513, 514
  • form and functions of African Englishes 178–179
  • lexicography 733
  • motivations and justifications for creating in English 190–193
  • Ngũgĩ wa Thiong’o 174–177, 188–190, 194
  • Nwapa, Flora 174, 188–190, 194
  • Okara, Gabriel 174, 177, 188–190, 194
  • see also individual nations/Englishes; Southern African Englishes; West African Englishes
• African languages of wider communication (ALWC) 192
• African Union (AU) 178, 190
• Afrikaans 167–168, 170, 290, 295, 663, 666
• Age of Discovery 8–9
• agreement‐disagreement system 125, 354–355
• Ahmad, Aijaz 560–561
• Aickin, Joseph 476, 484–485
• aid organizations 139
• Alexander, Meena 585–586
• Allsopp, Richard 729–730
• ALWC see African languages of wider communication
• ambilingualism 116–117
• AmE see American English
• American Dictionary of the English Language (Webster) 40
• American English (AmE) 37–51
  • advertising 629
  • colonial discourse and postcolonial critique 548–549
  • commerce 643, 646
  • communicative competence 676–677
  • corpora studies and corpus linguistics 524–526, 530
  • creative acts of gender in world Englishes 584
  • current debates and future directions 752
  • descriptive grammars 509–515
  • dialect geography 40–41
  • ethnic varieties 44–45
  • Euro‐Englishes 216, 220–221
  • grammar wars: the United States 495–506
  • homogeneity and variability, identity and change 45
  • impact on other world Englishes 46–47
  • international standardized English language proficiency tests 709
  • in the context of world Englishes 37
  • karmic cycle of world Englishes 763
  • language policy and planning 659
  • lexicography 40, 45–47, 733–734
  • literary dimension of world Englishes 388, 392, 394
  • media and communications 602
  • regional dialects 38–43
  • research history 40–42
  • settlement history and dialectal diffusion 38–39
  • social dialects 44
  • sociolinguistics 41–42
  • South American Englishes and Englishes in South America 203–205
  • speaking and writing in world Englishes 355–358
  • varieties of American English 42–45
• American Language, The (Mencken) 58
• American Spelling Book, The (Webster) 40
• Anglicist hypothesis 318, 321
• Anglicization 20–21
• Anglo‐Indian community 117–119
• Anglo‐Irish 286–287, 292, 395, 398–399, 515
• Anglo‐Saxon (Old English) 6–8, 18–19, 335, 339
• antiquating dictionaries 727
• apartheid 398
• applied theory
  • communicative competence 674–685
  • current debates and future directions 750
  • international standardized English language proficiency tests 703–724
  • language policy and planning 659–673
  • lexicography 725–740
  • pedagogy 686–702
• Arabic
  • culture wars 454
  • karmic cycle of world Englishes 768
  • speaking and writing in world Englishes 361
  • written language 339–340
• Argentina 203, 208–210, 639
• Arrow of God (Achebe) 397–398
• article deletion 125, 145, 149
• article ellipsis 143, 148
• ASEAN see Association of South East Asian Nations
• Ash, John 496
• Asian Englishes: Beyond the Canon (Kachru) 386–387
• Asmara declaration 177–178, 192–193
• aspiration 142
• assessment/feedback 692–693
  • see also international standardized English language proficiency tests
• Association of South East Asian Nations (ASEAN) 138–139, 141, 152
• Atlas of North American English (Labov, Ash, & Boberg) 42, 58
• AU see African Union
• Australian Aboriginal English 76–77, 390
• Australian Corpus of English (ACE) 525–526, 529–530
• Australian English (AusE) 70–86
  • Australian expansion, 1820–1850 72
  • commerce 639
  • corpora studies and corpus linguistics 525–526, 529–530
  • current changes 80
  • descriptions 73–80
  • descriptive grammars 514
  • development 71–73
  • features distinguishing Australian and New Zealand Englishes 73–75
  • genres and styles in world Englishes 368
  • gold rushes and new migration, 1850–1900 72
  • impact of American English 47
  • independence, 1900–1960 72
  • indigenous languages 74
  • language policy and planning 659, 660
  • lexicography 729, 732, 734
  • literary dimension of world Englishes 388, 394
  • national standard, 1960–present 73
  • settlement and founding, 1788–1820 71–72
  • sociolinguistic variation 75–76
  • varieties 76–79
• authentic materials 710
• Awoonor, Kofi 390

• Baboo/Babu English 118–119
• backformation 207–208
• Back to Basics movement 501–503
• Bahasa Melayu 385–386, 392, 455
• Bailey, Richard W. 451, 453–454, 462, 513
• Bakhtin, Mikhail 417, 421
• Bangladesh 110, 112
• Bantu languages 160–166, 170
• Barclay, James 478, 490
• Basic English 645–646, 734, 768
• basilect
  • literary dimension of world Englishes 396–397
  • pidgins and creoles 301–303, 306
  • Russian Englishes 235
• Bateson, F. W. 396
• Battle of Maldon, The 6, 13
• BEC see Business English Certificate
• Beck, Cave 480
• Belfast English 516
• Belgium 605
• Belize 90–91
• bending of English 173–174, 177, 179, 182, 185, 188–190, 193–194
• Bengali 110, 112
• Bengal Peasant Life (Day) 458
• Beowulf 6–7, 13
• Bhabha, Homi 558–560, 569, 572
• Bhatia, Tej 586, 600–601
• Bhutan 114
• bilingualism
  • advertising 623–624, 626
  • African Englishes and creative writing 191–192
  • Canadian English 52, 61
  • creative acts of gender in world Englishes 579, 582–588
  • culture wars 450, 460–461, 463
  • East Asian Englishes 255–256
  • genres and styles in world Englishes 375–376
  • language policy and planning 665
  • lexicography 736
  • Russian Englishes 232–234, 233, 241, 242
  • South American Englishes and Englishes in South America 203
  • South Asian Englishes 110, 116–117, 123
  • Southeast Asian Englishes 137–138
  • speaking and writing in world Englishes 358–359
  • see also multilingualism
• bilingual language play 407–429
  • advertising 625
  • creativity, bilingual creativity, and language play 409–411
  • formal aspect/techniques 411–420
  • future research directions 423–424
  • hybridization 407, 414, 415–416
  • literary dimension of world Englishes 400–401
  • mock Englishization of local languages/localization of English 411, 417–418
  • multimodal play 418–420
  • punning 407, 411–413, 421–422
  • rhyming 407, 416–417
  • scripts and orthographies 413–415, 424
  • semantics 420–423
  • status of English 421–423
  • study of bilingual creativity 407–409
• Bislama 300
• Black English 660
  • see also African‐American English
• Black English: Its History and Usage in the United States (Dillard) 319
• Black South African English (BSAE) 160, 162–165
  • descriptive grammars 517–518
  • language policy and planning 663
  • media and communications 599
• blending 146
• Bloomfield, Leonard 498–499
• Bloomhoff, Jan Cock 253
• Blount, Thomas 485–486
• Bluefields, Nicaragua 91
• body symbolism 164–165
• Bollywood 375–376, 601
• Bolton, Kingsley 387
• Bone People, The (Hulme) 764
• borrowings see loanwords/borrowings
• Botley, Samuel 481
• Botswana 159–161, 167
• bottom‐up, person‐focused approaches 714–720, 718–719
• bound morphemes 98
• bourgeois public sphere 564–570
• Box‐wallah English 119
• Brazil 202–203, 206–211, 639
• Brown corpus 524–526, 524, 530
• Brown, Goold 496–497
• Brown, Richard 477
• Brunei 137–138, 146–147
• Bruthiaux, Paul 749–750
• BSAE see Black South African English
• Buchanan, James 487
• Buddhism 121–122
• Burghers 118
• Burma 434, 435
• business culture 640–641
• Business English Certificate (BEC) 644–645
• Butler English 116, 118
• Butler, Susan 726–727, 729, 733

