16.1.4 Italics and Quotation Marks
16.2.1 Types of Bibliographies
16.2.3 Sources That May Be Omitted
16.3.1 Footnotes versus Endnotes
A citation style used widely in the humanities and in some social sciences is the notes-bibliography style, or bibliography style for short. This chapter presents an overview of the basic pattern for citations in bibliography style, including bibliography entries, full notes, shortened notes, and parenthetical notes. Examples of notes are identified with an N; examples of bibliography entries are identified with a B.
In bibliography style, you signal that you have used a source by placing a superscript number at the end of the sentence in which you quote or otherwise refer to that source:
According to one scholar, “The railroads had made Chicago the most important meeting place between East and West.”4
You then cite the source of that information in a correspondingly numbered note that provides information about the source (author, title, and facts of publication) plus relevant page numbers. Notes are printed at the bottom of the page (called footnotes) or in a list collected at the end of your paper or the end of each chapter (called endnotes). All notes have the same general form:
N: 4. William Cronon, Nature’s Metropolis: Chicago and the Great West (New York: W. W. Norton, 1991), 92–93.
If you cite the same text again, you can shorten subsequent notes:
N: 8. Cronon, Nature’s Metropolis, 383.
In most cases, you also list sources at the end of the paper in a bibliography. That list normally includes every source you cited in a note and sometimes others you consulted but did not cite. Each bibliography entry includes the same information contained in a full note, but in a slightly different form:
B: Cronon, William. Nature’s Metropolis: Chicago and the Great West. New York: W. W. Norton, 1991.
Readers expect you to follow the rules for correct citations exactly. These rules cover not only what data you must include and their order but also punctuation, capitalization, italicizing, and so on. To get your citations right, you must pay close attention to many minute details that few researchers can easily remember. Chapter 17 provides a ready reference guide to those details.
Although sources and their citations come in almost endless variety, you are likely to use only a few kinds. While you may need to look up details to cite some unusual sources, you can easily learn the basic patterns for the few kinds you will use most often. You can then create templates that will help you record bibliographical data quickly and reliably as you read.
The rest of this section describes the basic patterns, and figure 16.1 provides templates for and examples of several common types of sources. Chapter 17 includes examples of a wide range of sources, including exceptions to the patterns discussed here.
Figure 16.1. Templates for notes and bibliography entries
The following templates show what elements should be included in what order when citing several common types of sources in notes (N) and bibliographies (B). They also show punctuation, capitalization of titles, and when to use italics or quotation marks. Gray shading shows abbreviations (or their spelled-out versions) and other terms as they would actually appear in a citation. ## stands in for footnote number. XX stands in for page numbers actually cited, YY for a full span of page numbers for an article or a chapter.
For further examples, explanations, and variations, see chapter 19.
Books
1. Single Author or Editor
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N: ##. Author’s First and Last Names, Title of Book: Subtitle of Book (Place of Publication: Publisher’s Name, Date of Publication), XX–XX. |
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1. Malcolm Gladwell, The Tipping Point: How Little Things Can Make a Big Difference (Boston: Little, Brown, 2000), 64–65. |
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B: Author’s Last Name, Author’s First Name. Title of Book: Subtitle of Book. Place of Publication: Publisher’s Name, Date of Publication. |
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Gladwell, Malcolm. The Tipping Point: How Little Things Can Make a Big Difference. Boston: Little, Brown, 2000. |
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For a book with an editor instead of an author, adapt the pattern as follows: |
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N: ##. Editor’s First and Last Names, ed., Title of Book … |
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7. Joel Greenberg, ed., Of Prairie, Woods, and Water … |
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B: Editor’s Last Name, Editor’s First Name, ed. Title of Book … |
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Greenberg, Joel, ed. Of Prairie, Woods, and Water … |
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2. Multiple Authors For a book with two authors, use the following pattern: | |
N: ##. Author #1’s First and Last Names and Author #2’s First and Last Names, Title of Book: Subtitle of Book (Place of Publication: Publisher’s Name, Date of Publication), XX–XX. |
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2. Peter Morey and Amina Yaqin, Framing Muslims: Stereotyping and Representation after 9/11 (Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 2011), 52. |
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B: Author #1’s Last Name, Author #1’s First Name, and Author #2’s First and Last Names. Title of Book: Subtitle of Book. Place of Publication: Publisher’s Name, Date of Publication. |
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Morey, Peter, and Amina Yaqin. Framing Muslims: Stereotyping and Representation after 9/11. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 2011. |
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For a book with three authors, adapt the pattern as follows: |
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N: ##. Author #1’s First and Last Names, Author #2’s First and Last Names, and Author #3’s First and Last Names, Title of Book … |
