Marigold. Summer- and fall-blooming annuals.
Description: French marigolds, derived from Tagetes patula, include most of the dwarf cultivars, while the generally taller African cultivars arose from T. erecta (aka Aztec marigold). Hybridizing has also produced many cultivars with intermediate characteristics. As a group, marigolds grow 8 to 42 inches tall, as low mounds or erect bushes. The 1- to 4-inch flowers may be rounded, tufted, or shaggy puffs in shades of white, yellow, orange, mahogany, maroon, and rust. Dark green leaves are dense, ferny, and often strongly scented. Other worthy marigolds include the signet group from T. tenuifolia, which has 8-inch mounds of lacy, lemon-scented leaves and edible, ½-inch red, orange, or yellow single flowers. T. filifolia, Irish lace marigold, is grown for its dense 1-foot mounds of delicate foliage.
How to grow: Marigolds are so easy to grow that they’re often a child’s first garden success. Given warmth, they grow quickly. Sow seed indoors a few weeks before the last frost (especially recommended for the taller cultivars) or direct-seed when the soil is warm. Give them full sun in average soil and moisture for best results, but don’t worry if the soil is poor or dry. Excess fertility may promote lush growth, few flowers, and soft stems, especially in the tall cultivars, which then need to be staked. Wash spider mites off with regular, strong hosings or control with soap spray. Remove spent flowers regularly to encourage more blooms.
Landscape uses: Marigolds are the backbone of many plantings due to their diversity and adaptability. Use them in beds, borders, edges, pots, and boxes. Disguise dying bulb foliage with marigolds, or fill gaps left by discarded spring-blooming annuals and biennials. They also make long-lasting cut flowers, excellent for informal arrangements.
Yew. Needle-leaved evergreen shrubs or trees.
Description: Taxus baccata, English yew, is a tree or shrub with deep green foliage. The shrubby cultivars usually mature under 4 feet tall, while the trees grow 15 to 25 feet. Weeping forms are available. The bark is cinnamon brown and sinewy. Zones 6–7.
T. cuspidata, Japanese yew, is a shrub or tree ranging from 4 to 40 feet when mature, depending on the cultivar. As with the other yews, the needles are flattened and green, having two white lines on the (usually) lighter green undersides. Zones 4–7.
T. × media, hybrid yew, has cultivars in numerous shapes and sizes, from 2 to 20 feet tall; like the other yews, it has dark green needles and bears seeds with fleshy red coats in fall. Zones 4–7.
How to grow: Provide good drainage, as yews cannot tolerate standing water for any length of time. In the North, site yews out of direct wind; in the South, plant out of direct sun. Provide even moisture and mulch. Yews don’t need much supplemental water once they’re established. Black vine weevil occasionally feeds on yew, leaving C-shaped notches on the needles. Note that all parts of the yew, including its tempting red fruits, are poisonous when eaten.
Landscape uses: An exceptional specimen can make a striking focal point, but yews are useful mostly for hedges, massed planting, and foundation plantings.
Try combining the rounded shapes of yews with tall, narrow cedars, or make a low planting of yews and creeping junipers.
Arborvitae. Scaly-leaved evergreen trees or shrubs.
Description: Thuja oc cidentalis, American arborvitae or eastern white cedar, is a native pyramidal tree that can grow 40 to 60 feet tall. Its medium to light green foliage is fanlike, rather vertical, and aromatic when crushed. Zones 3–7.
T. plicata, giant arborvitae or western red cedar, also has a pyramidal form and can reach a mature height of 50 to 70 feet. Native to the West Coast, it has darker green, glossier foliage than American arborvitae and is more aromatic when crushed. Zones 4–6.
How to grow: Provide arborvitaes with full sun, good drainage, and even moisture. Pruning is rarely necessary except where these plants are used as a formal hedge. Watch for damage from bagworms; remove these pests before they become a problem. If you attempt to tear the bag away, you’ll almost certainly leave a coil of tightly wound silk that will girdle the twig. To avoid this hazard, use a knife to cut the silk from the branch or twig. Mites may be a problem in hot weather; control by hosing the plant with water or using a soap spray.
Landscape uses: Use arborvitaes as a hedge, specimen, windbreak, or screen.
Thymus spp.
Lamiaceae
Description: Versatile and beautiful, thymes should have a place in every herb garden. All thymes are perennial herbs with very small leaves and tiny flowers ranging in color from white through pink to deep rose-magenta. The creeping types, such as mother-of-thyme (Thymus praecox, formerly T. serpyllum), will cover bricks and stones or low walls and can tolerate a certain amount of foot traffic. T. ‘Coccineus’ is a mat-forming cultivar with showy reddish purple flowers and bronze fall foliage. The bush forms are 6 to 8 inches high and have woody, wiry stems and branches. Zones 4–8.
Common thyme (T. vulgaris) is the type of thyme most frequently used for cooking. Most cultivars are very fragrant, with aromas reminiscent of coconut, orange, balsam, oregano, lime, or nutmeg. Golden lemon thyme (T. × citriodorus ‘Aureus’, aka T. pulegioides) has yellow-edged leaves and a strong lemon odor. Zones 4–9 and 5–9, depending on the species and cultivar.
How to grow: Thymes need full sun and a dry, gritty soil. Buy named cultivars as plants, or plant thyme seed outdoors in a prepared bed in fall or spring, or start your seeds in flats indoors. Bush thymes (except for variegated cultivars) often seed themselves freely, so there should be no shortage of new plants if the old ones don’t come through a hard winter. To propagate cultivars, separate rooted pieces or take cuttings. In the North, protect plants from winter damage with a covering of evergreen boughs.
Harvesting: When plants are beginning to flower, cut off the top half and hang to dry in a shady place or dry on trays in a food dehydrator. Once the leaves are thoroughly dry, strip them from the stems and store in a dark place until ready to use. You may harvest pieces from thyme plants all summer, but don’t cut them back severely in fall.
Uses: One of the essential oils in thyme is thymol, still used by pharmacists, especially in cough remedies. Thyme is antiseptic, as well as an aid to digestion. In the kitchen, thyme is a wonderful addition to pasta and pizza sauces, salad dressings, stews, stuffings, meat loaf, and soups, and it is especially good with poultry, fish, and eggs.
Like ladybugs and earthworms, toads are humble heroes in the garden. One toad will eat 10,000 to 20,000 insects a year (that’s 50 to 100 every night from spring until fall hibernation). Toads will clean up slugs, flies, grubs, wood lice, cutworms, grasshoppers, and anything else that’s smaller (and slower) than they are. And unlike many part-time garden allies, toads won’t do an about-face and head for your vegetables and flowers as dessert.
To encourage toads to make your garden their home, provide shelter and water and, above all, use only the least-toxic organic pesticides. Toads like to live in places that are fairly light, humid, and out of the wind; you might find them in a rock garden or an old stone wall. Make your own toad shelters by digging shallow depressions in the garden (just a few inches deep) and loosely covering them with boards. (Leave the toad room to get in!) A plant saucer or ground-level birdbath will provide water for your toads. Of course, you can also buy a cute ready-made “toad house” from a garden catalog or your local garden center. Set it near rocks or plants where the toads can take shelter from predators.
Once a toad has found your garden, it may live there for decades. Remember, too, that toads, like frogs, lay their eggs in ponds. Adding a water garden to your yard may provide a breeding ground for future generations of toads.
The toads most likely to find a home in your garden in the East are the American toad, a brown, rusty, or tan amphibian that’s 2 to 4½ inches long, and the eastern spadefoot toad, which is 1¾ to 4 inches long with pale lines running down its back. In the South, the southern toad, which may be brown, gray, or brick red and is 1½ to 4 inches long is the common species. Gardeners in the West will find the western spadefoot toad, which is 1½ to 2½ inches long. There’s also a midwestern species, the Plains spadefoot, a plump toad that is 1½ to 2½ inches long. Spadefoot toads are burrowers that dig their homes in dry soil. They are brown and comparatively smooth skinned.
Don’t forget: Toads are not poisonous, and they don’t cause warts. They are your garden allies, so encourage them to make themselves at home in your landscape!
Solanum lycopersicum
Solanaceae
Since tomatoes are America’s favorite garden vegetable, it’s no surprise that there are hundreds of varieties to choose from. Home garden tomatoes range from bite-size currant, cherry, and grape tomatoes to huge beefsteak fruits, in nearly every color except blue. You can grow varieties that produce fruit extra early, and there are varieties for every type of climate, including many that are resistant to one or more common tomato diseases. Don’t forget tomatoes especially developed for slicing, canning, juicing, or stuffing, too.
Types: Discovering which tomato varieties are best for your garden will involve some experimenting, and your climate; personal taste will play a role, too. Some early types such as ‘New Girl’ and ‘First Lady II’ will be ready to pick about 2 months after you set plants in your garden, while main-season hybrid and heirloom varieties can take up to 80 days. To extend your harvesting season, be sure to plant some of each type.
Many standard cultivars are adapted for a variety of uses, including slicing, canning, and salads. The large, meaty fruits of beefsteak tomatoes are especially popular for slicing. Italian or paste tomatoes are favorites for cooking, canning, and juicing. Sweet bite-size tomatoes in a range of colors are very popular for salads or as snacks.
Tomato plants are vines, and they have two basic ways of growing, called determinate and indeterminate. The vines of determinate varieties (sometimes called bush tomatoes) grow only 1 to 3 feet long, and the main stem and side stems produce about three flower clusters each. Once flowers form at the vine tips, the plant stops growing. This means determinate types set fruit over about a 2-week period and then stop, which makes them excellent choices for canning. Indeterminate tomatoes have sprawling vines that grow 6 to 20 feet long. Most produce about three flower clusters at every second leaf. They keep growing and producing unless stopped by frost, disease, or lack of nutrients, which means you can keep picking fresh tomatoes the whole season. Pruning is necessary, however, or they will put too much energy into vine production.
Planting: Nurseries and garden centers offer a wide range of dependable, disease-resistant varieties such as ‘Jet Star’, ‘Celebrity’, and ‘Sweet 100', and many sell transplants of popular heirloom tomatoes such as ‘Brandywine’, ‘Green Zebra’, and ‘Cherokee Purple’ as well. But if you want to take advantage of the full range of available cultivars, you’ll have to grow tomatoes from seed. Unless you plan to preserve a lot of your crop, three to five plants per person is usually adequate. Unused seeds are good for 3 years. Specialty mail-order suppliers also offer individual tomato plants for sale, which could be a good option if you don’t have space for growing your own from seed.
At 6 to 8 weeks before the average last frost, sow seeds ¼ inch deep and 1 inch apart in well-drained flats. Seeds will germinate in about 1 week when the soil temperature is 75° to 85°F; at 60°F the germination process can take 2 weeks.