• CA see conversation analysis
• Cajun English 45
• Caliban metaphor 449, 455, 457–459, 461, 463–464
• Cambodia 139, 149–150
• Cambridge Business English Certificate (BEC) 644–645
• Cambridge History of the English Language, The (Burchfield) 457
• Cameron, Deborah 507
• Cameroon Pidgin English 300
• camouflaged forms 317
• Canadian English (CE) 52–69
  • attitudes and perception 62–64, 63
  • bilingualism 52, 61
  • descriptive grammars 514
  • homogeneity and Standard Canadian English 59–60
  • indigenous languages 52–53, 53, 62
  • lexicography 732, 735
  • linguistic autonomy 57–59
  • regional varieties 54, 60–61, 60, 63–64
  • research history 53–55
  • settlement and development theories 55–57, 55, 56
  • social varieties 61–62
• Canadian Oxford Dictionary 54
• Canadian Vowel Shift 58
• canonicity 448–449, 456–458, 463–466
• Canterbury Tales (Chaucer) 14
• Cantonese 416–418, 423
• Cape Flats English 294–295
• Cape Verdian Criolou 300
• Caribbean Englishes 87–103
  • basic features of restructured English in the Caribbean 93–94
  • creoles 87–94, 97–98
  • dialects 87, 89–90, 92–94, 96–100
  • grammar 89, 94–97
  • lexicography 729–730, 732–733, 735
  • lexicon 97
  • maroon languages 88, 90–92
  • multilingualism 88
  • phonology/phonetics 93–94, 98–100
  • pidgins and creoles 88, 90, 302–303
  • restructured Englishes 87–94, 97
  • scenarios for emergence of Atlantic‐region Englishes 90–93
  • slavery 88–92, 94, 97
  • where restructured Englishes are spoken 89–90
  • word formation 98
• carnivalization 417
• Carstensen, Broder 218–219
• Cassidy, Frederic 497, 730
• CCCC see Conference on College Composition and Communication
• CCUEI see China‐Canada‐United‐States English Immersion Collaborative Program
• CE see Canadian English
• Celtic languages 6, 11–14, 17–18
• censorship 503–504
• Centre of Excellence for the Study of Variation, Contacts, and Change in English (VARIENG) 223
• CET see College English Test
• Chatterjee, Partha 569
• Chee English 117–118
• Chile 203, 205
• China see People’s Republic of China
• China‐Canada‐United‐States English Immersion Collaborative Program (CCUEI) 269
• China English 680–681
• Chinese Pidgin English 248–249
• Chinook Jargon 300
• Chomsky, Noam 409, 498–499
• Christianity
  • African Englishes and creative writing 183–187
  • contact linguistics 292–295
  • origins of English and early developments 12
• ciChewa 165–166
• cinema 224–225
• Circle of world English (McArthur) 24–25
• Clarke, John 490
• Clark, S. W. 497
• Clash of Civilizations and the Remaking of World Order, The (Huntington) 451–452
• clause‐focused grammars 497
• cliché 379
• cline of bilingualism 116–117
• clipping 207–208
• cloze tests 434–435
• CLT see communicative language teaching
• coarticulated stops 88–89
• code‐alteration 420
• code‐ambiguation 418
• code‐approximation 418
• code‐mixing
  • advertising 619–623, 620
  • bilingual language play 410, 420, 422
  • creative acts of gender in world Englishes 584
  • current debates and future directions 752
  • media and communications 604
  • People’s Republic of China 272–276
  • Russian Englishes 239, 240–241
  • South American Englishes and Englishes in South America 207–208, 211
  • South Asian Englishes 127
• code‐switching
  • bilingual language play 410
  • commerce 639
  • creative acts of gender in world Englishes 583–584, 587
  • current debates and future directions 750, 752
  • People’s Republic of China 276
  • South Asian Englishes 127
  • Southern African Englishes 165–166
• Coffer Dams, The (Markandaya) 391
• cohesive devices 151
• coinage 148
• Coles, Elisha 476, 481, 488
• College English Test (CET) 250, 269
• College Scholastic Ability Test (CSAT) 259
• collocations 241
• Colombia 206, 210
• colonial discourse and postcolonial critique 541–556
  • beyond Orientalism 552–554
  • challenge from world Englishes 548–550
  • concepts and definitions 542–543
  • critical and hypocritical discourse 552
  • cultural and linguistic complexity 546–548
  • deep humanism 553–554
  • orientalism and world Englishes 543–545, 548
  • return to liberal humanism 545–546
  • world Englishes against relativism 550–551
  • see also postcolonial theory
• Comenius, Johann Amos 486, 488
• commerce 635–655
  • additional resources 639
  • Americas, Middle East, Africa, Oceania 639
  • Asia 637–638
  • culture, business culture, and Englishes 640–641
  • English and professional discourse in Outer/Expanding Circles 637–639
  • ethics and Teaching for Specific Purposes 647–648
  • Europe 638
  • genre analysis and business letter writing 641–642
  • karmic cycle of world Englishes 765
  • talking business: meeting and negotiating 642–644
  • world Englishes, commerce, and standards 644–647
• communicative competence 674–685
  • controversies 677–678
  • cross‐cultural communication 676
  • explorations 679–680
  • pedagogy 680–682, 693
  • sources 674–676
  • world Englishes paradigm 676–677
• communicative language teaching (CLT) 268, 682
• communicative purpose 369–370
• comparative fallacy 517–518
• complementary hypothesis 306–307
• complementation 126
• compliments 351
• compound nouns 146
• concept Englishes 728–729
• Concise Scots Dictionary, The (Robinson) 28
• Concubines, The (Amadi) 391
• Conference on College Composition and Communication (CCCC) 502
• Consolation of Philosophy, The (Boethius) 6, 13
• consonant clusters
  • African‐American English 321
  • Caribbean Englishes 100
  • South Asian Englishes 120
  • Southeast Asian Englishes 142, 146–148
• consonants
  • American English 43, 45
  • Australian and New Zealand Englishes 73, 78
  • Caribbean Englishes 99–100
  • Russian Englishes 236
  • Scotland 25–26
  • South Asian Englishes 120
  • Southeast Asian Englishes 142, 144, 146–151
  • Southern African Englishes 161–162
• contact linguistics 283–298
  • current debates and future directions 750
  • describing language shift 286–287
  • early contact history 287–288
  • establishing a comparative database 284–286
  • literary dimension of world Englishes 389
  • missionaries 292–295
  • sailors 288–289
  • settlers and traders 289–292
  • soldiers 295
  • teachers 295
  • tools for describing and accounting for variation 286
• contact literature see creative writing/literature
• contrastive analysis 409
• contrastive pragmatism 460–461
• conversational implicature 350
• conversation analysis (CA) 350, 643–644
• cooking recipes 376–377
• copula 94–95, 321
• corpora studies and corpus linguistics 523–537
  • availability of corpora 532–534
  • Canadian English 54
  • contact linguistics 286
  • corpus‐based studies of world Englishes 529–530
  • current debates and future directions 744–746, 745
  • descriptive grammars 510, 517
  • East Asian Englishes 261–262
  • electronic corpora 524–526
  • International Corpus of Learner English 531–532
  • Internet 530–532
  • karmic cycle of world Englishes 767–768
  • media and communications 599
  • South Asian Englishes 128–129
  • units and structures from morpheme to discourse (Kennedy) 533
  • see also International Corpus of English
• corporate culture 640–641
• count/noncount nouns
  • South Asian Englishes 124–125
  • Southeast Asian Englishes 147, 148
  • Southern African Englishes 163
• Cow of the Barricades, The (Rao) 389, 400
• creative empowerment 585
• creative writing/literature
  • African Englishes and creative writing 173–197
    • Achebe, Chinua 173–177, 179–188, 194
    • Asmara declaration 177–178, 192–193
    • context of English in Africa 175–178
    • current study 174
    • form and functions of African Englishes 178–179
    • motivations and justifications for creating in English 190–193
    • Ngũgĩ wa Thiong’o 174–177, 188–190, 194
    • Nwapa, Flora 174, 188–190, 194
    • Okara, Gabriel 174, 177, 188–190, 194
  • bilingual language play 409–411
  • contact linguistics 284
  • creative acts of gender in world Englishes 583–586
  • culture wars 457, 458–461, 465
  • genres and styles in world Englishes 372–373, 374–375
  • karmic cycle of world Englishes 764–766, 770
  • literary dimension of world Englishes 385–406
    • broadening perspectives 388–389
    • impulses behind the New English writing 390–391
    • literary criticism 398–401
    • models for the spread of English 399–401
    • monolingualism 385–386
    • multilingual context and linguistic innovations 396–397
    • new contexts for English 397–399
    • response to English 389–390
    • spread of English 387–388
    • writer and milieu 391–396, 393
  • media and communications 603–604
  • postcolonial theory 561–566, 568–576
  • Russian Englishes 239
  • South Asian Englishes 130
  • Southern African Englishes 167
• creoles 299–313
  • African‐American English 318–321
  • Australian and New Zealand Englishes 76
  • Caribbean Englishes 87–94, 97–98
  • concepts and definitions 299–304
  • contact linguistics 287–288
  • creolistics and general linguistics 307
  • creolization, decreolization, and recreolization 19, 92–93, 302–303
  • current debates and future directions 745
  • decreolization and the postcreole continuum 302–303
  • descriptive grammars 513
  • development of creoles 304–307
  • international standardized English language proficiency tests 709
  • literary dimension of world Englishes 399
  • Old Norse 19
  • restructured Englishes 87–94, 97
  • South American Englishes and Englishes in South America 211
• cricket commentary 377–379
• critical linguistics 745, 755–756
• cross‐cultural communication
  • advertising 629–630, 630
  • Australian and New Zealand Englishes 74–75
  • commerce 636, 637–638, 642–643
  • communicative competence 676, 679
  • pedagogy 690
  • speech act research 350–351
• crossing borders
  • bilingual language play 407–429
  • culture wars 447–471
  • intelligibility 430–446
  • literary dimension of world Englishes 385–406
• cross‐linguistic influences see transfer
• Crystal, David 465
• CSAT see College Scholastic Ability Test
• cultural contextualization
  • advertising 629
  • African Englishes and creative writing 174, 179–181, 188–190
  • commerce 640–641
  • communicative competence 674–677, 679–683
  • karmic cycle of world Englishes 764–766
  • pedagogy 689–690
  • postcolonial theory 568–572
• cultural linguistics 745
• cultural relativism 545–546, 549–552
• cultural transference 151
• culture wars 447–471
  • approaches for redefining identities 458–461
  • Cassandras of English 450–455
  • contrastive pragmatism 460–461
  • demographic shrinking and decline 450–452, 452
  • exponents of multiple canonicity 448–449, 456–457
  • functional domains of English 454, 454
  • indigenization 458–459
  • medium (mādhyama) versus message (mantra) 455–456
  • outward signs of inward fires 461–463
  • ritualistic and metaphysical approaches 458–459
  • severing the umbilical cord 452–455, 454
  • strategic linguistic weapon 459–460
  • toward a historiography of canonicity 457–458
  • war of cultures and canons 463–466
• Cyrillic script 414

• Dalgarno, George 480–481
• decreolization 92–93, 302–303
• deep humanism 553–554
• deference in speech 352, 353–356
• Delaware Pidgin 300
• Deleuze, Gilles 567–568
• deliberate deception 625–626
• Denmark 638
• dental fricatives 142, 146
• Derrida, Jacques 559
• descriptive grammars 507–522
  • McArthur’s description of world English grammars 514–515
  • potential for the grammatical description of world Englishes 518
  • recent developments in the grammatical description of world Englishes 515–518
  • theoretical problems inherited from structuralism 510–512
  • variationist treatments of grammar 512–515
  • world Englishes in late twentieth century descriptive grammars 509–510
• descriptive structuralism 498–499
• descriptivism 729–730
• Devanagari script 628
• dialectal linguistics 497–498
• dialectologist hypothesis 305–306
• dialects see ethnic varieties; regional accents/dialects; social dialects
• dictionaries see lexicography
• Dictionary of American Regional English (Cassidy) 40
• Dictionary of Canadianisms on Historical Principles, A (Avis et al.) 54, 63
• Dictionary of Cape Breton English (Davey & MacKinnon) 61
• Dictionary of Caribbean English Usage 729–730
• Dictionary of Jamaican English 730, 735
• Dictionary of South African English, A (Branford) 730
• Dictionary of the Older Scots Tongue, A (Craigie et al) 28
• differentiation 39, 108
• digraphia 413–415
• Dilworth, Thomas 489, 490, 496
• directness/indirectness 163, 360–361
• discernment in speech 352, 353–356
• discourse
  • advertising 620
  • African‐American English 315–317
  • African Englishes and creative writing 180–188
  • Australian and New Zealand Englishes 74–75, 77
  • commerce 637–639, 641
  • contact linguistics 293
  • creative acts of gender in world Englishes 582–584
  • current debates and future directions 748, 750
  • East Asian Englishes 252–253
  • genres and styles in world Englishes 368–371, 372
  • karmic cycle of world Englishes 764
  • language policy and planning 659–661
  • media and communications 598–600
  • South Asian Englishes 127–130
  • Southeast Asian Englishes 143, 151
  • Southern African Englishes 164
  • speaking and writing in world Englishes 357, 361
  • written language 337, 339–340
• divergence hypothesis 45, 322
• double entendre 412–413, 415
• double‐voicedness 417, 421
• Druidism 11
• Dukhless (Minaev) 415–416
• durational adverbials 124
• Dutch English 226
• Dutch language
  • advertising 623
  • East Asian Englishes 253
  • Euro‐Englishes 225–226
  • media and communications 603–604
  • South American Englishes and Englishes in South America 211
  • South Asian Englishes 112–113
  • Southeast Asian Englishes 139
  • Southern African Englishes 160, 167–168
• Dyson, Ketaki Kushari 585
• Dzongpa 114