In most places, a sunny spot indoors, such as a south-facing window, provides the warm, humid environment young seedlings need. If you don’t have sunny windows, use a heating coil for bottom heat and a fluorescent or grow light overhead. Lack of adequate light will make seedlings leggy and weak.
Once the seedlings emerge, keep the temperature no higher than 70°F, and water regularly. Once a week, feed with compost tea or fish emulsion, and discard any weak or sick-looking seedlings. When the second set of leaves—the first true leaves—appear, transplant to individual pots or deep containers (such as plastic cups), burying the stems deeper than they stood previously. Whatever container you use, make sure it has drainage holes in the bottom. After this initial transplanting, give the seedlings less water and more sun. As the weather warms, harden off the plants before planting them in the garden. Again, discard any weaklings that might harbor disease.
If you buy a four-pack or six-pack of transplants from a garden center, it’s a good idea to transplant them to individual pots and harden them off for a week or two before setting them out in the garden. They’ll have a more vigorous root system, and you can make sure that the soil is warm and the weather settled before planting day.
Except in extremely hot climates, plant tomatoes where they will get full sun. To lessen shock, though, transplant seedlings on a cloudy day. Make the planting holes larger than normal for each seedling; cover the bottom of the hole with several inches of sifted compost mixed with a handful of bonemeal. For magnesium, which promotes plant vitality and productivity, sprinkle 1 teaspoon of Epsom salts into each hole. Disturb the soil around seedling roots as little as possible when you set them in contact with the compost.
Set the transplant so the lowest set of leaves is at soil level; fill the hole with a mixture of compost and soil. Or you can bury the stem horizontally in a shallow trench so that only the top leaves show; make sure you strip off the leaves along the part of the stem that will be buried. Many growers claim this planting method produces higher yields. Press down the soil gently but firmly to remove air pockets, and water well.
If you’re planting a bit early, or in general want to speed the growth of your tomatoes, you can shelter them with a commercial device such as a Wall O’ Water or simply wrap tomato cages with clear plastic. For more on such techniques, see the Season Extension entry.
Spacing between planting holes depends on how you grow your tomatoes. If you’re going to stake and prune the plants or train them on trellises, space the seedlings 2 feet apart. If you plan to let them sprawl, space them 3 to 4 feet apart.
Letting plants sprawl involves less work, but it requires more garden space. And unless protected by a very thick mulch, the plants and fruits are also more subject to insects and diseases due to contact with the soil—not to mention being more accessible to four-legged predators, such as voles.
If you plan to train your tomato plants on stakes or in cages, install the supports before planting. Pound 5-to 7-foot-long stakes 6 to 8 inches in the ground or insert the cages (it’s a good idea to secure cages with stakes, too). As the vines grow on staked tomatoes, tie them loosely to the stake at 6-inch intervals with soft twine or strips of cloth or nylon stockings.
There are also ready-made tomato cages, but they are expensive to buy and usually aren’t tall enough. For details on making your own tomato cages, see “Long-Lasting Tomato Cages”.
Any slight frost will harm young tomato plants, and nighttime temperatures below 55°F will prevent fruit from setting. In case of a late frost, protect transplants with cloches or hot caps, because cold damage early in a tomato’s life can reduce fruit production for the entire season.
Growing guidelines: Cultivate lightly to keep down any weeds until the soil is warm, then lay down a deep mulch to smother the weeds and conserve moisture. Give the plants at least 1 inch of water a week, keeping in mind that a deep soaking is better than several light waterings. Avoid wetting the foliage, since wet leaves are more prone to diseases.
A weekly dose of liquid seaweed will increase fruit product ion and plant health, as will side-dressing with compost two or three times during the growing season.
If you stake your plants, you may want to prune them to encourage higher yields. Pruned tomatoes take up less space and are likely to produce fruit 2 weeks earlier than unpruned ones; they do, however, take more work. Pruning tomatoes is different from pruning trees and shrubs—the only tools you should need are your fingers. You’ll be removing suckers, which are small shoots that emerge from the main stem or side stem at the base of each leaf, as shown on the opposite page.
Leave a few suckers on the middle and top of the plant to protect the fruit from sunscald, especially if you live in a hot, sunny area, such as in the South. Sunscald produces light gray patches of skin that are subject to disease. When the vine reaches the top of the stakes or cage, pinch back the tips to encourage more flowering and fruit.
Problems: Although tomatoes are potentially subject to a range of pests and diseases, plants that are growing in rich soil with adequate spacing and support to keep them off the soil usually have few problems. Here are some of the common potential tomato problems.
The tomato hornworm—a large, white-striped, green caterpillar—is an easy-to-spot pest. Just handpick and destroy, or spray plants with Bt (Bacillus thuringiensis). If you’re handpicking, check to see whether hornworms have been attacked by parasitic wasps first—if they have, the wasp larvae will have pupated, forming structures that look like small white grains of rice on the back of the hornworm. Leave these hornworms be so the wasps can spread. Also, plant dill near your tomatoes. It attracts horn-worms, and they’re easier to spot on dill than they are on tomato plants.
Aphids, flea beetles, and cutworms may also attack your tomato plants. See The Top 10 Garden Insect Pests for details on controlling these pests.
Hard-to-spot spider mites look like tiny red dots on the undersides of leaves. Their feeding causes yellow speckling on leaves, which eventually turn brown and die. Knock these pests off the plant by spraying with water, or control with insecticidal soap.
If you are new to growing tomatoes, check with your county extension agent to find out what diseases are prevalent in your area. If you can, choose varieties that are resistant to those diseases. Such resistance is generally indicated by one or more letters after the cultivar name. The code “VFNT,” for example, indicates that the cultivar is resistant to verticillium (V) and fusarium (F) wilts, as well as nematodes (N) and tobacco mosaic (T).
Nematodes, microscopic wormlike creatures, attack a plant’s root system, stunting growth and lowering disease resistance. The best defenses against nematodes are rotating crops and planting resistant cultivars.
Verticillium wilt and fusarium wilt are two common tomato diseases. Should these wilts strike and cause leaves to curl up, turn yellow, and drop off, pull up and destroy infected plants, or put them in sealed containers and dispose of them with household trash.
Another disease, early blight, makes dark, sunken areas on leaves just as the first fruits start to mature. Late blight appears as black, irregular, water-soaked patches on leaves and dark-colored spots on fruits. Both blights tend to occur during cool, rainy weather. To avoid losing your whole crop, quickly destroy or dispose of affected plants. The best defense is to plant resistant cultivars. Bicarbonate sprays can also help prevent the disease from infecting your plants.
Blossom drop, where mature flowers fall off the plant, is most prevalent in cool rainy weather or where soil moisture is low and winds are hot and dry. It can also be from a magnesium deficiency or from infection by parasitic bacteria or fungi. Large-fruited tomatoes are particularly vulnerable. Fruit set can sometimes be encouraged by gently shaking the plant in the middle of a warm, sunny day or by tapping the stake to which the plant is tied.
Blossom-end rot appears as a water-soaked spot near the blossom end when the fruit is about one-third developed. The spot enlarges and turns dark brown and leathery until it covers half the tomato. This problem is due to a calcium deficiency, often brought on by an uneven water supply. Blossom-end rot can also be caused by damaged feeder roots from careless transplanting, so always handle seedlings gently. Try to keep the soil evenly moist by using a mulch and watering when needed.
Prolonged periods of heavy rainfall that keep the soil constantly moist can cause leaf roll, which can affect more than half the foliage and cut fruit production significantly. At first, the edges of leaves curl up to form cups; then the edges overlap and the leaves become firm and leathery to the touch. Keeping soil well drained and well aerated is about the only method of preventing this problem.
Fruit cracks that radiate from the stems or run around the shoulders are often caused by hot, rainy weather or by fluctuating moisture levels in the soil. Such cracks, aside from being unsightly, attract infections. To avoid them, make sure you don’t overwater.
Tomatoes—like eggplant s, potatoes, and peppers—are related to tobacco and subject to the same diseases, including tobacco mosaic. Therefore, don’t smoke around such plants, and wash your hands after smoking before handling them. Plan your garden so that nightshade-family crops, such as peppers and tomatoes, are separated by plants from other families.
Harvesting: Once tomatoes start ripening, check the vines almost daily in order to harvest fruits at their peak. Cut or gently twist off the fruits, supporting the vine at the same time to keep from damaging it.
Most plants can survive a light frost if adequately mulched, but at the first sign of a heavy frost, harvest all the fruits, even the green ones. To continue enjoying fresh tomatoes, cut a few suckers from a healthy and preferably determinate plant and root them. Plant in good potting soil in 3-gallon or larger containers. Keep in a warm, sunny spot, and with a little luck and care, you can enjoy fresh tomatoes right through winter.
Ripe tomatoes will keep refrigerated for several weeks, and green ones will eventually ripen if kept in a warm place out of direct sunlight. To slowly ripen green tomatoes, and thereby extend your harvest, wrap them in newspaper and place in a dark, cool area, checking frequently to make sure that none rot. Sliced green tomatoes are delicious when lightly dipped in egg, then in flour or cornmeal and black pepper, and fried.
Pinching tomato suckers. Use your thumb and forefinger to snap off the small, tender shoots that sprout at the base of tomato leaf stems. If you need to use scissors or pruning shears, you’ve waited too long.
Tomato cages made from concrete reinforcing wire will last many years. You can buy the wire at just about any building-supply center. Figure on buying at least 16 feet—enough for two cages.
The only tool you need is a small pair of bolt cutters to cut the heavy wire. Be sure to wear work gloves to avoid cuts and blisters.
Building a cage is easy. Lay the mesh strip flat on the ground, and use bricks or concrete blocks to weigh down the edges; otherwise it can spring up suddenly as you cut the mesh. Measure an 8-foot piece by counting off 16 sections of the mesh (each section of mesh is 5¼ by 6 inches). At that point, cut through the cross wires flush with one of the vertical wires. Then also cut away the pointed wire pieces that result on the other section of wire. Now gently bend the prepared mesh section into a circle, and use flexible wire to fasten the edges together.
You’ll need to set two stakes in place to hold the cage in place. Do that before planting. Once you have planted your young tomato plants, set a cage upright around each plant, and fasten the cages securely to the stakes. At the end of the season, clear off old vines and store the cages for winter, or leave the cages standing and have them double as compost bins. Fill them with organic material, and you’ll have plenty of good organic fertilizer ready for next summer’s tomato crop.
Even if you don’t have much room to grow vegetables, you can still enjoy the taste of a fresh-picked tomato. Tomatoes are easy to grow in containers, making them perfect for decks, patios, or balconies. If you have the space, try growing full-size tomatoes in large fiberglass tubs or wooden barrels. For people with less room, there are dwarf cherry tomato cultivars, such as ‘Tiny Tim’ and ‘Pixie Hybrid II’, that can grow in 6-inch-deep pots.