• EAP see English for Academic Purposes
• East Asian Englishes 248–265
  • China 248–253
  • commerce 637–638
  • creative acts of gender in world Englishes 584–585
  • Japan 253–259
  • karmic cycle of world Englishes 762
  • Korea, Republic of 259–262
  • Taiwan 262
  • see also People’s Republic of China
• East India Company 8–9, 109–110
• Ebonics 314, 502
• Ecclesiastical History of the English People (Bede) 6, 13
• Ecuador 204, 208–210, 639
• effective communicator approach 715
• EFL see English as a Foreign/Second Language
• EIAL see English as an International Auxiliary Language
• EIL see English as an International Language
• Eldredge, Niles 496
• electronic corpora 524–526
• ELF see English as a Lingua Franca
• ELT see English Language Teaching
• ELWC see European languages of wider communication
• Emergent Grammar 517–518
• EMI see English as a means of instruction
• emphasis/focus markers 128–129
• enculturation 675
• endonormative stabilization 39, 108–109
• English as a Foreign/Second Language (EFL/ESL)
  • current debates and future directions 743, 746, 752
  • Euro‐Englishes 217, 226
  • intelligibility 432
  • international standardized English language proficiency tests 707
  • pedagogy 694
  • People’s Republic of China 268
  • Russian Englishes 235
• English as a Lingua Franca (ELF)
  • communicative competence 681–682
  • current debates and future directions 745, 746, 751, 755–756
  • Euro‐Englishes 215, 219, 226
  • international standardized English language proficiency tests 703, 711, 713–714
  • karmic cycle of world Englishes 766–768
  • pedagogy 693–694
• English as a means of instruction (EMI) 260
• English as a Native Language (ENL) 743, 746
• English as an International Auxiliary Language (EIAL) 743–744
• English as an International Language (EIL)
  • current debates and future directions 745, 746
  • East Asian Englishes 256–257, 260
  • international standardized English language proficiency tests 703, 716, 720, 720
  • Teaching English as an International Language 689, 693–694
  • written language 345–346
• English as an official second language (EOSL) 255–256
• English as a performance 217
• English for Academic Purposes (EAP) 712–713
• English for Specific Purposes (ESP) 707
• Englishization
  • bilingual language play 411, 415, 417–418
  • creative acts of gender in world Englishes 579–580
  • current debates and future directions 756–757
  • karmic cycle of world Englishes 763
  • of names 208
  • Russian Englishes 239–242
• English language proficiency see international standardized English language proficiency tests
• English Language Teaching (ELT)
  • culture wars 455
  • East Asian Englishes 248, 250, 256–257, 259–260, 262
  • pedagogy 686–694
  • South American Englishes and Englishes in South America 202–203
  • speaking and writing in world Englishes 360
• English‐medium schools
  • language policy and planning 665, 667
  • People’s Republic of China 268–269
  • South Asian Englishes 109–116
  • Southeast Asian Englishes 136–139, 152
  • Southern African Englishes 166–167
• English studies 745, 746
• ENL see English as a Native Language
• Enlightenment 544–546
• EOSL see English as an official second language
• ESL see English as a Foreign/Second Language
• ESP see English for Specific Purposes
• essay‐text literacy 358–359
• essentialism 544, 547, 569
• ethical dative 291
• ethics 647–648
• ethnic varieties
  • American English 44–45
  • Australian and New Zealand Englishes 77, 80
  • Canadian English 62
  • Caribbean Englishes 91
  • language policy and planning 660
  • see also African‐American English
• ethnocentrism 501–503
• ethnography 351
• Etiemble, René 606
• Euro‐Englishes 215–231
  • advertising 619, 622–623
  • coining of Euro‐English 218–219
  • commerce 638, 645
  • communicative competence 682
  • current debates and future directions 751–752
  • English use on a national level 221–226
  • Finland 223
  • France 222–223
  • future research directions 226
  • Germany 223–225
  • history of English in Europe 217–218
  • Kachru’s Circles of English 216–217, 220–222
  • karmic cycle of world Englishes 769
  • language policy and planning 661, 666–667
  • media and communications 602–607
  • Netherlands, the 225–226
  • Russia 225
  • use of English on the supranational level 218, 219–222
• European languages of wider communication (ELWC) 191–195
• evaluative advertising 625
• exonormative stabilization
  • American English 39
  • Russian Englishes 235–236
  • South Asian Englishes 108, 110
• expanded pidgins 300
• extended meanings 122–123

• face‐threatening acts (FTA) 250–251, 350, 353–354
• factual advertising 625
• familiarity 422, 431–432, 438
• Fanon, Frantz 560, 569
• Farnaby, Thomas 476
• Farro, Daniel 482
• features‐based approaches 745
• feedback 692–693
• feminism and feminist theory 546–547, 551
• Fenning, Daniel 479
• Ferguson, Charles 761–762
• Fernández‐Armesto, Felipe 452–453, 461
• fiction see creative writing/literature
• film criticism 374–376
• Finland
  • commerce 638, 642
  • Euro‐Englishes 223
  • media and communications 602, 604
• first diaspora
  • Ireland 11–15
  • literary dimension of world Englishes 387
  • origins of English and early developments 5–16
  • Scotland 17–33
  • Wales 10–15
• First Nations 53, 62
• Firth, J. R. 675, 677
• Fisher, Anne 479, 487
• Fisher, George 477
• Foreign Affairs (Huntington) 451
• formality/informality
  • African Englishes and creative writing 186
  • genres and styles in world Englishes 372–379
  • speaking and writing in world Englishes 357–360
• fossilization 676, 678
• Foucault, Michel 543–545, 559, 562
• foundation phase 39, 108
• founder effects 71–72
• fourth diaspora
  • East Asian Englishes 248–265
  • Euro‐Englishes 215–231
  • People’s Republic of China 266–280
  • Russian Englishes 232–247
  • South American Englishes and Englishes in South America 201–214
• France 222–223
• Franglais/Frenglish 606
• Frank, Francine 504
• French Guiana 211
• French language
  • advertising 622
  • African Englishes and creative writing 174–176, 191–195
  • American English 45
  • bilingual language play 419
  • Canadian English 52, 61
  • Caribbean Englishes 92
  • Euro‐Englishes 218
  • High/Low usage domains 10–11
  • karmic cycle of world Englishes 769
  • language policy and planning 661
  • media and communications 605–607
  • origins of English and early developments 6–8, 13–14
  • pidgins and creoles 303–306
  • Scotland 19
  • written language 334–335, 338
• Freudian psychoanalysis 559–560
• fricatives
  • Scotland 25–26
  • South American Englishes and Englishes in South America 202
  • Southeast Asian Englishes 142, 146, 151
• Frisian 666
• FTA see face‐threatening acts
• Fulani 97
• functional approach to English language proficiency 714
• functional appropriateness 174, 188
• Funny Boy (Selvadurai) 118
• future tense markers 95

• Gage Canadian Dictionary 54, 63
• gaokao 268
• Garretson, John 489
• Gates, Jr., Henry Louis 461
• Geertz, Clifford 466, 567
• Geikie, Reverend A. 57–58
• gender and sexism
  • bilingual women’s literary creative acts 584–586
  • colonial discourse and postcolonial critique 546, 550–551
  • constructing gender identity in spoken and written discourse 582–584
  • contextualizing gender in multimediums 586–587
  • creative acts of gender in world Englishes 578–593
  • grammar wars: the United States 503–504
  • power of English in practice 581–582
  • relevance of English, gender, and power 580–581
  • sociolinguistic creativity of English and gender 579–580
• gender pronouns 237
• generative structuralism 498–499
• genres and styles in world Englishes 368–382
  • commerce 641–642
  • conventions and propensity for innovation 369–370
  • cooking recipes 376–377
  • film criticism 374–376
  • generic integrity 368–370
  • genre 369–370
  • karmic cycle of world Englishes 765
  • legal communications 373–374
  • liberal versus conservative genres 372–379, 380
  • literary dimension of world Englishes 397
  • media and communications 598
  • register 368, 371, 640, 728
  • sports commentary 377–379
  • style 370–371
  • text‐internal and text‐external resources 369–372, 374–375, 379–380
  • world Englishes 371–372
• Germanic tribes
  • origins of English and early developments 5–6, 12
  • Scotland 18–19
  • Wales and Ireland 12
• German language
  • bilingual language play 412
  • commerce 638
  • Euro‐Englishes 218–219, 224–225
  • karmic cycle of world Englishes 769
  • language policy and planning 661
• Germany 223–225
• GES see Global English Standard
• Ghosh, Amitav 568–570
• Gisborne, Nik 517
• Global English Standard (GES) 706, 714
• globalization and global English
  • advertising 616–634
  • bilingual language play 413, 424
  • colonial discourse and postcolonial critique 548–549
  • commerce 635–655
  • communicative competence 682
  • creative acts of gender in world Englishes 587–588
  • current debates and future directions 749, 750–753
  • Euro‐Englishes 216–218, 222–223
  • karmic cycle of world Englishes 762, 766–768
  • media and communications 597–615
  • pedagogy 690
  • People’s Republic of China 276
  • postcolonial theory 567–569
  • Russian Englishes 234
  • Southeast Asian Englishes 140–141
  • Southern African Englishes 169–170
  • written language 335–337, 340–341, 345–346
• Global Web‐Based English Corpus (GloWbE) 531–532
• glocalization
  • advertising 627–630, 627, 628, 630
  • commerce 644–645
• glottalization 142
• GloWbE see Global Web‐Based English Corpus
• God of Small Things, The (Roy) 568–569, 573
• Goffman, Erving 599
• Gordimer, Nadine 390, 394
• Görlach, Manfred 513, 731, 735
• Gould, Stephen Jay 496
• grammar
  • African‐American English 315–317, 316
  • Caribbean Englishes 89, 94–97
  • commerce 641–642
  • contact linguistics 293
  • descriptive grammars 507–522
  • genres and styles in world Englishes 371–374, 379
  • lexicography 725–726, 736
  • literary dimension of world Englishes 394–395
  • People’s Republic of China 272
  • Scotland 27
  • Southeast Asian Englishes 143, 145, 147–151
  • speaking and writing in world Englishes 351–352
  • written language 337, 342–344
• grammar wars: seventeenth‐ and eighteenth‐century England 475–494
  • battle for a universal grammar 475, 479–483
  • foreigners and national identity 484–485
  • good writing versus good grammar 475, 478–479
  • grammarians and marginal groups 484–491
  • merits of English 476–477
  • middle class, grammar, and religion 487–491
  • practical grammars 481–483
  • repairing Babel 480–481
  • status of English vis‐à‐vis Latin 475–478
  • using Latin to standardize English 477–478
  • women 485–487
• grammar wars: the United States 495–506
  • Back to Basics and the Students’ Right 501–503
  • descriptive and generative structuralism 498–499
  • ethnocentrism and multiculturalism 501–503
  • generic masculine and sex‐neutral language: terms for minorities 503–504
  • grammar wars over theory 496–499
  • grammar wars over usage 499–504
  • historical, dialectal, and variation linguistics 497–498
  • Latinate and nativist grammars 496–497
  • Official English and non‐English languages 503
  • purism and relativism 500–501
  • usage and politics 504
  • word‐focused and clause‐focused grammars 497
• grammatical metaphor 342–344
• grapho‐hybridization 414
• Great Vowel Shift 26
• Greek language
  • Australian and New Zealand Englishes 78
  • grammar wars: the United States 495–496
  • written language 338–340
• Greenwood, James 485
• group‐exclusiveness 316–317
• Guattari, Felix 567–568
• Guide, The (Narayan) 564–565
• Gullah 300, 319
• gunny sack, The (Vassanji) 573
• Guttman scale 285–286
• Guyana 209, 211

• Habermas, Jurgen 564
• Haitian Creole 302, 304–306
• Halliday, Michael 385–386, 674–677
• Hall, J. Lesslie 501
• Hall, Joan 497
• Hamburg Corpus of Non‐native Varieties of English (HCNVE) 116–117
• Hannah, Jean 513–514
• Harris, James 482
• Harris, Roy 507, 509
• Hartlib, Samuel 485
• Havyaka 581
• Hawaiian Creole English 300, 303
• Hawaiian English 709
• Hawaii English Language Program (HELP) 433
• HCNVE see Hamburg Corpus of Non‐native Varieties of English
• h‐dropping 99
• HE see Highland English
• hedges 145
• HELP see Hawaii English Language Program
• Henry, Alison 516
• heteroglossia 421
• Hicky’s Bengal Gazette 117
• Highland English (HE) 21
• High/Low usage domains 10–14
• High Rising Terminal 73, 76, 79–80
• Hindi 110–111
  • advertising 625, 628
  • bilingual language play 417
  • creative acts of gender in world Englishes 581, 584, 587
  • culture wars 453–454
  • genres and styles in world Englishes 375–376
  • karmic cycle of world Englishes 769
  • speaking and writing in world Englishes 351–353
  • written language 341
• Hinduism 122
• hip‐hop 416, 424, 586, 604, 770
• Hiri Motu 300
• Hispanic varieties of American English 44
• historical linguistics 497–498, 513–514, 515–516
• Hobson‐Jobson (Yule & Burnell) 118, 732
• Hockett, Charles 498–499
• Hollywood
  • American English 46
  • genres and styles in world Englishes 374–375
  • media and communications 599–601, 602
• Ho, Mian Lian 513
• homophony 412
• Hong Kong English
  • bilingual language play 416–418
  • commerce 638
  • corpora studies and corpus linguistics 531
  • descriptive grammars 517
  • literary dimension of world Englishes 387
  • media and communications 602
• honorific/nonhonorific pronouns 351–352
• Hoole, Charles 476
• hot markets 618–619
• Howell, James 484
• Hundt, Marianne 516–517
• Huntington, Samuel P. 451–454
• hybridization/hybridity
  • bilingual language play 407, 414, 415–416
  • creative acts of gender in world Englishes 586
  • culture wars 450, 464
  • media and communications 605
  • People’s Republic of China 275
  • postcolonial theory 572–575
  • South Asian Englishes 122
  • Southern African Englishes 162
• Hymes, Dell 674–677
• hypocoristics 74