All container tomatoes need lots of sun, plenty of water, and a rich, well-drained potting mixture. Compensate for the restricted root zone by applying liquid fertilizer, such as compost tea, lightly but frequently, increasing both water and nutrients as the plants grow. See the Compost entry for instructions for making compost tea.
The wise gardener starts with a small collection of basic tools and builds from there. Stores and catalogs are packed with both familiar and outlandish-looking hand tools. And if that weren’t enough, there are gas- or electric-powered versions of many tools. Deciding which tools you need takes time, and the ideal collection depends on your gardening style and scope.
Your starter collection will include a fork or spade for digging, a garden rake for smoothing the soil and preparing beds, a hoe for cultivating and weeding, and a trowel for working closely around plants. Pruning tools and a lawn mower round out a basic tool collection.
Whenever it’s practical, use hand tools rather than power tools. Power tools are expensive and contribute to air and noise pollution as well as global warming. Designing your yard to be low maintenance will reduce your tool needs and increase your enjoyment of the garden. For more details on low-care landscapes, see the Landscaping entry.
Hand tools form the basis for a garden tool collection. If you keep them sharp, good-quality hand tools will make your garden work go quickly and easily.
Hoes: You can use hoes to lay out rows, dig furrows, cultivate around plants to loosen the soil and kill weeds, create hills and raised beds, break up clods, and prepare bare spots in lawns for reseeding.
The standard American pattern hoe is a long-handled tool that allows you to work without too much bending. It has a broad, straight blade, a little larger than 6 inches wide and 4 inches deep. However, many gardeners prefer a nursery hoe, which is lighter and has a 2- to 3-inch-deep blade.
Use an oscillating hoe, also called a hula or action hoe, with a moving blade that cuts on both the push and pull stroke to slice weeds just below the soil surface.
Narrow hoe blades use your arm power more efficiently than wider blades. The hoe handle should be at least 4½ feet long so you can work without bending over and straining your lower-back muscles. In general, when working with hoes, try to remain standing upright and run the hoe blade below and parallel to the soil surface. Keep your hoe sharp so it will cut through weeds rather than yank them out.
Shovels: A standard American long-handled shovel is good for mixing cement and for scooping up soil, gravel, and sand. You can use it to pry rocks and root clumps from the soil, although a heavy-duty prybar is more effective and efficient for these tasks. You also can use a shovel to dig planting holes, but a garden fork or a spade generally works better for most digging.
The standard shovel handle is about 4 feet. The shovel handle should come to shoulder height or higher. Shovels should also have a turned edge or footrest on the top of the blade to protect your feet when you step on the tool.
Spades: Spades have a flat, rather than scooped, blade with squared edges. With a spade, you can cut easily through sod and create straight edges in soil. Use a spade for digging planting holes, prying up rocks, dividing and moving perennials, cutting unwanted tree and shrub roots, tamping sod, and digging trenches.
A spade handle is generally shorter than a shovel handle, usually ranging from 28 to 32 inches. Like shovels, spades should also have a turned edge or footrest on the top of the blade.
Forks: Spading forks cut into soil, usually more easily than solid-bladed tools can. A spading fork is handy for loosening and mixing materials into the soil, dividing perennials, and for harvesting potatoes, carrots, and other root crops. The tines of a standard spading fork are broad and flat; those of the English cultivating fork are thinner and square. The English version is better for cultivating and aerating soil. Use a pitchfork (three tines) or a straw fork (five or six tines) for picking up, turning, and scattering hay mulch, leaf mold, and light compost materials.
The standard handle length for a spading fork is 28 inches. Very tall gardeners may prefer a 32-inch handle. Short gardeners, including children, should use a border fork, which has shorter tines and handle.
Trowels: Use a trowel to dig planting holes for small plants and bulbs, for transplanting seedlings, or for weeding beds and borders.
Some trowels are made from forged steel and fitted with hardwood handles; good ones are also available in unbreakable one-piece cast aluminum. Trowels come with a variety of blade widths and lengths. Choose one that feels comfortable in your hand.
Rakes: Rakes generally fall into one of two categories: garden rakes and leaf rakes. Garden rakes are essential for leveling ground, creating raised beds, killing emerging weeds, gathering debris from rows, covering furrows, thinning seedlings, working materials shallowly into the soil, erasing footprints, and spreading mulch. Garden rakes come in many widths, with long or short teeth that are widely or closely spaced. The handle should be long (4½ to 5 feet), and the head should be heavy enough to bite into the soil easily. If you have rocky soil, choose a rake with widely spaced teeth.
Lawn or leaf rakes, also called fan rakes, are good for gathering up leaves, grass clippings, weeds, and other debris and for dislodging thatch from the lawn. Metal lawn rakes last longest and are the springiest, although many gardeners prefer the action and feel of bamboo tines, and some prefer plastic or rubber.
Pruning tools: There are two types of pruning shears: the anvil type, with a straight blade that closes down onto an anvil or plate, and the bypass type, which cuts like scissors. Anvil pruners are often easier to use, requiring less hand pressure to make a cut. Bypass shears make a cleaner cut, can work in tighter space, and can cut flush against a tree trunk or branch (anvil pruners leave a short stump). Most models of either type will cut hardwood branches up to ½ inch in diameter.
Lopping shears, also called loppers, are heavy-duty pruners with long handles. Both anvil and bypass loppers can cut branches up to 2 inches in diameter. Hedge shears have long blades and relatively short handles. They can cut branches up to ½ inch thick. Pruning saws cut through most branches that are too thick for shears.
Push mowers: Push mowers have several revolving blades that move against a single fixed blade, producing a neat trim. They do a fine job, cutting evenly and quietly. For those with small, level lawns, the push mower is the ideal lawn-cutting instrument. It is inexpensive, not difficult to push, nonpolluting, quiet, and produces a neat-looking lawn.
The first rule of tool buying is to avoid cheap tools at all costs. They are poorly designed and constructed, they don’t do the job well, and they break easily. Also, don’t buy cheap tools for children; they won’t learn to love gardening if the first tools they use don’t work well. Here are some other tips to keep in mind when shopping for tools.
•The best wood for the handle of a shovel and all long-handled garden tools is North American white ash, which is strong, light, and resilient. Hickory is stronger but heavier and is ideal for hammers and other short-handled tools.
•Examine the lines (rings) in a wooden handle; they should run straight down the entire length of the handle, with no knots. Avoid tools with painted handles; the paint often hides cheap wood. Good-quality tools with fiberglass, metal, and even high-grade plastic handles are also available.
•The attachment of the metal part of the tool to its handle affects durability. Buy tools with solid-socket or solid-strapped construction, forged from a single bar of steel that completely envelops the handle, thus protecting it and adding strength.
•If you have arthritis, back problems, or in general want to avoid excess strain, look for ergonomic garden tools that are designed to require less bending and “elbow grease” to get the job done. Examples are loppers with a ratchet mechanism for easier cutting, trowels and other hand tools with gel-impregnated handles for less stress while gripping, and garden forks made of polypropylene that weigh much less than a standard wood-and-metal fork.
•If you plan on buying a rotary tiller, borrow or rent various models as a test before buying one. Wheeled tillers are always easier to operate than those without wheels, and large wheels provide more maneuverability than small ones. Look for heavy, heat-treated carbon steel blades.
In some cases, you may need the extra power of engine-driven equipment. Keep in mind, though, that handwork can be part of the pleasure and relaxation of gardening. If you routinely use power tools to speed through garden chores, you’ll miss the opportunity to observe the growth of your plants and to keep an eye out for problems.
Power mowers: The best choice is a mulching mower, which blows finely cut grass pieces back into the lawn, building up soil organic matter while removing the need to rake or bag clippings. If you don’t have a large lawn, investigate a battery-powered electric mower rather than a gas mower.
Tillers: Rotary tillers are useful for breaking new ground. Some gardeners also use them for cultivating, aerating, weeding, and mixing materials into the soil, but this convenience comes with a high cost to the critical beneficial organisms that help build a healthy soil. See the Soil entry for more on using tillers.
Chipper/shredders: This machine, powered with gasoline or electricity, reduces leaves, pruned branches, and plant debris to beautiful mulch or compost material. Shredders are better for chopping up weeds and other soft plant material; chippers can handle heavier, woody materials. Since a good quality, heavy-duty chipper/shredder is a major purchase, consider renting this tool if you’ll only need it occasionally, or go in on a shared machine with neighbors to make the cost more reasonable.
After making the considerable investment in good-quality tools, it is wise to spend some time to keep them in good shape.
Routine care: Clean, dry, and put away all hand tools after each use. Keep a large plastic kitchen spoon handy to knock dirt off metal blades. Don’t use a trowel or other metal tool, as you could damage the blades of both tools. A 5-gallon bucket of sharp builder’s sand in the tool-shed or garage is useful for cleaning tools. Dip the metal blade of each tool into the sand and plunge it up and down a few times to work off any clinging soil. Use a wire brush to remove any rust that may have formed. Keep power equipment in good repair and properly adjusted.
Handles: Regularly sand and varnish wooden handles to maintain their resilience and good looks. You can repair split handles temporarily with tape and glue, but replace broken handles as soon as possible.
Sharpening: To keep your tools working efficiently and with ease, keep blades of spades, pruners, and other tools sharp. Take the time to study the angle of the bevels on all your tools, then sharpen each, as needed, to keep the proper bevel. If you have tools that are especially difficult to sharpen, take them to a professional for sharpening.
Winter care: At the end of the season, polish all metal parts of hand tools with steel wool, oil them to prevent rust, and store them in a dry place. Lubricate all tools that have moving parts. This is also a good time to take hard-to-sharpen tools to the sharpening shop.
Spiderwort. Late-spring- to summer-blooming perennials.
Description: Tradescantia × andersoniana, common spiderwort, produces triangular 1½-inch blooms in shades of white, red, blue, pink, lavender, and violet. Clustered buds open one by one at the tops of angular 2-foot stems with 1-foot straplike leaves. Foliage declines after bloom and plants go dormant but may reemerge in fall. Plants form loose mounds. ‘Sweet Kate’ bears electric blue flowers over bright yellow foliage. T. virginiana, Virginia spiderwort, is an eastern native perennial that grows to 3 feet tall and bears blue-violet three-petaled flowers in late spring and early summer. Zones 4–9.
How to grow: Plant or divide in spring or fall in sun to shade with average, moist to wet soil. Cut back 6 to 8 inches from the ground after flowering to promote new growth and rebloom. Plants will form dense clumps; divide every 3 years. Plants may also self-sow.
Landscape uses: Grow spiderworts in borders among other plants, such as geraniums, ferns, and hostas, to disguise their declining foliage. Naturalize in wet spots. Spiderworts tolerate partial to full shade and heavy soil, making them useful for bringing flowers to sites that are difficult for many perennials.
Transplanting simply means moving a rooted plant from one place to another. If you prick out tiny parsley seedlings from a flat into individual pots, you’re transplanting. If you move tomato plants from your windowsill into the garden, you’re transplanting. And if you decide to move the big forsythia to the backyard, you’re transplanting, too.
For information on planting seeds, see the Seed Starting and Seed Saving entry. Instructions for planting perennials, shrubs, and trees are in the Planting entry.
Transplanting to containers: If you start seeds in flats, transplant when seedlings are still very young. Watch for the emergence of the first pair of true leaves and transplant soon after. The choice of planting containers ranges from homemade newspaper cylinders to plastic cell packs and clay pots. Peat pots and similar containers made of coir or compressed manure are favored by many gardeners, because the pots can be transplanted with the plant. Plastic and clay containers are reusable.
Before you start, collect your transplanting supplies and put down a layer of newspaper to catch spills. Follow these steps:
Fill the containers with soil mix. Either buy bags of mix (be aware that these may contain synthetic chemical fertilizer) or mix your own using the recipes in the Seed Starting and Seed Saving as well as the Houseplants entries. The depth of the soil depends on seedling size: Fill nearly to the top for small seedlings; start with only 1 inch of soil for large ones, since you fill the pots as you transplant.
Pour warm water onto the soil mix and let it sit for an hour to soak in. Moist potting soil prevents seedling roots from drying out.
Carefully dig out either individual seedlings or small groups of seedlings. A wooden plant marker makes a good all-purpose tool for digging, lifting, and moving tiny plants. A tablespoon or narrow trowel works well for larger transplants.
Hold each seedling by one of the leaves, as shown, not by (or around) the stem: You could crush the tender stem, or if you grasp the stem tip, you could kill the growing point and ruin the seedling’s further growth.
For very young seedlings, poke small holes into the soil mix with a pencil. For larger seedlings, hold the plant in the pot while you fill in around the roots with soil. Firm the soil gently with your fingertips.
Return the seedlings to the window, light rack, or cold frame. If seedlings wilt from the stress of transplanting, mist lightly with water and cover loosely with a sheet of plastic wrap. Keep them cool and out of direct sun for a day or two, then remove the wrap and return to the light.
Keep soil lightly moist but not soggy by pouring water into the tray holding the containers. Feed regularly with a weak solution of water-soluble organic fertilizer.
As the plants grow, pinch or snip off any extra seedlings, leaving only the strongest one.
If you miscalculated the seed-starting date or if the weather turns nasty, you may need to transplant your plants again to larger containers so they won’t stop growing and become stunted. Roots pushing through drainage holes are a clue that it’s time to transplant.
Transplanting to the garden: Toughen your plants for outdoor growing conditions by hardening off. Two weeks before outdoor transplanting time, stop feeding and slow down on watering. About a week before you plan to plant out the seedlings, put them outdoors in a protected area, out of direct sun and wind. Leave them outdoors for only 1 hour at first, then 2 hours, then a morning, until they are used to a full day. Water frequently.
Transplant on a cloudy or drizzly day or in early evening to spare transplants from the sun’s heat. Water the plants before you start. Dig a hole slightly wider than and of the same depth as the container. (Plant tomatoes deeper, so that roots form along the stem. See the Tomato entry for details.)
If your transplants are in plastic or clay pots, turn the pots upside down and slide out the plants. Whack the pot with your trowel to dislodge stubborn ones. Plants in peat or paper pots can be planted pot and all.
Gently place the plant in the hole, and spread out roots of plants that aren’t in pots. The illustration below shows how to open up peat pots (and other biodegradable containers) for better root penetration after planting. Stripping away the top rim of the pot above the soil line is also important, because if even a small piece of peat pot is exposed after transplanting, it will draw water from the soil surrounding the transplant’s roots, leaving the plant in danger of water stress.
Fill the hole and tamp with your hands, forming a shallow basin to collect water.
Slowly pour plenty of water—at least a quart—at the base of the transplant. Keep transplants well watered until they become established and start showing new growth.
Transplanting large plants: Sometimes a favorite tree or shrub gets too big for its place or is threatened by construction. Or maybe you just want to move a certain plant to a different spot in the landscape. If hard work doesn’t scare you off, consider transplanting. See the Trees entry for the particulars.
Handling seedlings. Hold and move seedlings by grasping a leaf between thumb and forefinger and lifting up from beneath the roots with a plant label or similar tool. Yanking up seedlings by their stems will damage roots.
Transplanting plants from peat pots. Before transplanting a seedling grown in a peat pot, slit the sides of the pot and remove the bottom, unless many roots have already penetrated it. Tear off the top rim of the pot.
The biggest, longest-lived plants in the landscape, trees bring beauty and a wealth of other benefits to our gardens. While a landscape without trees looks bare and uninviting, the presence of a few trees softens the look of house and surroundings. Well-placed trees will cool your house and yard with shade in summer and buffer it from winter winds. They’ll create shady areas for you to sit underneath their branches. Trees also intercept glare off buildings and paved surfaces and soak up noise. Their leaves soften the impact of rain, reducing soil erosion, and act as purifiers by absorbing pollutants and releasing oxygen. Their wood and roots are carbon sinks that collectively help to buffer the impact of the release of carbon dioxide into the atmosphere.
Trees enhance your home, but not only in terms of monetary value or ecological good sense. You also benefit psychologically when trees are present, with an improved sense of well being that’s very important in our stressful world.
Trees are woody perennials, usually with a single trunk, ranging in height at maturity from 15 feet to giants exceeding 100 feet. A plant thought of as a tree in some parts of the country may be considered a shrub in others. For example, crape myrtle (Lagerstroemia indica) is grown as a small flowering tree that reaches about 15 feet tall in the South, but in the Mid-Atlantic area, it may die back to the ground after cold winters and only reach shrub heights.
Deciduous trees drop all of their leaves at the end of the growing season and grow new leaves the following spring. They are good choices for fall color. Once trees drop their leaves, they generally have gone dormant for winter, with the exception of some limited root growth.
Evergreen trees hold most of their leaves year-round. Needled evergreens like pines (Pinus spp.) and spruces (Picea spp.) are also known as conifers because they bear cones. But not all coniferous trees are evergreen: Larches (Larix spp.) and bald cypress (Taxodium distichum) are deciduous conifers. See the Evergreens entry for more about evergreen conifers. Evergreens with wide, generally thick leaves, such as southern magnolia (Magnolia grandiflora) and live oak (Quercus virginiana), are called broad-leaved evergreens.
If you live in warmer areas, you may be able to select a third type of “evergreen” tree. Palms are categorized as evergreens, although they are monocots, not dicots like other trees. A dicot forms annual growth rings that increase the trunk’s diameter, and their crown is formed of branches. Palms don’t form annual growth rings, and they generally don’t branch—their crowns are made up entirely of their large leaves.
Broad-leaved evergreens like southern magnolia and live oak may lose their leaves in the winter in the northern parts of their hardiness range. These trees are called semievergreen, although they may be fully evergreen in the South.
Clump. A tree grown with several closely growing trunks. Birches (Betula spp.) are often sold as clumps.
Vase-shaped. A tree with upswept branches, narrower in silhouette near the base than at the top, such as American elm (Ulmus americana).
Globe-shaped. A tree with a rounded, usually low-growing silhouette, such as crabapples (Malus spp.).
Oval. A tree with branches that form an oval silhouette, such as ‘Bradford’ flowering pear (Pyrus calleryana ‘Bradford’).
Columnar. A column-shaped form with extremely upright branches, also called fastigiate, such as Lombardy poplar (Populus nigra ‘Italica’).
Pyramidal. A cone-shaped tree, wide at the bottom and narrowing to a tip at the apex, such as most spruces (Picea spp.).
Conical. Cone-shaped, but with a narrower profile than a pyramidal tree, such as American arborvitae (Thuja occidentalis).
Weeping. A tree with branches that droop toward the ground, such as a weeping willow (Salix babylonica). Also called pendulous.
It’s often difficult to find a new or unusual tree you read about because your local garden center doesn’t stock it. Although they may be more expensive than commonly sold species, you can buy many new or unusual trees from specialty mail-order nurseries. They’re often well worth the extra effort it takes to search them out.
Most trees from mail-order nurseries are less than 6 feet tall and are sold bareroot to reduce shipping costs. Here are some tips to help you use mail-order shopping with success.
•Buy from reputable firms. Check with friends, ask a local nursery owner or your extension agent, or order from sources recommended by gardening magazines. Check online customer reviews to see if others have been satisfied with their purchases.
•Read the catalog descriptions carefully. Be sure the tree will have the features you want and will grow in the conditions of your landscape. If the prices or the claims about the trees sound too good to be true, they probably are: Avoid them.
•Be sure a guarantee is offered and know what to save should the tree grow poorly or die. Some nurseries will take your word; others insist you ship them the tree (at your expense). Find out if a refund or only a replacement is offered.
•Have the tree shipped during the best time of year to plant in your area (especially if the tree will be shipped bare-root). If you work outside the home, consider delivery to your workplace to avoid having it left on your doorstep, where it could be damaged by exposure to cold, wind, and sun.
•For new species or cultivars, order early to avoid receiving a “sold out” notice or an inferior substitute. Specify “no substitution” if you won’t accept one.
•When your tree arrives, unpack it immediately. Read the label to be sure the correct tree was shipped. Check the plant’s condition: If roots are totally dry, or the plant is broken, repackage and return it.
Trees are an investment that will be a part of your life for a long time, so it pays to choose them with care. To start the selection process, first think about what you want from a tree. Do you need a large tree that will shade your house or a small decorative one that will serve as an accent for a flower garden? If you enjoy feeding birds, perhaps a native tree that provides food for wildlife would be a good choice. If a flowering tree is important to you, are flowers in spring most important, or would you rather have flowers later in the season? What about brightly colored leaves in fall, showy bark, or colorful fruit that clings to the branches even in winter?
If privacy is important, plan on using groups of trees to enclose a patio, block unwanted views, or accent desirable ones, both on and off your property. Evergreens provide year-round concealment, but deciduous trees provide shade in summer yet let in the winter sun. A unified group of trees in a single bed—perhaps underplanted with shrubs and/or groundcovers—looks better than a widely scattered planting, and the arrangement helps protect the trees from lawn mower nicks and gouges.
Use specimen or accent trees alone to call attention to an attractive feature such as the finely cut leaves of full-moon maple (Acer japonicum), or the showy flowers of saucer magnolia (Magnolia × soulangiana). Unusually textured bark, bright fall color, or an interesting shape are other good reasons to showcase a tree as a specimen plant.
Trees supply food, shelter, and nesting sites for birds and other wildlife. Native species that produce berries or other fruits are especially welcome. See the Birds entry for a list of wildlife-friendly trees and shrubs.