• ICE see International Corpus of English
• ICLE see International Corpus of Learner English
• identity
  • African‐American English 322
  • Australian and New Zealand Englishes 77–80
  • bilingual language play 416
  • Canadian English 56–57
  • colonial discourse and postcolonial critique 547, 553
  • creative acts of gender in world Englishes 578–593
  • culture wars 448–449, 456, 458–462
  • Euro‐Englishes 221
  • genres and styles in world Englishes 368, 370
  • grammar wars: seventeenth‐ and eighteenth‐century England 484–485
  • lexicography 728–729
  • media and communications 600–602
  • metaphoric self 570–572
  • People’s Republic of China 276
  • postcolonial theory 569–572
  • Russian Englishes 234
• ideology
  • African Englishes and creative writing 176–177
  • Australian and New Zealand Englishes 77
  • bilingual language play 418, 423
  • colonial discourse and postcolonial critique 544
  • creative acts of gender in world Englishes 578–579, 587
  • culture wars 450, 461
  • current debates and future directions 746
  • descriptive grammars 508, 515
  • lexicography 725
  • media and communications 597–600
  • People’s Republic of China 270–271
  • postcolonial theory 562–564, 569, 575–576
• idiolect 395–397, 400–401
• idioms/idiomatic expressions
  • East Asian Englishes 251, 258
  • literary dimension of world Englishes 396
  • South Asian Englishes 129
• IELTS see International English Language Testing System
• Igbo 179–180, 183, 185, 356, 397–398
• imaginative/innovative function 166–168
• Imagist Movement 385
• immersion education 269
• immigration
  • American English 38–39, 44–45
  • Australian and New Zealand Englishes 70, 71–72, 77
  • bilingual language play 422
  • Canadian English 53, 55–57, 55, 56, 62
  • Caribbean Englishes 91
  • current debates and future directions 751–752
• implicational scale 285–286
• Indian English (IndE) 108–111, 116–117, 120–122, 124–129
  • bilingual language play 409, 415, 417
  • colonial discourse and postcolonial critique 551
  • commerce 646
  • communicative competence 676
  • contact linguistics 295
  • corpora studies and corpus linguistics 525–526, 529–530
  • creative acts of gender in world Englishes 583–587
  • culture wars 453–454
  • current debates and future directions 749–750, 753
  • descriptive grammars 515, 515
  • genres and styles in world Englishes 368, 373, 375–379
  • intelligibility 431, 440
  • karmic cycle of world Englishes 763–764, 767
  • lexicography 732
  • literary dimension of world Englishes 394–395
  • media and communications 600–601
  • origins of English and early developments 8–10
  • speaking and writing in world Englishes 354, 357–360
  • written language 336, 341, 344
• indigenization
  • culture wars 458–459
  • karmic cycle of world Englishes 762
  • literary dimension of world Englishes 393
  • see also nativization
• indigenous languages
  • African Englishes and creative writing 175–180, 183, 185, 190–195
  • American English 38–39, 44
  • Australian and New Zealand Englishes 74, 77
  • Canadian English 52–53, 53, 62
  • creative acts of gender in world Englishes 581, 583–584
  • karmic cycle of world Englishes 770
  • language policy and planning 663–666, 669
  • literary dimension of world Englishes 397–398
  • mother tongue speakers of more than 100,000 53
  • postcolonial theory 561–562, 565–566
  • Russian Englishes 232–234, 233, 239–243
  • South American Englishes and Englishes in South America 201–202
  • Southeast Asian Englishes 138–140
  • Southern African Englishes 160–166, 170
• indirect questions 163
• Indonesian English 139
  • communicative competence 679
  • genres and styles in world Englishes 376–377
  • intelligibility 438–440
  • literary dimension of world Englishes 385
• infinitival markers 96
• Ingush 241
• institutionalization 109, 110
• instrumental function 166–168
• intelligibility 430–446
  • advertising 629–630, 630
  • communicative competence 677–680
  • concepts and definitions 431–432
  • international standardized English language proficiency tests 716, 720, 720
  • karmic cycle of world Englishes 767
  • lexicography 734
  • literary dimension of world Englishes 399
  • media and communications 603–604
  • native‐speakerism 431, 440–443
  • pedagogy 693
  • South American Englishes and Englishes in South America 205
  • study of intelligibility, comprehensibility, and interpretability 432–442
    • results and discussion 436–442, 436–437, 439, 441
    • test materials and procedures 434–435
    • tests 435
• intercultural communication
  • commerce 636, 637–639
  • East Asian Englishes 252–253
  • international standardized English language proficiency tests 717
  • pedagogy 696
  • Russian Englishes 238, 241–242
• interference see transfer/interference
• interlanguage
  • Australian and New Zealand Englishes 77
  • postcolonial theory 567
  • Russian Englishes 235
• International Corpus of English (ICE)
  • available corpora 528
  • composition of ICE corpora 528
  • contact linguistics 286
  • countries/regions in the ICE project 526
  • current debates and future directions 744
  • descriptive grammars 516, 517
  • South Asian Englishes 128
  • units and structures from morpheme to discourse (Kennedy) 533
  • world Englishes and corpora studies 526–532
• International Corpus of Learner English (ICLE) 531–532
• International English Language Testing System (IELTS) 705, 717
• international standardized English language proficiency tests (ISELPT) 703–724
  • alternative approaches to English language proficiency 712–720, 718–719
  • assessment of alternative approaches to ELP 720–721, 720–721
  • bottom‐up, person‐focused approaches 714–720, 718–719
  • concepts and definitions 705–708
  • defining English language proficiency 707
  • defining proficiency 706–707
  • defining the English language 705–706
  • effective communicator approach 715
  • English as a Lingua Franca 703, 711, 713–714
  • English as an International Language intelligibility approach 716, 720, 720
  • existing changes to the ISELPTs 710–711
  • functional approach 714
  • Global English Standard 706, 714
  • IELTS 705, 717
  • importance of persons 708–710
  • intercultural communication skills approach 717
  • multidimensionality of ELP 708
  • multiple methods approaches 717–720
  • multiple world Englishes approach 713
  • performative ability approach 717, 720–721, 721
  • resourcefulness approach 716
  • scale of range approach 716
  • scope of proficiency approach 715
  • single scale continuum of ELP 707–708
  • symbolic competence approach 716
  • TOEFL iBT 704, 709–710, 713, 717
  • TOEIC 704–705
  • top‐down, language‐focused approaches 712–714, 718
  • truth‐in‐advertising approach 712–713
  • weak and strong approaches to changing the ISELPTs 710–711
• Internet
  • corpora studies and corpus linguistics 530–532
  • creative acts of gender in world Englishes 586
  • current debates and future directions 752
  • Euro‐Englishes 222–223
  • media and communications 604
  • People’s Republic of China 271, 274–276
  • South American Englishes and Englishes in South America 204, 206, 210–211
• interpersonal function 166–168
• intonation 148, 411
• Inuit 53
• Invisible Bodies (Ramanujan) 565
• Ireland and Irish
  • Anglo‐Irish 286–287, 292, 395, 398–399, 515
  • Australian English 72
  • Caribbean Englishes 92
  • contact linguistics 286–287, 292
  • language policy and planning 666
  • origins of English and early developments 11–15
• irony 417
• ISELPT see international standardized English language proficiency tests
• Islam 122, 424
• Italian language 218
• Italy 638, 643

• JAIMS see Japan‐America Institute of Management Science
• Jainism 122
• Jakobsen, Roman 410
• Jam Fruit Tree, The (Muller) 118
• Japan 253–259
  • advertising 621, 624, 624, 628–629
  • bilingual language play 418, 423
  • commerce 637–638, 643
  • corporate responses to English as an international language 256–257
  • early contact 253–254
  • English in Japanese 254–255
  • English in Japanese society 254–257
  • genres and styles in world Englishes 373
  • intelligibility 436–440
  • international standardized English language proficiency tests 709
  • Japanese English creativity 257–259
  • karmic cycle of world Englishes 765, 767
  • media and communications 604–605
  • MEXT initiatives for improved ELT 257
  • pedagogy 694
  • proposal for English as a second official language 255–256
  • speaking and writing in world Englishes 352–354
• Japan‐America Institute of Management Science (JAIMS) 433
• Japanese‐Russian 241–242
• Japan‐India Business Cooperation Committee 637–638
• jargon 300–302
• Jean de Florette (Pagnol/Berri) 600
• Jesperson, Otto 508
• John Company 8–9
• Johnson, Ben 484
• Johnson, Cohn 390
• Johnson, Richard 478, 482, 488, 489
• Johnson, Samuel 489
• Jones, Rowland 483
• Jyväskylä Anglicism Project 602

• Kachru, Braj
  • African Englishes and creative writing 174, 194
  • bilingual language play 407, 415
  • colonial discourse and postcolonial critique 548
  • commerce 635
  • contact linguistics 283
  • creative acts of gender in world Englishes 579–580, 587
  • current debates and future directions 753–757
  • grammar wars: the United States 498
  • lexicography 731–733
  • literary dimension of world Englishes 386–387
  • postcolonial theory 562
• Kachru’s Circles of English
  • advertising 617, 619–622, 628–630
  • American English 37, 47
  • bilingual language play 408, 421–422
  • Canadian English 52–53
  • commerce 636, 637–639
  • communicative competence 676–683
  • corpora studies and corpus linguistics 526
  • creative acts of gender in world Englishes 578–580, 582–584, 586
  • culture wars 447–448, 453–454, 462–463
  • current debates and future directions 744–746, 745, 749–750, 753–754
  • East Asian Englishes 261
  • Euro‐Englishes 216–217, 220–222, 226
  • intelligibility 430, 443
  • international standardized English language proficiency tests 709, 715
  • karmic cycle of world Englishes 763–764, 766–769
  • language policy and planning 659–661, 664, 667, 670
  • lexicography 726, 731
  • media and communications 603
  • pedagogy 686–691, 694
  • People’s Republic of China 271, 275
  • Russian Englishes 232, 235–237, 242
  • South American Englishes and Englishes in South America 202–207, 212
  • South Asian Englishes 108
  • Southeast Asian Englishes 135, 141–153
  • Southern African Englishes 159–160
  • speaking and writing in world Englishes 349–350, 355–356, 358–362
  • written language 333, 346
• Kachru, Yamuna 636, 753–754
• Kama Sutra (Nair) 601
• Kannada 563–564, 581
• Kanthapura (Rao) 284, 458–459, 563–564, 574
• karmic cycle of world Englishes 761–779
  • acculturation and nativization 762, 763–766, 770
  • continuing debate over world (global, lingua franca) English 766–768
  • future of Englishes 768–770
  • impact of transplanted Englishes 763
  • implications for linguistic theory 766
  • spread of English 762
• katakana script 624, 624
• Kellogg, Brainerd 497
• Kennedy, Graeme 523, 532, 533
• Kikongo‐Kituba 300
• Kinubi 300
• koinéization
  • American English 39
  • Canadian English 56–57, 56
  • contact linguistics 290
  • pidgins and creoles 301
• Kolhapur corpus 525–526, 529–530
• Konglish 260–261
• Konkani 581
• Korean language 414
• Korea, Republic of 259–262
  • changes in ELT 259–260
  • commerce 637–638
  • corpus‐based studies of Korean English 261–262
  • English in Korea 260–261
  • media and communications 603, 604–605
  • speaking and writing in world Englishes 351–354, 356
• Kriol 76, 91
• Kurath, Hans 40–41

• Labov, William 41–42, 498
• Lacanian psychoanalysis 559–560
• Lakoff, George 504
• Lancaster‐Oslo/Bergen (LOB) corpus 524–526
• Lane, A. 476, 482, 485, 486, 489
• language bioprogram hypothesis 306
• Language Plan of Action for Africa (OAU/AU) 178, 190
• language play see bilingual language play
• language policy and planning 659–673
  • advertising 623
  • African Englishes and creative writing 177
  • broader issues in the context of English hegemony 667–668
  • choice and the hegemony of English 661–663
  • culture wars 451, 455
  • effect of the hegemony of English 663–667
  • implications 669–670
  • media and communications 606–607
  • recurrence of English in language policy discourse 660–661
  • South American Englishes 209–210
  • Southeast Asian Englishes 136
  • written language 341
• languages other than English (LOTE) 660–661
• Laos 140
• Latin language
  • grammar wars: seventeenth‐ and eighteenth‐century England 475–478
  • grammar wars: the United States 496–497, 500
  • lexicography 736
  • origins of English and early developments 14–15
  • written language 335, 338–340
• Laws of Manu 9
• Lebanese Australian English 78–79
• Leedes, Edward 479, 488
• left dislocation 129
• legal communications 373–374
• legitimacy 726
• Lehmann, Winfred 400
• Lesotho 159–160, 167
• letter writing 641–642
• Levitt, Theodore 616
• lexical hybridization see hybridization/hybridity
• lexicography 725–740
  • basic linguistic requirements 725–726
  • concept Englishes 728–729
  • current debates and future directions 745
  • dictionary tradition of English 733–735
  • idea of a dictionary 727–728
  • legitimacy and the dictionary 726
  • prescriptivism versus descriptivism 729–730
  • standards and norms 731–732
  • standards and the dictionary 726–727
  • toward a theoretical model 733
• lexicon/vocabulary
  • advertising 620, 629–630
  • African Englishes and creative writing 178–179
  • American English 40, 45–47
  • Australian and New Zealand Englishes 74
  • Canadian English 54, 58–59, 60–61, 60
  • Caribbean Englishes 97
  • commerce 641–642, 646
  • East Asian Englishes 250–251
  • genres and styles in world Englishes 371–374, 379
  • karmic cycle of world Englishes 764
  • lexicography 728
  • pedagogy 691
  • People’s Republic of China 271–272
  • Russian Englishes 237
  • Scotland 27–28
  • South Asian Englishes 121–123
  • Southeast Asian Englishes 143–151
  • Southern African Englishes 162–163
  • speaking and writing in world Englishes 352
  • written language 336–337
• liberal humanism 545–546
• Liberian English 91
• life‐cycle model 302
• limited meanings 122–123
• Lim, Shirley Geok‐Lin 584–585
• Lingala 300
• lingua franca
  • African Englishes and creative writing 175
  • Caribbean Englishes 88
  • commerce 645
  • communicative competence 681–682
  • East Asian Englishes 248–249
  • karmic cycle of world Englishes 766–768
  • language policy and planning 661, 663–664
  • media and communications 600
  • pidgins and creoles 307
  • Southeast Asian Englishes 140–141
  • see also English as a Lingua Franca
• linguistic and intellectual mutedness 585
• Linguistic Atlas of New England (Kurath) 41
• Linguistic Atlas of the Gulf States (Pederson) 41
• Linguistic Atlas of the Middle and South Atlantic States (Kurath) 41
• Linguistic Atlas of the United States and Canada (Alexander) 54
• linguistic autonomy 57–59
• linguistic defiance 585–586
• linguistic human rights 666–667
• Linguistic Imperialism (Phillipson) 748–749
• linkers 126–127
• listening comprehension 710–711
• literacy 358–359, 665–666
• literary criticism 398–401
• literature see creative writing/literature
• LMS see London Missionary Society
• loanwords/borrowings
  • bilingual language play 410
  • East Asian Englishes 254–255
  • Euro‐Englishes 219, 224
  • origins of English and early developments 7
  • Russian Englishes 239–242
  • Scotland 19, 27
  • South American Englishes and Englishes in South America 207–208, 211
  • South Asian Englishes 121–122
  • Southeast Asian Englishes 146, 148, 149–151
  • Southern African Englishes 162
  • written language 338–340
• LOB see Lancaster‐Oslo/Bergen
• localization
  • advertising 618, 626–630, 627, 628, 630
  • bilingual language play 417–418
  • commerce 644–645
  • creative acts of gender in world Englishes 587–588
  • postcolonial theory 568–569
• Lodowyck, Francis 480
• London Missionary Society (LMS) 292–293
• Longman grammar 510
• Longman Spoken and Written English Corpus (LSWE) 510
• LOTE see languages other than English
• Lowth, Bishop 478, 479, 483
• LSWE see Longman Spoken and Written English Corpus
• Lu‐go 422
• Lumbee English 44

• McArthur, Tom 514–515
• Macaulay’s Minute on Indian Education (1835) 110
• Macedonia 419
• Macintyre, Alasdair 569–570
• Macquarie Dictionary (Delbridge) 726–727, 734–735
• madhyama 455–456
• magnasyntax 516
• Maittaire, Michael 486–487
• Makin, Bathsua 486
• Malawi 159–164, 167
• Malaysia and Malaysian English 136–137, 141–144
  • commerce 638
  • communicative competence 679
  • culture wars 455
  • lexicography 735
  • media and communications 601
  • speaking and writing in world Englishes 357
• Maldives 115
• Malinowski, Bronislaw 635
• Mandarin
  • bilingual language play 414–416, 423
  • culture wars 453–454
  • karmic cycle of world Englishes 762, 768, 770
  • People’s Republic of China 267
  • Southeast Asian Englishes 136–137, 141
  • written language 340–341
• Mani, Lata 551
• Man of the People, A (Achebe) 179–188, 194
• Manon des Sources (Pagnol/Berri) 600
• mantra 455–456
• Maori English 79–80, 764
• Maori language 74
• Mao Zedong 341
• Markandaya, Kamala 391, 395
• maroon languages 88, 90–92
• Martin, Benjamin 482
• Masti (Kumar) 375–376
• Mather, William 486
• meaning‐making
  • commerce 642
  • communicative competence 675–676
  • written language 337–340
• meaning potential 675–676
• media and communications 597–615
  • approaches to media communication analysis 598–599
  • bilingual language play 419
  • creative acts of gender in world Englishes 579, 586–587
  • electronic media 604
  • future research directions 607
  • intelligibility and linguistic innovation 603–604
  • karmic cycle of world Englishes 767
  • language attitudes 602–603
  • legislation 606–607
  • linguistic and cultural identities 600–602
  • People’s Republic of China 270–271, 276
  • popular music 604–605
  • power and ideology 597–600
• meetings 642–643
• Meiji Restoration (1868) 253–254
• Melanesian pidgins/creoles 300, 305, 307
• mesolect
  • pidgins and creoles 302, 308
  • Russian Englishes 235, 237
• Mesthrie, Rajend 516
• metalinguistics 287
• metaphor
  • East Asian Englishes 258–259
  • genres and styles in world Englishes 379
  • grammar wars: the United States 504
  • grammatical metaphor 342–344
  • literary dimension of world Englishes 389, 392–393, 395–396
  • postcolonial theory 570–572
  • translation as a process of metaphor 344–345
• metaphoric self 570–572
• metaphysics 458–459
• Metis 53
• metonym 258–259
• Mexican‐American English 584
• Middle East 639
• Middle English 8
• Midgeley, Mary 550
• Midnight’s Children (Rushdie) 573–574
• Miège, Guy 478, 484
• Miller, Jim 516
• Milroy, James and Lesley 507–508
• Mirror of Language (Whorf) 396
• missionaries 292–295
• Mississippi Masala (Nair) 601
• Mistry, Rohinton 570
• Mobilian 300
• mock Englishization 411, 417–418
• modal verb systems 143, 145, 148
• modern Indian language (MIL) 111
• modernization
  • East Asian Englishes 249–250, 253
  • literary dimension of world Englishes 390, 392
  • People’s Republic of China 267–268
  • South Asian Englishes 114
  • Southern African Englishes 165
  • speaking and writing in world Englishes 358
• modernizing dictionaries 727
• monolingualism
  • advertising 626
  • commerce 635
  • communicative competence 677–678
  • culture wars 456, 464
  • language policy and planning 665
  • lexicography 735–736
  • literary dimension of world Englishes 385–386
  • pedagogy 692
  • see also native speakers and native‐speakerism
• monophthongization
  • American English 43, 45
  • Australian and New Zealand Englishes 73–74
  • Southeast Asian Englishes 142
  • written language 334
• Monsoon Wedding (Nair) 601
• Moody‐Adams, Michele 549–550
• Moore‐Gilbert, Bart 558
• morphology
  • American English 40–41
  • Australian and New Zealand Englishes 74
  • Canadian English 57, 59
  • Caribbean Englishes 98
  • contact linguistics 291
  • culture wars 448
  • descriptive grammars 513, 516–517
  • lexicography 725
  • People’s Republic of China 274
  • pidgins and creoles 300, 302
  • Russian Englishes 236–237
  • South Asian Englishes 121–123
  • written language 337
• Mozambique 159–160, 168–169
• MTV see Music Television Channel
• Mukherjee, Joybrato 108–109
• Mukherjee, Meenakshi 585
• Mulcaster, Richard 485
• multiculturalism
  • creative acts of gender in world Englishes 579–580, 587–588
  • grammar wars: the United States 501–503
  • language policy and planning 660
  • Russian Englishes 232–234, 233, 242–243
• multilingualism
  • advertising 626
  • African Englishes and creative writing 175, 193–194
  • bilingual language play 407–408
  • Caribbean Englishes 88
  • colonial discourse and postcolonial critique 553
  • creative acts of gender in world Englishes 579–582, 585, 588
  • culture wars 450, 456, 460–461, 464–466
  • current debates and future directions 752, 756–757
  • Euro‐Englishes 216
  • karmic cycle of world Englishes 762, 770
  • language policy and planning 662, 665
  • literary dimension of world Englishes 396–397
  • pedagogy 691
  • South Asian Englishes 108, 111, 115, 123
  • Southern African Englishes 166–168, 170
• multimodality 418–420
• multiple‐choice questions 434–435
• multiple world Englishes approach 713
• multivariate analysis 285–286
• multivocality 186–187
• Music Television Channel (MTV‐Europe) 605
• Myanmar 140
• mystique factor 625