You may want to add trees to your landscape that will provide food for you, not just for wildlife and birds. Many common fruit trees, such as apples, pears, peaches, and plums, are available in dwarf sizes that fit neatly into a small corner or even a large container. See the entries for specific fruits and the Fruit Trees entry to guide your selection. Many lesser-known trees also produce good food.
For fleshy fruit to be eaten fresh or cooked, try pawpaw (Asimina triloba), American persimmon (Diospyros virginiana), and Japanese persimmon (D. kaki).
For small, fleshy fruits for jams and jellies, try cornelian cherry (Cornus mas), crabapples (Malus spp.), hawthorns (Crataegus spp.), and wild cherries (Prunus spp.).
For nuts, try hickories (Carya spp.), walnuts and butternuts (Juglans spp.), pecan (Carya illinoinensis), filberts (Corylus spp.), and chestnuts (Castanea spp.). See the Nut Trees entry for advice on selecting and growing nut trees.
For beekeepers interested in a new taste to their honey, try sourwood (Oxydendrum arboreum), lindens (Tilia spp.), and water tupelo (Nyssa aquatica).
Be realistic about the amount of maintenance you’re willing to do. Do you want to plant trees and forget them, as you can do with many evergreens? Or do you enjoy pruning and raking up baskets of leaves on a brisk fall day? For some gardeners, the beauty of the tree or the bounty of the crop outweighs the extra work.
Before you head to the nursery to buy a tree, learn all you can about the characteristics of your planting site. Selecting a tree that will thrive in the conditions your site has to offer is one of the most important things you can do to ensure success. Determine your hardiness zone, and make sure the tree you want is compatible. While most nurseries stock plants that are hardy in their area, borderline-hardy plants are sometimes offered with no warnings. It’s always a good idea to ask. Remember to check catalogs for hardiness information, too.
Know your soil—its pH, fertility, and consistency. Take a close look at drainage; if you see standing water at any season, stick to trees that will tolerate wet feet or choose another planting site. Check the amount of light the tree will receive. Be sure to scout out overhead wires, nearby walkways, or other limiting factors. Think about the size of your tree in 5, 10, or 20 years. You can save loads of pruning headaches down the road if you select a tree that won’t grow too large for the site at maturity.
If a tree’s branches extend 25 feet from the trunk, its supporting roots reach out that far into the surrounding soil. Other plants within its radius will compete for nutrients and water. More aggressive plants often win this battle, while losers grow slowly, have poor appearance, and produce few fruits. Trees with surface roots will destroy sidewalks or invade sewer and water lines within that radius, too.
Some trees, such as thornless honey locust (Gleditsia triacanthos var. inermis) produce only light or filtered shade; grass and other plants generally have enough light to grow under or in the shade of these trees. Other trees, like the sugar and Norway maples (Acer saccharum and A. platanoides), produce very dense shade coupled with shallow, surface-level roots that make growing even shade-tolerant grasses and popular shade plants nearly impossible. Under established maples, a thick layer of mulch is the best way to cover the ground. Oaks (Quercus spp.), on the other hand, cast full shade, but their roots penetrate the soil much more deeply than maples, leaving room to grow a shade garden with hostas (Hosta spp.), ferns, and other shade lovers. Even shade-tolerant plants may have difficulty growing under or near a tree, particularly a large one. If the crown of the tree is dense, as with maples, most rain is shed off the canopy of the tree. The ground immediately below may be dry even after a rain. Tree roots absorb much of the available water from surrounding soil. See Groundcovers for Dry Shade for a list of plants that will tolerate these conditions.
Trees can add the beauty of flowers to your landscape. Those that bloom early in the spring help support pollinators by providing a source of nectar when few other plants are flowering. The list that follows is arranged by time of bloom, beginning with the trees that flower in early spring and progressing through trees that bloom in summer. Plant name is followed by flower color.
Spring
Aesculus pavia (red buckeye): Red
Amelanchier spp. (serviceberries): White
Cercis canadensis (eastern redbud): Pink
Chionanthus virginicus (white fringe tree): White
Cornus florida (flowering dogwood): White, pink
Cornus mas (cornelian cherry): Yellow
Halesia carolina (Carolina silverbell): White
Laburnum × watereri (golden chain tree): Yellow
Magnolia × soulangiana (saucer magnolia): White to wine
Magnolia stellata (star magnolia): White to pale pink
Malus spp. (crabapples): White, pink, red
Prunus spp. (cherries): White, red, pink
Pyrus calleryana (Callery pear): White
Late Spring, Early Summer
Cornus kousa (Kousa dogwood): White
Koelreuteria paniculata (golden rain tree): Yellow
Styrax japonicus (Japanese snowbell): White
Syringa reticulata (Japanese tree lilac): White
Summer
Franklinia alatamaha (franklinia): White
Lagerstroemia indica (crape myrtle): White, pink, lavender
Oxydendrum arboreum (sourwood): White
Stewartia pseudocamellia (Japanese stewartia): White
Styphnolobium japonicum (Japanese pagoda tree): Creamy white
Enhance your landscape with bright fall colors from these deciduous trees.
Yellows and Oranges
Acer saccharum (sugar maple)
Betula spp. (birches)
Carya spp. (hickories)
Cercis canadensis (eastern redbud)
Cladrastis kentukea (Kentucky yellowwood)
Fraxinus spp. (ashes)
Ginkgo biloba (ginkgo)
Gleditsia triacanthos var. inermis (thornless honey locust)
Larix spp. (larches)
Liriodendron tulipifera (tulip tree)
Taxodium distichum (bald cypress)
Red
Acer rubrum (red maple)
Cornus florida (flowering dogwood)
Nyssa sylvatica (black gum)
Oxydendrum arboreum (sourwood)
Pistacia chinensis (Chinese pistache)
Quercus coccinea (scarlet oak)
Q. rubra (northern red oak)
Stewartia spp. (stewartias)
Mixed Colors
Cotinus coggygria (smoke tree)
Lagerstroemia indica (crape myrtle)
Liquidambar styraciflua (sweet gum)
Pyrus calleryana (Callery pear)
Sassafras albidum (sassafras)
City trees must be able to survive despite constricted root space, compacted soil, wind tunnels between buildings, limited moisture and nutrients, high temperatures, and pollutants.
Trees used along streets, in raised planters, in median strips, or in parking lots endure the harshest and most stressful of any landscape environment. These often-neglected trees face all the hazards of city trees and must put up with drought, paving heat, and human vandalism. Despite relentless pruning to make them fit under overhead utility lines or within narrow corridors, and even when main branches are whacked off to permit people and cars to pass by, street trees manage to survive. But all these stresses take their toll: On average, street trees live only 10 to 15 years.
In addition to resisting insects and diseases, good street trees also share other characteristics. They should be “clean” trees with no litter problems, such as dropping large leaves or fruit, although sometimes, as with sycamores (Platanus spp.) and oaks, the litter is overlooked because of other good qualities. Avoid trees with dangerous thorns or spines, such as hawthorns (Crataegus spp.); shallow-rooted trees, such as silver maples (Acer saccharinum), that buckle paving; and thirsty trees, like weeping willows (Salix babylonica), whose roots seek water and sewer lines. Trees with branches that angle downward, such as pin oaks, also don’t make the best street trees, unless they are limbed up high enough for pedestrians and traffic to pass easily. See the Street Trees box for a list of city-smart trees to consider.
Trees are sold bareroot, balled-and-burlapped (B&B), or in containers. The heeling-in technique, described in the Planting entry, is a good way to hold bareroot or B&B stock until you’re able to plant.
For do-it-yourself planters, small- and medium-size trees are probably the best choice, since root-balls can be very heavy and difficult to handle. If you want to plant a larger specimen, plan on having the tree delivered and dig the planting hole before it arrives. That way, the tree can be moved off the truck directly into the hole. Position the plant while you still have help from the delivery crew. Yet another option for a big tree is one that has been dug with a commercial tree spade, which is a mechanical digger mounted on a truck. While big trees take longer to get established than smaller trees because more of their roots were lost when they were dug, they may be worth the extra care and expense.
Know how to spot a good buy when you go tree shopping, because sometimes a low-priced tree is no bargain, and sometimes higher-priced trees aren’t worth their price tag.
Buy only trees that are clearly tagged or labeled with the botanical and common names to make sure you get the flowers, fruits, and crown shape you want.
Look for a relatively straight trunk with a slight natural flare at its base—if no flare exists, the tree has had too much soil placed atop its roots.
Buy trees with widely spaced, even branches, not trees with branches that are tightly spaced and mostly at the top of the trunk.
Buy trees from retailers who offer guarantees, and find out the terms of the guarantee.
Shop reputable local nurseries whenever possible, and buy trees that are native to your area.
Look for healthy trees, with plump buds.
Watch out for broken branches or scratched bark. Also look for dry or brown leaf margins, or dry root balls.
B&B or container-grown trees may be putting out new leaves; check for healthy growth. Examine leaves and bark for pests and diseases.
Buy bareroot trees only when they’re dormant, and only if the roots have been kept moist.
Roots that are evenly spaced around the base of the stem make a secure anchor.
On B&B trees, look for a well-wrapped, secure rootball.
Container-grown trees may be rootbound, with crowded roots wrapped around the rootball. Avoid trees that pull easily from the container, leaving the potting soil behind. Also avoid those whose roots have left the container and anchored themselves firmly in the soil beneath.
For adding interest and color to the landscape in winter—or any season of the year—there’s nothing like trees with ornamental bark. For many homeowners, the white flaking bark of birches—especially canoe birch (Betula papyrifera) and European white birch (B. pendula)—represents the epitome of ornamental bark. But white-barked birches are prone to insect problems and are not good choices for dry sites. Heritage river birch (B. nigra ‘Cully’) is a good substitute: It has tan, flaking bark and resists common birch pests.
The smooth, gray bark of trees such as beeches (Fagus spp.) and Kentucky yellow-wood (Cladrastis kentukea) is ornamental, too, as is the blocky gray bark of flowering dogwood (Cornus florida), which resembles alligator’s hide. The following trees have exfoliating or flaking bark in a variety of colors, including red, brown, or combinations of cream, gray, and brown.
Acer griseum (paperbark maple)
Betula nigra (river birch)
Cornus kousa (Kousa dogwood)
Lagerstroemia indica (crape myrtle)
Pinus bungeana (lacebark pine)
Pinus densiflora (Japanese red pine)
Platanus spp. (sycamores or plane trees)
Prunus spp. (flowering cherries)
Stewartia spp. (stewartia)
Ulmus parvifolia (Chinese or lacebark elm)
Plant a bareroot tree while it is dormant, either in fall or early spring. A few trees have roots so sensitive to disturbance that you should not buy or transplant them bareroot. Your chances of success are best when these trees are container grown: Kentucky coffee tree (Gymnocladus dioicus), crape myrtle (Lagerstroemia indica), sweet gum (Liquidambar styraciflua), black gum (Nyssa sylvatica), white oak (Quercus alba), and sassafras (Sassafras albidum).