• Naipaul, V. S. 575
• Nair, Mira 601
• names, Englishization of 208
• Namibia 159–160
• Narayan, R. K. 564–565
• National College Entrance Examination (NCEE) 268
• National English Ability Test (NEAT) 259–260
• Native Americans 38–39, 44
• native speakers and native‐speakerism
  • commerce 635
  • communicative competence 677–678, 680
  • culture wars 465
  • intelligibility 431–443
  • international standardized English language proficiency tests 705–706, 707–708, 710–712
  • karmic cycle of world Englishes 767
  • lexicography 733
  • pedagogy 691–692
  • South American Englishes and Englishes in South America 202–203
• nativist grammars 496–497
• nativization
  • American English 39
  • Canadian English 56
  • Caribbean Englishes 94
  • commerce 642
  • communicative competence 674, 676
  • creative acts of gender in world Englishes 583–584
  • current debates and future directions 756–757
  • Euro‐Englishes 225
  • karmic cycle of world Englishes 762, 763–766, 770
  • lexicography 731–732
  • pedagogy 692
  • People’s Republic of China 266
  • South Asian Englishes 108–109, 110
• NCEE see National College Entrance Examination
• Ndyuka 90–92
• NEAT see National English Ability Test
• Nectar in a Sieve (Markandaya) 391
• negation 96
• negotiation 642–644
• Negro Pidgin French 306
• Nelson, Cecil 732
• Neo‐Anglicist hypothesis 318, 320–321
• neocolonialism 557
• Nepal 113–114
• Netherlands, the
  • commerce 638
  • Euro‐Englishes 225–226
  • language policy and planning 661, 666
  • media and communications 603–604
• New Australian English 77–79
• New Chinglish 423–424
• new emergent hot markets 618–619
• New Englishes 287–292, 295, 390–391
• New Englishes: A West African Perspective (Bamgboșe, Banjo, & Thomas) 668
• New Guinea 639
• New Zealand English (NZE) 70–86
  • commerce 639
  • communicative competence 676
  • corpora studies and corpus linguistics 525–526, 530
  • current changes 80
  • descriptions 73–80
  • descriptive grammars 515, 516–517
  • development 71–73
  • features distinguishing Australian and New Zealand Englishes 73–75
  • gold rushes and new migration, 1850–1900 72
  • impact of American English 47
  • independence, 1900–1960 72
  • indigenous languages 74
  • lexicography 732
  • literary dimension of world Englishes 388, 394
  • national standard, 1960–present 73
  • settlement and founding, 1820–1850 72
  • sociolinguistic variation 75–76
  • varieties 79–80
• NGO see nongovernmental organizations
• Ngũgĩ wa Thiong’o 174–177, 188–190, 194, 580
• nicknames 74
• Nigerian English
  • African Englishes and creative writing 179–188, 194
  • commerce 639
  • communicative competence 676
  • culture wars 454
  • genres and styles in world Englishes 368
  • impact of American English 47
  • karmic cycle of world Englishes 763
  • language policy and planning 660, 668
  • literary dimension of world Englishes 395
  • pedagogy 691
  • written language 344
• Nigerian Pidgin English 186–187, 194, 300, 462
• Njara, Emmanuel 400
• Nkosi, Lewis 395
• NNEST see non‐native English‐speaker teachers
• NNS see non‐native speakers
• noncount nouns see count/noncount nouns
• nongovernmental organizations (NGO) 139
• non‐native English‐speaker teachers (NNEST) 691–692
• non‐native speakers (NNS)
  • culture wars 465
  • intelligibility 431–443
  • international standardized English language proficiency tests 708–711
  • pedagogy 687, 690–692
• normalized Pairwise Variability Index (nPVI) 150
• Norman Conquest 7, 13–14, 19
• North American academic English 712–713
• Northern Cities Shift 42
• Norway 638
• noun modifiers 151
• nPVI see normalized Pairwise Variability Index
• Nuclear English 646
• Nwapa, Flora 174, 188–190, 194
• NZE see New Zealand English

• OAU see Organization of African Unity
• observer’s paradox 41–42
• Oduol, Jacqueline Adhiambo 585
• Official English movement 503
• Ogden, Charles K. 734
• Okara, Gabriel 174, 177, 188–190, 194, 460
• Okin, Susan 546
• Old English (Anglo‐Saxon) 6–8, 18–19, 335, 339
• Old Norse 18–19
• One is Enough (Nwapa) 188–190
• OQLF see Quebec Office of the French Language
• Organization of African Unity (OAU) 178, 190
• Orientalism (Said) 543–545, 548, 559
• origins of English and early developments 5–16
  • French language and the Norman Conquest 6–8, 13–14
  • High/Low usage domains 10–14
  • Ireland 11–15
  • Middle English and the Age of Discovery 8–9
  • Old English (Anglo‐Saxon) 6–8
  • regional accents 8–9
  • Wales 10–15
• orthographies 412, 413–415, 424
• othering 544, 547
• Other Tongue, The (Bailey and Görlach) 457

• Pakir, Anne 726–727
• Pakistani English (PakE) 108–109, 111–112, 120–122, 124–128
  • descriptive grammars 515, 515
  • genres and styles in world Englishes 378–379
• panchronic development 286
• Papiomentu 300
• Papua New Guinea 436–437, 440
• parachute reporters 602
• paradigmatic order 337
• Paraguay 202–203
• parallel structure 164
• paraphrasing 623–624
• Parlez‐Vous Franglais? (Etiemble) 606
• passive/active voice 149
• past tense markers 95
• pedagogy 686–702
  • communicative competence 680–682, 693
  • communicative language teaching 268, 682
  • content of a world English course 695–696
  • courses about world Englishes 694–697
  • instructional model 687–688
  • program examples 694, 697
  • reconceptualizing correctness 692–693
  • reconceptualizing English‐speaking culture(s) 689–690
  • reconceptualizing English users 690–692
  • reconceptualizing English varieties 687–689
  • resources for teaching a WE course 696
  • resources for WE‐informed ELT 693–694
  • understanding of other English varieties 688–689
  • world English‐informed ELT 686–694
• People’s Republic of China (PRC) 248–253, 266–280
  • bilingual language play 416, 419–420, 423–424
  • business, trade and tourism 270
  • code‐mixing 272–276
  • colonial discourse and postcolonial critique 549
  • commerce 637–638
  • communicative competence 680–681
  • current English language situation and educational responses 249–250
  • describing Chinese English 250–253
  • East Asian Englishes 248–253
  • education 268–269
  • features of Chinese English 271–272
  • first contact and Chinese Pidgin English 248–249
  • functions of English 268–271
  • genres and styles in world Englishes 373
  • intelligibility 436–440
  • karmic cycle of world Englishes 768
  • literary dimension of world Englishes 385
  • media and communications 270–271, 276
  • speaking and writing in world Englishes 354–355, 361
  • statistics and trends 267
  • status and functions of English 267
  • written language 339–341
• performative ability approach 717, 720–721, 721
• Peru 202
• PETS see Public English Test System
• Philippines and Philippine English 138–139, 147–148
  • culture wars 455
  • intelligibility 431, 437
  • language policy and planning 664
• Phillipson, Robert 562, 580, 748–749
• phonemic matching see rhyming
• phonology/phonetics
  • advertising 623–624
  • African‐American English 315–317, 316
  • American English 43–45
  • Australian and New Zealand Englishes 73–74, 75–76, 78–80
  • Canadian English 58, 60–61, 60
  • Caribbean Englishes 93–94, 98–100
  • contact linguistics 294
  • culture wars 448
  • intelligibility 432
  • pedagogy 691
  • People’s Republic of China 271
  • Russian Englishes 236–237
  • Scotland 25–26
  • South Asian Englishes 119–121
  • Southeast Asian Englishes 141–151
  • Southern African Englishes 161–162
• phrasal verbs 148, 163–164
• Pidgin English of Bombay 119
• pidgins 299–313
  • African Englishes and creative writing 186–187
  • Australian and New Zealand Englishes 76
  • Caribbean Englishes 88, 90
  • concepts and definitions 299–304
  • contact linguistics 287–289
  • creolistics and general linguistics 307
  • current debates and future directions 745
  • decreolization and the postcreole continuum 302–303
  • development of creoles 304–307
  • East Asian Englishes 248–249
  • literary dimension of world Englishes 399
  • People’s Republic of China 272
  • Russian Englishes 234
  • South Asian Englishes 117–119
• Pinker, Stephen 499
• pinyin alphabetism 414–415
• Plain English movement 345
• Platt, John 513
• pluralization 96
• poetry see creative writing/literature
• politeness
  • creative acts of gender in world Englishes 583–584
  • discernment/deference in speech 352, 353–356
  • silence as speech act 356–357
  • South Asian Englishes 128
  • speaking and writing in world Englishes 350–362
• political discourse 504
• polylanguaging 752
• pool of variants 287, 294
• popular culture
  • bilingual language play 408–409, 416, 419, 424
  • creative acts of gender in world Englishes 586
  • hip‐hop 416, 424, 586, 604, 770
  • karmic cycle of world Englishes 770
  • media and communications 600–601, 604–605
• popularisers 745
• Portuguese language
  • African Englishes and creative writing 174–176, 191–195
  • creative acts of gender in world Englishes 581
  • karmic cycle of world Englishes 769
  • pidgins and creoles 300, 301–302
  • South American Englishes and Englishes in South America 201–202, 206–212
  • South Asian Englishes 112–113, 119
  • Southern African Englishes 168–169
• possession 96
• postcolonial theory 557–577
  • conceptualizing postcolonialism 558–562
  • creative acts of gender in world Englishes 580–581
  • current debates and future directions 746
  • hybridity 572–575
  • literary dimension of world Englishes 389
  • metaphoric selves and postcolonial studies 570–572
  • neocolonialism 557
  • public sphere 564–570
  • relation of postcolonial studies to world Englishes 562–564
  • see also colonial discourse and postcolonial critique
• postcreole continuum 302–303
• poststructuralism 544, 547
• power/authority
  • colonial discourse and postcolonial critique 543–545
  • creative acts of gender in world Englishes 578–579, 580–582, 585–586
  • language policy and planning 664–665
  • lexicography 725, 730, 733
  • literary dimension of world Englishes 386, 399–400
  • media and communications 597–600
  • postcolonial theory 559, 562–564, 567
  • speaking and writing in world Englishes 350, 360
  • written language 335, 337, 339–340, 345–346
• pragmatics
  • bilingual language play 420
  • communicative competence 677
  • culture wars 448
  • East Asian Englishes 251–252
  • Euro‐Englishes 215
  • intelligibility 432
  • international standardized English language proficiency tests 720–721, 721
  • People’s Republic of China 272
  • Russian Englishes 237
• Prator, Clifford 677–678
• PRC see People’s Republic of China
• prepositions/prepositional phrases 147–149
• prescriptivism 729–730
• present tense 124, 289
• Priestley, Joseph 478, 479, 482–483
• professional discourse 637–639
• progressive aspect 95, 123–124
• pronouns
  • Caribbean Englishes 95–96
  • gender pronouns 237
  • honorific/nonhonorific pronouns 351–352
  • omission 143
  • resumptive pronouns 129
• proportion of vocalic intervals (%V) 150
• prosody 78
• Public English Test System (PETS) 250
• public sphere 564–570
• puffery 625
• punctuated equilibrium 496
• punning 407, 411–413, 421–422, 625
• purism 500–501
• Putonghua 267, 416

• Quebec Office of the French Language (OQLF) 607
• Quebecois 52, 61, 605, 606–607
• Quechua 201
• question forms 125–126, 143, 147, 163
• Quirk (et al.) grammar 509–517
• Quirk, Randolph 462–463, 523, 677–678

• racism 543–544
• Ramanujan, A. K. 565
• Rao, Raja 458–459, 563–564, 574
• rating scales 710
• Razia’s Ray of Hope 115–116
• Received Pronunciation (RP)
  • Australian and New Zealand Englishes 75
  • Canadian English 61
  • communicative competence 677
  • contact linguistics 295
  • media and communications 598, 602
  • origins of English and early developments 9
  • Southern African Englishes 161
• recreolization 92–93
• reduplication 150
• Reed, Alonzo 497
• regional accents/dialects
  • advertising 621–622
  • African‐American English 317–318, 322–325
  • American English 38–43
  • Australian and New Zealand Englishes 80
  • Canadian English 54, 60–61, 60, 63–64
  • Caribbean Englishes 87, 89–90, 92–94, 96–100
  • contact linguistics 288–289, 293–295
  • creative acts of gender in world Englishes 581–582
  • descriptive grammars 510
  • international standardized English language proficiency tests 708–710
  • lexicography 727, 730
  • origins of English and early developments 8–9
  • Scotland 25, 27–28
  • South American Englishes and Englishes in South America 205
  • written language 333–334
• register
  • commerce 640
  • genres and styles in world Englishes 368, 371
  • lexicography 728
• regulative function 166–168
• relative clauses 517
• relativism 500–501, 545–546, 549–552
• relexification hypothesis 304–305
• repetition 188–189
• Republic of Korea see Korea, Republic
• resourcefulness approach 716
• restructured Englishes 87–94, 97
• resumptive pronouns 129
• rhetorical context 369
• rhetorical strategies 355, 357–362, 373
• rhetorical styles 679
• rhoticity
  • Australian and New Zealand Englishes 80
  • Caribbean Englishes 99
  • Scotland 25
• rhyming 407, 416–417, 625
• Rice, John 485, 490
• ritual 458–459
• River Between, The (Ngũgĩ) 188–190, 391
• role‐plays 720–721, 721
• Romaine, Suzanne 516
• Roman Empire 5–6, 11–12
• Romanization
  • advertising 623–624, 624, 624
  • bilingual language play 413–415
  • Russian Englishes 236, 241–242
• Rorty, Richard 572–573
• Roy, Arundhati 568–569, 573
• RP see Received Pronunciation
• Rushdie, Salman 563–564, 566, 568–570, 572–575
• Russian Englishes 232–247
  • continuum of Russian English 234–235, 242
  • Englishization of Russian and indigenous languages 239–242
  • Euro‐Englishes 225
  • features of Russian English 236–237
  • functions of Russian English 238–239
  • multiculturalism 232–234, 233, 242–243
  • standards of Russian English 235–236
• Russian English: History, Functions, and Features (Proshina & Eddy) 225, 750
• Russian language 412–419, 769
• Russian Language on the Brink of a Nervous Breakdown, The (Krongauz) 240

• SAARC see South Asian Association for Regional Cooperation
• SADC see Southern African Development Community
• SAE see South Asian Englishes
• Said, Edward 543–545, 548, 558–560, 562
• SAIE see South African Indian English
• sailors 288–289
• Salaam Bombay! (Nair) 601
• SAmE see Standard American English
• Sango 300
• San Juan, E. 561
• Sanskrit 339–340, 395, 459, 461
• Saraceni, Mario 750–751
• Saramaccan 88, 91–92, 300, 307
• Seargeant, Philip 747–748
• Satanic Verses, The (Rushdie) 448, 563–564, 572
• sati 551
• SAVE see South Asian varieties of English
• SBrE see Standard British English
• scale of range approach 716
• SCE see Standardized Canadian English
• Schneider’s dynamic model
  • American English 39
  • Canadian English 56, 56
  • South Asian Englishes 108–110
• Schwartz, Marilyn 504
• scientific discourse 342–345
• scope of proficiency approach 715
• Scotland 17–33
  • ascendance of Inglis 19–20
  • Caribbean Englishes 92
  • characteristics of present‐day Scottish English varieties 25–28
  • contact linguistics 292
  • descriptive grammars 516
  • distinctive lexis 27–28
  • earliest days 18
  • from Inglis to Scottis to Scots 20
  • future for Scottish Englishes 28–29
  • grammatical differences 27
  • Highland English and Gaelic 21
  • historical development of the Scottish varieties 18–21
  • impact of Old Norse 18–19
  • increasing Anglicization 20–21
  • influence of Norman French 19
  • parallel development of cognate varieties 18
  • phonological characteristics 25–26
  • present‐day Scottish‐English linguistic continuum 21–23, 22
  • problems of definition and terminology 23–24
  • problems of status 24–25
  • Scots 22, 24, 28–29, 292, 516
  • Scots‐influenced Canadian English 61
  • Scottish Gaelic 12–13, 17–18, 21
  • Scottish Standard English 23, 24
  • written and spoken forms of Scottish English 23
• Scottish National Dictionary, The (Grant & Murison) 28
• Scottish Vowel Length Rule (SVLR) 26
• scripts
  • advertising 623–624, 624, 624, 628
  • bilingual language play 413–415
  • see also Romanization
• second diaspora
  • American English 37–51
  • Australian and New Zealand Englishes 70–86
  • Canadian English 52–69
  • Caribbean Englishes 87–103
  • literary dimension of world Englishes 387
• second language acquisition (SLA) research 716
• section‐counting method 509–510
• Security, Territory, Population (Foucault) 543
• semantic extensions 356–357
• semantic field theory 336
• semantics
  • advertising 629–630
  • bilingual language play 420–423
  • commerce 645–646
  • contact linguistics 294–295
  • East Asian Englishes 258
  • pedagogy 691
  • Russian Englishes 238, 240–241
  • written language 336, 338–340, 344
• semantic shift 123
• semiotics
  • literary dimension of world Englishes 389, 391–392, 400
  • postcolonial theory 567–568
  • written language 337–342, 344–345
• semogenic strategies 337–340
• serial verbs 97
• settlers 289–292
• SEU see Survey of English Usage
• sex‐neutral language 503–504
• Shastri, S. V. 525
• Sherzer, Joel 408–409
• shibboleths 500–501
• Shills, Edward 465
• Ship English 288–289
• Shohat, Ella 546, 553, 560
• Sidhwa, Bapsi 585–586
• Sikhism 122
• silence 356–357
• simile 392–393
• Simplified English 645–646
• Singapore and Singapore English 137, 144–146
  • bilingual language play 409
  • communicative competence 676, 679
  • contact linguistics 285–287
  • culture wars 454–455
  • genres and styles in world Englishes 368, 374–375
  • karmic cycle of world Englishes 763
  • lexicography 727, 735
  • literary dimension of world Englishes 395
  • speaking and writing in world Englishes 357
• Singlish 423
• Sinhalese 110, 112–113
• Sino‐Russian 241–242
• SLA see sec ond language acquisition
• slang 24
• slavery
  • African‐American English 318–321
  • American English 38
  • Caribbean Englishes 88–92, 97
  • colonial discourse and postcolonial critique 548
  • pidgins and creoles 300, 302, 305
• SLE see Sri Lankan English
• Sledd, James H. 466
• Smith, Larry 753–754
• Snell, George 476–477, 488
• social construction 580–584
• social dialects
  • African‐American English 325
  • American English 44
  • Australian and New Zealand Englishes 75–76, 78–79
  • Canadian English 61–62
  • colonial discourse and postcolonial critique 547
  • contact linguistics 288–289, 293–294
  • creative acts of gender in world Englishes 581–582
• socialization 641
• socially realistic linguistics 640
• social media
  • advertising 619, 629
  • creative acts of gender in world Englishes 586
  • current debates and future directions 752
  • media and communications 604
  • People’s Republic of China 271, 276
• sociocultural appropriateness
  • communicative competence 674–677, 679–683
  • genres and styles in world Englishes 379
  • karmic cycle of world Englishes 764–766, 770
  • pedagogy 687–688, 693
  • South Asian Englishes 127–128
  • speaking and writing in world Englishes 357–362
• sociolinguistics
  • advertising 619
  • African‐American English 322, 325
  • African Englishes and creative writing 174
  • American English 41–42
  • Australian and New Zealand Englishes 75–76
  • bilingual language play 422–424
  • colonial discourse and postcolonial critique 552
  • communicative competence 674–676
  • contact linguistics 283–286
  • creative acts of gender in world Englishes 579–580, 582–584, 587–588
  • culture wars 459–460, 463–464
  • current debates and future directions 750, 751–752, 755–757
  • descriptive grammars 507, 515–517
  • intelligibility 431
  • karmic cycle of world Englishes 761–762, 770
  • media and communications 598–599
  • People’s Republic of China 266
  • pidgins and creoles 307
  • Russian Englishes 235
  • South American Englishes and Englishes in South America 212
  • South Asian Englishes 128
  • written language 335–336
• sociology of language 745
• soldiers 295
• Something’s Gotta Give (Meyers) 374–375
• Song of Lawino (p’Bitek) 389
• South Africa and South African English 159–160, 162–168
  • Black South African English 160, 162–165, 517–518, 599, 663
  • commerce 639
  • communicative competence 679, 683
  • contact linguistics 290–293
  • corpora studies and corpus linguistics 530
  • impact of American English 47
  • language policy and planning 663, 666
  • lexicography 730, 731
  • literary dimension of world Englishes 390
• South African Indian English (SAIE)
  • contact linguistics 286–287, 292
  • descriptive grammars 516
  • language policy and planning 663
• South American Englishes and Englishes in South America 201–214
  • advertising 206–207, 208–209
  • commerce 639
  • creativity 207–208
  • domains of use and functions of English 206–211
  • Englishization of names 208
  • English language schools 202–203
  • higher education 210
  • historical antecedent 203
  • indigenous languages 201–202
  • Internet 204, 206, 210–211
  • legal domains 209–210
  • uses of English 204–205
  • varieties of English 205–206
• South Asian Association for Regional Cooperation (SAARC) 107
• South Asian Englishes (SAE) 107–134
  • Afghanistan 115–116
  • Baboo/Babu English 118–119
  • Bangladesh 112
  • Bhutan 114
  • bilingualism 110, 116–117, 123
  • Box‐wallah English 119
  • Butler English 116, 118
  • Chee Chee English 117–118
  • commerce 637–638, 642
  • early contact varieties in South Asia 117–119
  • English in South Asia 109–116
  • India after 1947 108–111, 116–117, 120–122, 124–129
  • karmic cycle of world Englishes 762
  • lexicography 731–733
  • main features of South Asian Englishes 119–130
  • Maldives 115
  • morphology and lexicon 121–123
  • multilingualism 108, 111, 115, 123
  • Nepal 113–114
  • Pakistan after 1947 108–109, 111–112, 120–122, 124–128
  • phonology 119–121
  • Pidgin English of Bombay 119
  • spread of English in colonial India 109–110
  • Sri Lanka 108–109, 112–113, 121–125, 128–129
  • syntactic features 123–130
  • varieties of South Asian English 116–117
• South Asian varieties of English (SAVE) corpus 128, 744
• Southeast Asian Englishes 135–158
  • Brunei and Brunei English 137–138, 146–147
  • Cambodia and Cambodian English 139, 149–150
  • commerce 637–638
  • historical and sociopolitical aspects 135–141
  • Indonesia 139
  • karmic cycle of world Englishes 762
  • Laos 140
  • lexicography 726–727, 731, 735
  • linguistic features of Expanding Circle Englishes 149–151, 153
  • linguistic features of Outer Circle Englishes 141–148, 153
  • Malaysia and Malaysian English 136–137, 141–144
  • Myanmar 140
  • Philippines and Philippine English 138–139, 147–148
  • Singapore and Singapore English 137, 144–146
  • speaking and writing in world Englishes 360
  • Thailand and Thai English 140–141, 150–151
  • Vietnam and Vietnamese English 141, 151
• Southern African Development Community (SADC) 168
• Southern African Englishes 159–172
  • attitudes toward English in Southern Africa 159, 168–169
  • Black South African English 160, 162–165, 517–518, 599, 663
  • forms of Southern African Englishes 160–166
  • functions of English in Southern Africa 166–168
  • indigenous languages 160–166, 170
  • lexical features 162–163
  • phonological features 161–162
  • South African Indian English 286–287, 292, 516, 663
  • syntactic features, Southern African Englishes 163–166
• Southern Drawl 43
• Southern European‐American Englishes 316–318, 320–321
• Southland Dialect 80
• Soyinka, Wole 459–460
• Spain 638
• Spanglish 205
• Spanish language
  • bilingual language play 417
  • culture wars 453–454
  • karmic cycle of world Englishes 769
  • pidgins and creoles 300
  • South American Englishes and Englishes in South America 201–202, 211–212
• speech acts
  • creative acts of gender in world Englishes 583–584
  • cross‐cultural speech act research 350–351
  • discernment/deference in speech 353–356
  • karmic cycle of world Englishes 764
  • linguistic politeness 350–357
  • silence as speech act 356–357
  • speaking and writing in world Englishes 349–357, 362
• speech communities
  • African‐American English 321–325, 323–324
  • bilingual language play 418
  • communicative competence 675–676
  • creative acts of gender in world Englishes 583
  • culture wars 450, 463
  • current debates and future directions 752
  • Euro‐Englishes 216–217, 219–222, 224–225
  • lexicography 725, 734
  • pedagogy 691
• speech play see bilingual language play
• spelling 46–47
• Spivak, Gayatri 551, 558–560, 564–567, 569
• spoken language
  • commerce 642–644
  • contact linguistics 285–286
  • creative acts of gender in world Englishes 582–584
  • cross‐cultural speech act research 350–351
  • discernment/deference in speech 353–356
  • international standardized English language proficiency tests 711
  • linguistic politeness 350–357
  • silence as speech act 356–357
  • speaking and writing in world Englishes 349–357, 362
  • see also speech acts
• sports commentary 377–379
• Sranan 300
• Sri (Kapoor) 564
• Sri Lankan English (SLE) 108–109, 112–113, 121–125, 128–129
  • karmic cycle of world Englishes 762
  • language policy and planning 665
• Standard American English (SAmE)
  • African Englishes and creative writing 178, 180–181
  • current debates and future directions 752
  • descriptive grammars 511–515
• Standard British English (SBrE)
  • African Englishes and creative writing 178, 180–181
  • communicative competence 677–678
  • descriptive grammars 511–515
  • written language 334–335, 337–339
• standard‐creating dictionaries 727
• standard descriptive dictionaries 727
• Standardized Canadian English (SCE) 59–60
• state media 249–250
• State of the Language, The (Michaels and Ricks) 457
• static verb forms 123–124
• status
  • advertising 618, 623–624
  • African‐American English 322
  • African Englishes and creative writing 175–176
  • American English 47
  • Australian and New Zealand Englishes 72, 75–76, 80
  • bilingual language play 421–423
  • Canadian English 63–64
  • Caribbean Englishes 90
  • contact linguistics 286–287
  • creative acts of gender in world Englishes 581–582
  • Euro‐Englishes 220–221
  • grammar wars: seventeenth‐ and eighteenth‐century England 475–478
  • language policy and planning 660, 662–666
  • media and communications 602–603
  • pedagogy 691
  • People’s Republic of China 267
  • Scotland 24–25
  • South American Englishes and Englishes in South America 206–207, 208–209
  • South Asian Englishes 107, 109–112, 119
  • Southeast Asian Englishes 136–139
  • Southern African Englishes 159, 168–169
  • written language 339
• stereotyping 321–322, 600–602
• storytelling 720, 720
• strategic linguistic weapon 459–460
• structuralism 498–499, 508–509, 510–512
• Student Character of the Present Time, The (Shoyo) 254
• Students’ Right 501–503
• style see genres and styles in world Englishes
• subcultures 241, 322–323
• subject‐verb agreement 124, 145, 148
• subject‐verb inversion 125, 163
• substrates
  • African‐American English 318, 321
  • Caribbean Englishes 89
  • pidgins and creoles 304–305
  • South Asian Englishes 120–121
• superstrates
  • Caribbean Englishes 89
  • contact linguistics 287–290, 293
  • pidgins and creoles 305–306
• supranational speech communities 218, 219–222
• suprasegmental features
  • African‐American English 315
  • South Asian Englishes 120–121
  • Southeast Asian Englishes 143, 145, 148–150
  • Southern African Englishes 161
• Suriname 211
• Surinamese creoles 88–91, 94
• Survey of English Usage (SEU) 523
• SVLR see Scottish Vowel Length Rule
• Swahili 666
• Swahinglish 423
• Swaziland 159–160, 162–163, 167
• Sweden
  • current debates and future directions 751–752
  • Euro‐Englishes 220
  • media and communications 602
• Swift, Jonathan 477–478, 488–489
• Switzerland 661
• syllable‐timed rhythmic patterns 120–121, 143, 148
• symbolic competence approach 716
• syntax
  • African Englishes and creative writing 180–181
  • American English 47
  • Australian and New Zealand Englishes 74, 77
  • Canadian English 59
  • Caribbean Englishes 89, 93–94
  • commerce 646
  • contact linguistics 285–286, 289–291
  • culture wars 448
  • descriptive grammars 509–510, 513, 514–515, 515–517
  • East Asian Englishes 251, 258
  • lexicography 725
  • pedagogy 691
  • pidgins and creoles 300
  • Russian Englishes 237
  • South Asian Englishes 123–130
  • Southern African Englishes 163–166