You can plant most B&B or container-grown trees any time of the year except when the ground is frozen. There are a few exceptions, however. A few trees, especially those with thick and fleshy roots, seem to suffer less of a transplant shock if planted in spring in areas where the soil freezes deeply during winter. Though tree roots will continue to grow until the soil temperature drops below 40°F, these trees are slow to get established and are best reserved for spring planting: dogwoods (Cornus spp.), golden rain tree (Koelreuteria paniculata), tulip tree (Liriodendron tulipifera), magnolias (Magnolia spp.), black gum (Nyssa sylvatica), ornamental cherries and plums (Prunus spp.), most oaks (Quercus spp.), and Japanese zelkova (Zelkova serrata).
A close examination of the roots of your new tree will prevent problems that can limit growth. Trim any mushy, dead, or damaged roots. Comb out pot-bound roots and straighten or slice through roots that circle the rootball before you set the plant in its hole. Look carefully for girdling roots, which can strangle the tree by wrapping tightly around the base of its trunk. This stops the upward movement of water and nutrients absorbed by the roots and needed by the leaves and branches.
See the Planting entry for details on planting trees and helping them settle into your home landscape.
Staking is done to straighten or strengthen the trunk, or to prevent root movement and breakage before the tree anchors itself in the soil. Trees under 8 feet with small crowns, which aren’t located in windy sites, usually don’t need staking.
Although it would seem that rigidly staking a newly planted tree so it doesn’t move even slightly in the wind is the best approach, it’s actually best to allow the trunk to flex or move slightly when the wind hits it. This movement encourages the tree to produce special wood that will naturally bend when the wind hits it. A tree that is rigidly staked will often bend over or break after it is unstaked. Given a choice, avoid buying staked, container-grown trees—you will generally be buying a weak stem.
Unstake all trees 1 year after planting. Any tree that had an adequate root system and was properly planted will by then be able to stand on its own. If you want to leave the stakes in place to keep lawn mowers and other equipment from hitting the trunk, remove the guy wires or ropes but leave the stakes as a barrier.
If you need to reduce the size of a tree, use thinning cuts to remove branches back to the main branches from which they originated, or back to the tree trunk. Topping your tree by chopping branches off in the middle leaves large branch stubs and destroys the natural crown shape of your tree, making it look like a unappealing lollipop. It also stimulates the growth of watersprouts, which are upright-growing, unbranched stems that develop very quickly and never return to the normal branch pattern of your tree. Topping also weakens your tree, turning it into a liability or a potential hazard in your landscape.
When large branches are topped, the branch stub that is left begins to die. As the wood dies, decay fungi and insects can get into the wood, further weakening the tree. During wind, ice, and snow storms, these weakened branch stubs break from the tree more easily than healthy branches that have been properly pruned.
Carefully selected and planted trees need only occasional attention, especially once they become well established.
During the first year after planting, water each week when less than 1 inch of rain falls, especially in summer and fall. Water to thaw the ground, and provide water for the leaves of evergreen trees during warm winter weather.
The mulch you applied at planting time will gradually decompose. Replenish it as needed, but only use a few inches. To avoid rodent problems and to encourage good air circulation, keep the mulch away from the trunk. To find out more about using mulch to conserve moisture and reduce maintenance, see the Mulch entry.
Small, yellow leaves, premature fall coloration, stunted twig growth, or too few flowers or fruits often indicate a nutrient deficiency. Your trees will generally receive enough fertilizer if they are located in a lawn that you regularly fertilize. If your trees are located in isolated beds, in areas surrounded by paving, or in containers, you may need to apply compost or a balanced organic fertilizer. Simply broadcast the needed fertilizer on the soil surface. See the Fertilizers entry for more information about blended organic fertilizers.
Most trees are too large for you to provide them with special winter protection such as a burlap enclosure. If snow or ice loads bend the trees’ branches, avoid vigorously shaking the branches to remove the ice or snow. Frozen, brittle branches can easily break. Either allow the ice or snow to melt away naturally or very gently sweep it off.
Prune young trees at planting time and as they grow, to correct structural problems and improve their form. Training a young tree with several years of judicious pruning leads to a structurally sound, well-shaped mature tree. Remove crossing and rubbing branches and suckers or watersprouts. Also remove branches with narrow crotch angles. Repair storm and vandalism damage immediately after it occurs to reduce wound injury and subsequent decay. See the Pruning and Training entry for information on how to make pruning cuts.
After a few years, begin the limbing-up process if the tree is planted where passersby will walk below it. Remove the lowest branch or two by sawing through the limb just outside of the branch collar. Repeat every year until the lowest branches are high enough to permit easy passage. About 5 to 6 years after planting, thin to open up the canopy, reducing wind resistance and allowing light to reach the interior. If your tree is intended to block an undesirable view, use heading cuts to encourage denser branching.
If you’ve inherited a mature tree, some judicious pruning can make it better looking and healthier. If you’re not an experienced tree climber, hire an arborist to rejuvenate your tree. Correct the following types of problems.
Remove diseased or dead wood. Also removed damaged and broken branches.
Correct rubbing and crossing branches by removing the weaker branch or cutting off branches that grow into and across the center of the canopy.
Cut out watersprouts.
Reduce the number of branches to open up the canopy to light and air.
Trees can generally be pruned at any time of year, but avoid spring pruning of beeches (Fagus spp.), birches (Betula spp.), elms (Ulmus spp.), and maples (Acer spp.), which tend to bleed (exude sap) if pruned in spring. Spring-pruning these trees can increase certain disease and insect problems. Prune oaks only during the winter months to reduce the risk of oak wilt disease, which is spread by insects. If you grow trees for their flowers or fruits, prune them before the next year’s flower buds develop. A good time to prune broad-leaved evergreen trees or thin needle evergreens is during winter, especially if you can use the leaves, such as those on hollies (Ilex spp.) and southern magnolia (Magnolia grandiflora), for Christmas greenery.
It’s a little harder to move a tree than it is to shove the sofa around in the living room. But if you redo your landscape, or if a tree gets in the way of a planned addition or pool or driveway, it may be worth a try.
Be realistic about the size of tree you can move yourself. Very young deciduous trees may sometimes be successfully moved bareroot. But the bigger the rootball you can dig and move, the more successful your transplanting operation will be. Earth is heavy—very heavy. Figure on a rootball at least 1½ feet across and 1 foot deep for every inch of trunk. If you want to move a tree with a 2-inch trunk, that’s a ball of earth roughly 3 feet across and 2 feet deep—and that will weigh a few hundred pounds! If your back aches just thinking about it, consider hiring a nursery owner or arborist to dig and transplant the tree, either by hand or using a mechanical tree spade.
When you transplant a tree, you cut many of its roots, leaving them behind in their old location. Transplanting while the tree is dormant lessens the chance of leaves drying out while new roots are growing. Root pruning in advance of the move encourages the remaining roots to branch and makes it easier for the tree to become reestablished. If possible, 6 months to a year before transplanting, slice through the soil around the tree to a depth of 8 to 12 inches, outlining the rootball. Make a narrow trench and fill it with chopped leaves, so that any roots that regrow will be easy to lift. Prune the tree, thinning out about a third of the branches, so there is less topgrowth for the roots to support.
When you’re ready to move the tree, widen the trench, digging outward until it is at least 1½ feet wide around the full diameter of the rootball. Slice through any small roots that have grown beyond the original cut. Deepen the trench until you get to a depth where the soil contains few roots. Then begin digging under to shape the ball.
If your soil has enough clay to hold the ball together well, completely undercut the ball. If you can lift the tree and ball—lifting from under the ball—put it into a large container to move it. If the tree is too heavy to lift, gently tip the ball, then position a piece of burlap or other covering material under the ball. Gently work the material under and around the ball, and secure it with rope or nails.
If your soil is sandy, prior to undercutting the ball, wrap the top of the ball with burlap or other strong material, and secure it with heavy cord or twine as close to the base as possible. Then undercut the ball, gently tip it over, and secure the rest of the covering material across the bottom of the ball.
Get help lifting the tree out of its hole, levering it out from below. Then transport it to its new location and replant. Water well and mulch.
Contrary to old beliefs, tree roots don’t stop where the tree canopy stops—the “drip line”—nor do they penetrate to great soil depths. The roots of almost all trees, both in wooded and in open areas, spread out one to three times beyond the canopy. For this reason, if possible, apply fertilizer over this entire area, and protect it from soil compaction and other stresses that damage roots.
Most of the roots of your trees are located in the top few inches of soil. Only a limited number of trees in native stands have deep roots called taproots. Most other trees have no taproots—they stopped growing either due to limited soil oxygen or because they were cut off when the nursery dug the trees.
Some trees have less-than-ideal features—weak wood, disease or insect problems, and prolific self-sowing abilities, to name three—and as a result aren’t the best choices for landscapes. All of the trees listed here have some negative characteristics and aren’t good choices in most areas. Trees like box elder and black locust are tough and adaptable and may be a sensible choice for sites with poor soil or other extreme conditions. Plant name is followed by the nuisance features of the tree.
Acer negundo (box elder): Weak wood, pest problems.
Acer saccharinum (silver maple): Shallow roots, weak wood, seeds prolifically.
Aesculus hippocastanum (common horse chestnut): Poisonous fruit, disease problems.
Ailanthus altissima (tree of heaven): Invasive grower, seeds prolifically; leaves and male flowers are foul smelling.
Albizia julibrissin (mimosa, silk tree): Insect and disease problems, seeds prolifically.
Ginkgo biloba (ginkgo): Female trees have foul-smelling fruit; plant only males.
Gleditsia triacanthos (honey locust): Dangerous thorns; plant only thornless cultivars (which are cultivars of G. triacanthos var. inermis).
Morus spp. (mulberries): Messy fruit.
Populus deltoides (eastern cottonwood): Messy fruit, weak wood.
Populus nigra ‘Italica’ (Lombardy poplar): Incurable canker disease kills top.
Robinia pseudoacacia (black locust): Seeds prolifically, insect problems.
Salix bablyonica (weeping willow): Weak wood, roots invade water lines.
Many home buyers ask that large trees on a lot be saved during construction. However, few trees will withstand the rigors of construction—changing grades and drainage, topsoil removal, and soil compaction around roots.
To preserve trees on a new homesite, consult a tree specialist and walk the site with all contractors to identify the trees needing protection. Professional pruning may be necessary to compensate for root loss.
Direct tree damage occurs when you cut roots; damage or tear away trunk bark; break, tear away, or incorrectly prune off branches; or tie or nail items to the tree. Indirect tree damage occurs when you strip away topsoil and leaf litter, compact the soil, dump additional fill soil atop the roots, and burn or bury waste materials near the trees. You also indirectly damage trees by paving over open areas that absorbed rainfall, removing neighboring plants that provided wind and sun protection, and creating new drainage patterns for rainwater and runoff.
Your top priority is to preserve the natural root environment. If you keep people and equipment away from the tree, you will minimize the chances of damage being done to the tree’s trunk and branches. If possible, erect fences outside the drip line of trees before construction begins to keep vehicles and piles of building materials away from the sensitive root zone and trunk. Once construction is completed, apply mulch to replace leaf litter that was removed, prune structurally weak branches, and provide water and fertilizer to help stimulate new roots.
Frequent inspection of your trees will help minimize problems. Your best defenses are to buy good-quality, pest-free trees to avoid introducing pests or disease; to plant your trees in proper environments to encourage vigorous growth; to use good maintenance practices; and to minimize environmental stresses.
Biotic or pathological problems are caused by living organisms—insects, mites, fungi, bacteria, viruses, nematodes, and rodents. Abiotic or physiological problems are caused by nonliving things—improper planting and maintenance, poor soil conditions, air pollution, injury, compacted soil, construction damage, and lightning.
Far more tree problems are caused by abiotic problems, which weaken trees, allowing boring insects and decay fungi to attack. If your tree shows signs of ill health, check for poor conditions that may have allowed the pest or disease to get a foothold.
The plant family bothered by the greatest number of insect and disease problems is the rose family, Rosaceae. This large family includes such trees as crabapples, flowering pears (Pyrus spp.), hawthorns (Crataegus spp.), serviceberries (Amelanchier spp.), and mountain ashes (Sorbus spp.), along with cherries, peaches, almonds, and plums (all Prunus spp.). Crabapples are particularly susceptible to problems; buy only those cultivars that are resistant to these diseases: rust, scab, powdery mildew, and fire blight. (See the Malus entry for a list of disease-resistant crabapples.) Other trees, such as flowering dogwood (Cornus florida), maples (Acer spp.), sycamores (Platanus spp.), birches (Betula spp.), elms (Ulmus spp.), locusts (Robinia spp.), honey locusts (Gleditsia spp.), and oaks (Quercus spp.), may also have numerous pest or disease problems. Ask your nursery owner for advice before making the purchase.
Whenever a disease or insect problem is seen, try to control it by removing the pest or the affected plant part. Don’t compost or burn infected plants. Remember to sanitize tools after pruning infested or infected wood by cleaning them with a 10 percent bleach solution.
Most insect problems of trees are caused by a relatively small number of insects and mites (technically classed as arachnids). These pests have their preferences: Some primarily damage leaves, and others primarily damage branches and trunk.
Insects eat leaves and suck plant sap from them. The larvae of moths and butterflies, such as bag-worms, cankerworms, webworms, tent caterpillars, and gypsy moths, are especially voracious leaf eaters. Highly noticeable webs of eastern tent caterpillars and fall webworms protect the larvae from predators while they munch your leaves. Although the nests are unsightly, otherwise healthy trees usually recover from infestation. Remove and destroy any webs you can reach.
Gypsy moth populations rise to a peak in cycles of several years, causing almost complete defoliation in areas of heavy infestation. Handpicking and spraying Bt (Bacillus thuringiensis) are the best defenses against severe attacks of gypsy moths. In winter, check your trees for the light brown egg masses and scrape them off into a container of soapy water.
Other major insect pests that damage leaves are aphids and adelgids, various beetles and bugs, miners, scales, and spider mites.
Insects are always present on trees. Populations must be extreme before the tree suffers any real damage. Don’t rush to the sprayer as soon as you spot a caterpillar or two. Remember, the goal is a healthy tree, not complete insect annihilation. Learn to recognize harmful pests and the signs of infestation: curled leaves, stunted growth, deformed flowers.
Try handpicking and pruning off affected branches before you reach for other controls. Even Bt is not innocuous. It does kill gypsy moth larvae, tent caterpillars, and other undesirables—but it will also kill any other caterpillar that happens to eat a tainted leaf, including the beautiful luna moth, giant silk moths, and the caterpillars of your favorite butterflies. Leaf-eating caterpillars actually are a benefit of native tree species, since those caterpillars are an important food source for many species of songbirds, particularly when they are feeding their nestlings.
Stems are damaged when insects such as borers and scales either bore into them or feed on them. Cicadas cause stem damage when they lay their eggs into slits in twigs. Microscopic, wormlike nematodes also cause problems on the roots of many trees.
Turn to the Insects and Pests entries to find out more about controlling insect problems.
Tree diseases occur on leaves, stems, and roots. Many pathological diseases are difficult to distinguish from physiological problems. For instance, while fungi and bacteria can cause leaf spot diseases, spots on tree leaves can also be caused by nutrient deficiencies, improperly applied pesticides, road salts, and even drought. Be careful to properly identify a tree problem before you look for a control or corrective measure.
Most tree diseases are caused by fungi, although a few major diseases, such as fire blight on pears and other members of the rose family, are caused by bacteria. Flowering peaches and plums are also bothered by viral diseases.
Diseases of tree leaves are generally spots, anthracnoses, scorches, blights, rusts, and mildews. You will see them on your trees most frequently during moist weather and when plants are under environmental stress. Diseases of tree stems are generally cankers, blights, and decays. You will see these diseases when trees have been damaged by improper pruning, mechanical injury, and other maintenance and environmental factors. The major diseases of tree roots are root rots. Root rots occur when soils are poorly drained and may be intensified if roots have been injured by such things as construction damage and trenching. Refer to the Plant Diseases and Disorders entry for more information on disease prevention and control.
These trees are tough enough to tolerate the difficult growing conditions of city streets. All will tolerate poor soil, pollution, and droughty conditions.
Small Trees
Acer buergerianum (trident maple)
A. campestre (hedge maple)
A. ginnala (amur maple)
A. tataricum (Tatarian maple)
Crataegus crus-galli var. inermis (thornless cockspur hawthorn)
Koelreuteria paniculata (golden rain tree)
Prunus sargentii (Sargent cherry)
Pyrus calleryana (Callery pear) ‘Aristocrat’, ‘Redspire’
Syringa reticulata (Japanese tree lilac) ‘Ivory Silk’, ‘Summer Snow’
Medium to Large Trees
Acer pseudoplatanus (sycamore maple)
Carpinus betulus ‘Fastigiata’ (upright European hornbeam)
Celtis occidentalis (hackberry) ‘Prairie Pride’
Ginkgo biloba ‘Fastigiata’ (upright ginkgo)
Gleditsia triacanthos var. inermis (thornless honey locust) ‘Skyline’, ‘Shademaster’
Platanus × acerifolia (aka Platanus × hispanica, London plane tree)
Quercus acutissima (sawtooth oak)
Q. phellos (willow oak)
Q. robur ‘Fastigiata’ (upright English oak)
Styphnolobium japonicum (Japanese pagoda tree)
Taxodium distichum (bald cypress)
Tilia tomentosa (silver linden)
Ulmus parvifolia (Chinese or lacebark elm)
Zelkova serrata (Japanese zelkova) ‘Green Vase’ and ‘Village Green’
You can damage a tree by nailing items to it or ramming into its trunk with a lawn mower. String trimmer injury is more insidious than that caused by lawn mowers—the injury may be completely invisible, but the multiple small cuts in bark caused by a string trimmer create entry points for insects and disease organisms. Animals also damage trees. Birds may occasionally break branches or drill holes in them, looking for sap or insects. Moles may cause root injury by disturbing the roots of newly planted trees or creating air pockets that let the roots dry out as they tunnel, and voles actually feed on the roots. Mice and rabbits damage trees by feeding on the bark. Deer damage trees by browsing on young branch tips and by rubbing their antlers on the trunks and branches.
Handle your trees gently. Avoid lawn mower damage by using mulch or beds of groundcovers to surround the trunk. Pull any weeds close to the trunk by hand. A cat that patrols outdoors now and then is one way to control rodents. Fence to keep out deer. For more on controlling animals, see the Animal Pests entry.
Tree seeds are often notoriously slow to germinate, and many need special treatment to break dormancy. Variations in plant form, or in flower and leaf color or size, may occur with seed propagation. A good example is the range of needle colors, from pale blues to grayish and greenish blues, that develop on seed-propagated Colorado spruce (Picea pungens). But if you have the space for a small nursery bed, and plenty of time and patience, you might enjoy the challenge of growing from seed. The Seed Starting and Seed Saving entry will help you start seeds successfully.
When you take cuttings or use the layering method, you preserve the exact characteristics of the parent tree. Some trees can be propagated from stem cuttings, and some from cuttings from the roots. Timing and technique are important. The Cuttings, Layering, and Propagation entries will give you a start.
More complicated techniques such as grafting and tissue culture also produce an exact duplicate of the parent tree. Try your hand at grafting with a flowering dogwood (Cornus florida) or a crabapple (Malus spp.). See the Grafting entry for more details.
Designed to support climbing plants, trellises run the gamut from lightweight lattice to wrought-iron arches. They can be permanent structures, with posts set in concrete in the soil, or temporary moveable structures designed for a single growing season. While garden twine is strong enough for annual vines like beans and morning glories to climb, larger, heavier plants like tomatoes, climbing roses, and wisteria need trellises constructed of sterner stuff. Trellises used in vegetable gardens or to support fruit crops tend to be structural first and ornamental second, while the reverse is true when trellising roses or climbers like clematis.
Beyond their role as supports for vines or plants with long canes, trellises can function as a windbreak or a privacy screen. They also work well for displaying vines at the back of a flower garden; this adds height and color without taking up space. Install a small trellis in a large container for a summertime patio display, or use trellises to encourage vines to grow across and decorate an otherwise plain fence.
When designing a trellis, it’s important to decide first what kinds of vines you will be growing on it. Vines like clematis need lightweight lattice, mesh, or wire to cling to, because their twining leafstalks can’t grip large-diameter supports. (Or install mesh or other lightweight material on top of a larger trellis so they can.) Similarly, twining annual vines need relatively small-diameter supports at least until they’ve started growing vigorously. Roses need sturdy, well-built supports because the plants are heavy; tie them to trellises with soft string or strips of panty hose or T-shirt material, since their sprawling canes don’t attach themselves to supports. Finally, twining woody vines like wisterias (Wisteria spp.) need heavyweight, permanent trellises made of wood or metal, since the vines will simply crush smaller supports.
When planning a trellis that will be located against a wall or fence, determine what kind of maintenance that surface will require. If the wall or fence will require painting or other maintenance, build the trellis at least 4 or 5 inches out from the wall so you’ll be able to slide a long-handled paint roller in behind it.