• Tagalog 139, 148
• tag questions 125–126
• Taiwanese English (TE) 262
  • bilingual language play 423
  • speaking and writing in world Englishes 355–356
• Tamil 112–113, 392, 665
• Tanzania 666
• Tatar 241
• TE see Taiwanese English
• teachers 295
• Teaching English as an International Language (TEIL) 689, 693–694
• Teaching English for No Obvious Reason (TENOR) 707
• Teaching English in English (TEE) 259
• Teaching English to Speakers of Other Languages (TESOL) 288
• Teaching for Specific Purposes (TSP) 647–648
• TEE see Teaching English in English
• TELA see transplanted European languages of Africa
• TEM see Test for English Majors
• TENOP see testing English for no obvious purpose
• TENOR see Teaching English for No Obvious Reason
• tenses
  • Caribbean Englishes 95
  • contact linguistics 289
  • karmic cycle of world Englishes 764
  • Southeast Asian Englishes 148, 149
  • Southern African Englishes 164
• TESOL see Teaching English to Speakers of Other Languages
• Test for English Majors (TEM) 269
• testing English for no obvious purpose (TENOP) 707
• Test of English as a Foreign Language Internet Based Test (TOEFL iBT) 433, 704, 709–710, 713, 717
• Test of English for International Communication (TOEIC) 255–256, 704–705
• text type 368
• T‐glottalling 25
• Thailand and Thai English 140–141, 150–151
  • intelligibility 434
  • media and communications 599–600
  • speaking and writing in world Englishes 351–354
• Things Fall Apart (Achebe) 179–188, 194, 391
• think global and act local 627
• think local and act local 627–628, 628
• third diaspora
  • African Englishes and creative writing 173–197
  • literary dimension of world Englishes 387–388
  • South Asian Englishes 107–134
  • Southeast Asian Englishes 135–158
  • Southern African Englishes 159–172
• This Earth My Brother (Awoonor) 390
• Thoreau, Henry David 553
• Three Language Formula 111
• th‐stopping 100
• Thumboo, Edwin 344, 456
• TOEFL iBT see Test of English as a Foreign Language Internet Based Test
• TOEIC see Test of English for International Communication
• Tok Pisin 300
• tone languages 411
• top‐down, language‐focused approaches 712–714, 718
• topicalization 129
• Toubon Law (1994) 606, 623
• tourism 270
• Toward the decolonization of African literature (Chinweizu, Jemie, and Madubuike) 173–175
• traders 289–292
• transborder languages 192
• transcreation of narratives 174, 176
• transfer/interference
  • African Englishes and creative writing 179
  • Australian and New Zealand Englishes 77
  • communicative competence 676–677
  • Russian Englishes 236–237
• translanguaging 239, 243, 752, 756–757
• translations
  • advertising 623–624, 629–630, 630
  • African Englishes and creative writing 176
  • creative acts of gender in world Englishes 584
  • East Asian Englishes 251, 255
  • Euro‐Englishes 224
  • media and communications 607
  • People’s Republic of China 271, 274
  • South Asian Englishes 123, 129
  • Southeast Asian Englishes 151
  • translation as a process of metaphor 344–345
  • written language 341, 344–345
• transliteration 236, 241–242, 414
• transnationalism 218, 219–222, 224–225
• transplanted European languages of Africa (TELA) 174–176, 191–195
• transplanting 240–241
• Treaty of Tientsin (Tianjin) 249
• Treaty of Union (1707) 17, 20
• Treichler, Paula 504
• triphthongs 144
• Trudgill, Peter 56–57, 513–514
• truth‐in‐advertising approach 712–713
• Tryon, Thomas 488
• TSP see Teaching for Specific Purposes
• Tswana English 164
• Tupi‐Guarani 201
• Twi 88, 97

• UAE see United Arab Emirates
• uncountable nouns see count/noncount nouns
• UNESCO Institute for Lifelong Learning 178, 190–193
• Union of the Scottish and English Crowns (1603) 17
• United Arab Emirates (UAE) 639
• United Nations Millennium Development Goals 669–670
• United Nations Transitional Authority in Cambodia (UNTRAC) 139
• United States see American English
• Universal Declaration of Linguistic Rights (1998: 27) 667
• universals
  • Caribbean Englishes 89
  • commerce 645–646
  • creative acts of gender in world Englishes 585
  • grammar wars: seventeenth‐ and eighteenth‐century England 475, 479–483
  • pidgins and creoles 306
• unstressed do 294–295
• UNTRAC see United Nations Transitional Authority in Cambodia
• Updike, John 569
• urbanization 275–276
• urban public signage 598
• Urdu 110, 111–112, 769

• Vakil, Aradashri 568
• Van Rooy, Bertus 517–518
• VARBRUL analysis 286
• variation linguistics
  • African‐American English 314–330
  • contact linguistics 283–298
  • descriptive grammars 512–515
  • grammar wars: the United States 497–498
  • pidgins and creoles 299–313
• VARIENG see Centre of Excellence for the Study of Variation, Contacts, and Change in English
• Vassanji, Moyez 573
• velar fricative 25
• Venezuela 202–205
• Vietnam and Vietnamese English 141, 151
• Vietnamese language 413
• Viswanathan, Gauri 562
• vocabulary see lexicon/vocabulary
• voice see passive/active voice
• voiceless affricates 151, 202
• voiceless fricatives
  • Scotland 25
  • South American Englishes and Englishes in South America 202
  • Southeast Asian Englishes 142, 146, 151
• voiceless stops 142, 144, 146
• Voice, The (Okara) 188–190, 194, 284, 389, 393
• vowels
  • American English 43
  • Australian and New Zealand Englishes 73–74, 75, 76
  • Canadian English 58
  • Caribbean Englishes 98–99
  • Russian Englishes 236
  • Scotland 26
  • South Asian Englishes 120
  • Southeast Asian Englishes 142, 144, 146–147, 150–151
  • Southern African Englishes 161
• v‐w merger 99

• WAE see West African Englishes
• Walden (Thoreau) 553
• Wales and Welsh 10–15
• Walker, William 488
• Wallis, John 476, 484, 508
• Watt, Isaac 490
• Weber, Heidi 513
• Webster, Noah 40
• Webster’s Third New International Dictionary (Gove) 500–501
• Weep Not, Child (Ngũgĩ) 394
• Weinert, Regina 516
• Weird English (Ch’ien) 463
• Wellington Corpus of Spoken New Zealand English (WSC) 526, 530
• Wellington Corpus of Written New Zealand English (WWC) 525–526, 530
• Welsh Lawbooks 12
• Wendt, Albert 391
• West African Englishes (WAE)
  • African Englishes and creative writing 179–188, 190
  • contact linguistics 289–290, 293–294
  • creative acts of gender in world Englishes 584
  • lexicography 731, 735
• West African Pidgin English 305
• West Indian Englishes 513
• Wharton, Jeremiah 476, 484
• White Lies (Motjuwadi) 390
• Whorf, Benjamin Lee 495
• Wilkins, John 480–481
• Williams, Bernard 549–551
• Wittgenstein, Ludwig 552
• wogspeak see New Australian English
• word‐focused grammars 497
• word stress
  • South Asian Englishes 120–121
  • Southeast Asian Englishes 143, 148
  • Southern African Englishes 161
• Works Progress Administration (WPA) 319–320
• World Englishes: A Resource Book for Students (Jenkins) 749
• world Englishes studies 746–748
• WPA see Works Progress Administration
• written language 333–348
  • African‐American English 319–320
  • bilingual language play 413–415
  • commerce 641–642
  • creative acts of gender in world Englishes 582–584
  • directness/indirectness 360–361
  • English as a global and international language 345–346
  • essay‐text literacy 358–359
  • formal communications 357–360
  • innovations in meaning potential 340–344
  • politeness 358–362
  • regional accents/dialects 333–334
  • rhetorical strategies 357–362
  • sociolinguistic context and language 335–336
  • speaking and writing in world Englishes 349, 357–362
  • standard variety of a language 334–335
  • standard versus global language 336–337
  • strategies for meaning‐making 337–340
  • translation as a process of metaphor 344–345
• WSC see Wellington Corpus of Spoken New Zealand English
• WWC see Wellington Corpus of Written New Zealand English
• Wyld, H. C. 508

• Yangjinbang English 272
• Year of Living Dangerously, The (Koch) 394
• Yoruba 344

• Zabuli Education Center 115–116
• Zambia 159–163, 167, 676–677
• Zgusta, Ladislav 727–728
• Zimbabwe 159–163, 167, 679
• Zulu 165–166, 581–582