Preconstructed trellises are available at garden centers and on the Internet. To build your own, look for designs in gardening books or on how-to Internet sites. Here are some general trellis types to get you started.
A-frame trellis: Create an A-frame structure with wood, bamboo stakes, PVC pipe, or galvanized pipe. Build two, three, or more A-shaped section supports, then connect them with crosspieces made of a similar material to create a freestanding structure that can be erected over a row of melons, beans, or other plants.
Cattle panel supports: Wire panels used to confine cattle and other livestock can be made into super-sturdy utilitarian trellises for tomatoes and other vegetables. The panels are 16 feet long and 4 feet wide; some suppliers will cut them in half. Set them along the row and use 6-foot-tall T-posts driven 2 feet into the ground at each end and at 2-foot intervals along the panel. Wire the panels to the posts.
Ornamental trellises: To build a lath trellis, create a frame strong enough to suit the vines you are going to grow: 1- by 4-inch or 2- by 4-inch wood frame pieces connected by smaller 1- by 1-inch or 1- by 2-inch slats will work well for smaller vines. You can also use strings or wire mesh inside the frame for vines to climb. For large vines, build the framework out of 4- by 4-inch posts and 2- by 4-inch crosspieces. Or build heavyweight trellises out of galvanized pipe, using pipe fittings to connect the pieces. The design can be simple, with slats running at right angles across the frame, or the slats can run diagonally or be fitted together in a pattern. Look at books on garden ornament or on the Internet for design options.
See the Brambles and the Grape entries for information on supports that will help maximize yields on these popular crops. See the Bean entry for a simple upright trellis suitable for the vegetable garden. See the Annuals entry for some quick-and-easy trellising methods for encouraging vines to climb lampposts, tepees, and other structures.
Nasturtium. Summer- and fall-blooming annuals; edible flowers.
Description: Long-spurred, cup-shaped, 2-inch flowers in yellow, orange, and red bloom among round, yellowish green leaves on short vines or 1-foot mounds.
How to grow: Because they transplant poorly, sow seeds directly where they are to bloom after the soil has warmed up. Nasturtiums thrive in sunny, cool areas in average soil, but they adapt fairly well to heat. Provide support for the climbers. Control aphids with soap spray.
Landscape uses: Nasturtiums look pretty in beds, borders, edges, pots, and hanging baskets as well as on short trellises. The leaves and flowers are edible and add a pleasant, peppery flavor to salads; the buds may be pickled and used in place of capers.
Hemlock. Needle-leaved evergreen trees.
Description: Tsuga canadensis, Canada or eastern hemlock, has soft, fine-textured foliage and a loosely pyramidal form. It grows 40 to 75 feet tall. Zones 3–8.
T. caroliniana, Carolina hemlock, has needles that are somewhat darker green and blunter. Plants can reach 70 feet. Zones 5–7.
Both species are native and produce decorative, tiny (1-inch) cones.
How to grow: Hemlocks grow naturally in cooler mountain climates in rocky, shallow soil. In the landscape, they do best with shaded roots, even moisture, and a deep mulch. Hemlocks can grow in full sun in the North, but are best for shade or partial shade elsewhere. They rarely need pruning. Hemlock woolly adelgid is a serious pest of both species. Thoroughly spraying the needles of infested trees with a horticultural oil and soap spray will control them, but it’s difficult to adequately cover tall hemlocks. Spray both in spring, when adelgids hatch, and in fall, before the nymphs produce their woolly protective coverings. Ask your extension office for the recommended spray schedule for your area.
Landscape uses: Hemlocks make charming specimens or effective informal screens or hedges. Canada hemlock can also be sheared to make a formal hedge.
Tulip. Spring-blooming bulbs.
Description: The most familiar tulips are hybrids that bear oval to cuplike blooms on long stems, but within the genus are flowers from barely 1 inch to over 8 inches wide, resembling stars, bowls, or eggs; some are double and resemble peonies, while others look like lilies and water lilies. The most exotic bear fanciful fringes on the petal tips, or their petals are deeply cut and feathered like tropical parrots’ plumage. Colors cover virtually the entire range except blue. Some have subtly blended colors, while others offer strikingly striped or edged patterns.
Although generally not fragrant, a few, especially the parrots, have a sweet, fruity perfume. Tulips bloom singly or (rarely) in clusters on gracefully curving to strictly upright stems, reaching from 3 to 36 inches above broad, fleshy, green to blue-green leaves. Some (mostly the Greigii cultivars) have foliage that is beautifully lined with dark purple. The species typically produce much smaller leaves and blooms than their hybrid relatives.
Species worth trying include Tulipa acuminata, horned or fire flame tulip, with red-and-yellow blooms; T. clusiana, lady or peppermint stick tulip, with red-and-white blooms, and T. clusiana var. chrysantha, with red-and-yellow blooms; and T. praestans, especially its cultivar ‘Fusilier’, with clustered blooms in bright red-orange. Most tulips are hardy to Zones 4–5; they do poorly in Zones 8 and warmer.
How to grow: Virtually all tulips are easy to grow. Plant in fall before the ground freezes, in a sunny to partly shady spot with average, well-drained soil. Space tulip bulbs 2 to 6 inches apart, depending on the ultimate size of the plant. Bury bulbs at a depth 2 to 3 times their width, measuring the depth from the top of the bulb. You should plant many of the cultivars even deeper to help encourage the bulbs to remain blooming size. Shallow planting usually results in good bloom the first year, followed by progressively disappointing displays in succeeding years. Fertilize like daffodils (see the Narcissus entry) to prolong the useful life of your tulips.
If you are bedding tulips out and plan to remove them after they fade, or if you are growing them as annual cut flowers, don’t fertilize—the bulb contains everything the flower needs to bloom its first year. Water if spring rains amount to less than 1 inch or so per week. Deadhead tulips after bloom if you want them to remain for another display the next year, but expect the flowers to be smaller and on shorter stems. Don’t remove the foliage until it has turned quite yellow and starts to die down. If you need to divide a clump, do so as you would for daffodils.
Control tulip fire (a fungal disease that will spread rapidly through an infected planting) by deep planting and immediate destruction of plants that wilt suddenly. Botrytis sometimes attacks the flowers, turning them into a twisted or collapsed mess; remove and destroy the flowers as soon as you notice it. Mice, squirrels, and chipmunks eat the bulbs with gusto. Planting a small group of bulbs in baskets made of ⅓-to ½-inch wire mesh should discourage them; so will a large piece of wire mesh laid 1 inch over the bulbs in a larger planting. See the Animal Pests entry for techniques to repel rabbits and deer.
Landscape uses: Grow small to large masses of tulips throughout a border in between perennials and annuals, which will disguise the yellowing foliage. Plant them in formal beds and in sweeps in lawns, removing them after bloom and replacing with annuals. They look marvelous against an evergreen hedge and in groups at the edges of patios. Smaller species are perfect for rock gardens, and many are wonderful forced in pots, particularly the early bloomers. All combine nicely with phlox (Phlox spp.), pansies (Viola × wittrockiana), bleeding hearts (Dicentra spp.), rock cress (Arabis spp.), candytuft (Iberis spp.), irises, azaleas (Rhododendron spp.), and lilacs.
For longest life in the garden, choose Triumph, Darwin Hybrid, and/or Single Late tulips, as well as the reliably perennial species tulips, or make sure you choose tulips labeled as “perennial tulips” when you place an order or buy bulbs at a nursery or garden center.
Here are some popular tulip types listed according to bloom season. Species tulips bloom early or during midseason.
Early-Blooming Tulips
Single Early: 2- to 4-inch flowers; 12- to 14-inch stems; often fragrant. The much-loved cultivar ‘Apricot Beauty’ is in this group.
Double Early: 3- to 4-inch many-petaled flowers; 12- to 14-inch stems.
Greigii: 3-inch-long starry flowers; 8- to 12-inch stems; purple-striped foliage.
Kaufmanniana: 3-inch-long flowers; 4 to 8 inches tall; also called waterlily tulips; foliage sometimes mottled.
Fosteriana: 4-inch-long flowers; 10 to 20 inches tall; includes ‘Emperor’ strain tulips.
Midseason Tulips
Darwin Hybrid: 3- to 4-inch flowers; 2- to 2½-foot stems.
Triumph: 2- to 4-inch flowers; 18- to 24-inch stems.
Late-Season Tulips
Lily Flowered: 2- to 4-inch flowers with curved, spreading petals; 2-foot stems.
Single Late: 3- to 4-inch-long, egg-shaped flowers; 1½- to 3-foot stems. ‘Queen of the Night’ is in this group.
Parrot: 6-inch-wide feather-edged flowers; 14- to 20-inch stems.
Double Late: 6-inch-wide, peonylike flowers; 12- to 16-inch stems; the last tulips to bloom.
Brassica rapa, Rapifera Group
Brassicaceae
Fast-growing turnips thrive in cool temperatures; hot weather makes the leaves tough and the roots woody and bitter. Ample moisture and temperatures of 50° to 70°F encourage rapid growth and a high-quality crop. Enjoy the roots and tops either raw or cooked.
Rutabagas are related to turnips, but they take a month longer to grow. Bake rutabaga roots whole; or chop, boil, and mash them.
Planting: Turnips thrive in well-drained, deeply worked soil on a sunny site.
Plant seeds outdoors 3 weeks before the last frost in spring. The soil must be at least 40°F for germination, which takes from 7 to 14 days. Fall crops of turnips are often sweeter and provide a longer harvest period than spring plantings. For a fall harvest, plant in midsummer about 2 months before the first frost. Plant rutabagas for fall harvest only.
Sow spring crops ¼ inch deep and fall crops ½ inch deep. Broadcast the seeds, and later thin them to 3 to 4 inches apart, or plant seeds in rows spaced 12 to 18 inches apart.
Growing guidelines: Keep the soil evenly moist to promote fast growth and the best flavor. When plants are 5 inches tall, apply a mulch at least 2 inches thick. No extra fertilizer is necessary in well-prepared soil.
Problems: See Cabbage entry for details on pest and disease control.
Harvesting: Harvest greens when they’re large enough to pick. If you plan to harvest both leaves and roots from a single planting, remove only two or three leaves per plant. Small roots are the most tender, so pull when they are 1 to 3 inches in diameter. It’s easy to harvest small turnips growing in light garden soil simply by hand-pulling them. For large storage roots, though, try loosening the soil by inserting a spading fork beside the row first. To store the roots, twist off the tops, leaving ½ inch of stem. Place undamaged roots in a cool, dark place, such as a basement or root cellar. Don’t wash off soil that clings to roots; it helps protect roots in storage. They will keep for several months. You can also leave your fall crop in the ground until early winter (or throughout winter in mild climates) by covering the roots with a thick mulch.
See Diascia