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5. Joe Soss, Richard C. Fording, and Sanford F. Schram, Disciplining the Poor … |
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B: Author #1’s Last Name, Author #1’s First Name, Author #2’s First and Last Names, and Author #3’s First and Last Names. Title of Book… |
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Soss, Joe, Richard C. Fording, and Sanford F. Schram. Disciplining the Poor … |
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For a book with four or more authors, adapt the note pattern only as follows: |
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N: ##. Author #1’s First and Last Names et al., Title of Book … |
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15. Jay M. Bernstein et al., Art and Aesthetics after Adorno … |
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3. Author(s) Plus Editor or Translator For a book with an author plus an editor, use the following pattern: | |
N: ##. Author’s First and Last Names, Title of Book: Subtitle of Book, ed. Editor’s First and Last Names (Place of Publication: Publisher’s Name, Date of Publication), XX–XX. |
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9. Jane Austen, Persuasion: An Annotated Edition, ed. Robert Morrison (Cambridge, MA: Belknap Press of Harvard University Press, 2011), 311–12. |
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B: Author’s Last Name, Author’s First Name. Title of Book: Subtitle of Book. Edited by Editor’s First and Last Names. Place of Publication: Publisher’s Name, Date of Publication. |
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Austen, Jane. Persuasion: An Annotated Edition. Edited by Robert Morrison. Cambridge, MA: Belknap Press of Harvard University Press, 2011. |
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If a book has a translator instead of an editor, substitute the words trans, and Translated by and the translator’s name for the editor data. |
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4. Edition Number | |
N: ##. Author’s First and Last Names, Title of Book: Subtitle of Book, Edition Number ed. (Place of Publication: Publisher’s Name, Date of Publication), XX–XX. |
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11. John Van Maanen, Tales of the Field: On Writing Ethnography, 2nd ed. (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 2011), 84. |
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B: Author’s Last Name, Author’s First Name. Title of Book: Subtitle of Book. Edition Number ed. Place of Publication: Publisher’s Name, Date of Publication. |
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Van Maanen, John. Tales of the Field: On Writing Ethnography. 2nd ed. Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 2011. |
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5. Single Chapter in an Edited Book | |
N: ##. Chapter Author’s First and Last Names, “Title of Chapter: Subtitle of Chapter,” in Title of Book: Subtitle of Book, ed. Editor’s First and Last Names (Place of Publication: Publisher’s Name, Date of Publication), XX–XX. |
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15. Ángeles Ramírez, “Muslim Women in the Spanish Press:The Persistence of Subaltern Images,” in Muslim Women in War and Crisis: Representation and Reality, ed. Faegheh Shirazi (Austin: University of Texas Press, 2010), 231. |
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B: Chapter Author’s Last Name, Chapter Author’s First Name. “Title of Chapter: Subtitle of Chapter.” In Title of Book: Subtitle of Book, edited by Editor’s First and Last Names, YY–YY. Place of Publication: Publisher’s Name, Date of Publication. |
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Ramírez, Ángeles. Muslim Women in the Spanish Press: The Persistence of Subaltern Images.” In Muslim Women in War and Crisis: Representation and Reality, edited by Faegheh Shirazi, 227–44. Austin: University of Texas Press, 2010. |
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Journal Articles
6. Journal Article in Print
N: ##. Author’s First and Last Names, “Title of Article: Subtitle of Article,” Title of Journal Volume Number, Issue Number (Date of Publication): XX–XX. |
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4. Alexandra Bogren, “Gender and Alcohol: The Swedish Press Debate,” Journal of Gender Studies 20, no. 2 (June 2011): 156. |
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B: Author’s Last Name, Author’s First Name. “Title of Article: Subtitle of Article.” Title of Journal Volume Number, Issue Number (Date of Publication): YY–YY. |
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Bogren, Alexandra. “Gender and Alcohol: The Swedish Press Debate.” Journal of Gender Studies 20, no. 2 (June 2011): 155–69. |
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For an article with multiple authors, follow the relevant pattern for authors’ names in template 2. |
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7. Journal Article Online For a journal article consulted online, include an access date and a URL. For articles that include a DOI, form the URL by appending the DOI to http://dx.doi.org/ rather than using the URL in your address bar. The DOI for the Kiser article in the example below is 10.1086/658052. | |
N: ##. Author’s First and Last Names, “Title of Article: Subtitle of Article,” Title of Journal Volume Number, Issue Number (Date of Publication): XX–XX, accessed Date of Access, URL. |
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5. Lisa J. Kiser, “Silencing the Lambs: Economics, Ethics, and Animal Life in Medieval Franciscan Hagiography,” Modern Philology 108, no. 3 (February 2011): 340, accessed September 18, 2011, http://dx.doi.org/10.1086/658052. |
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B: Author’s Last Name, Author’s First Name. “Title of Article: Subtitle of Article.” Title of Journal Volume Number, Issue Number (Date of Publication): YY–YY. Accessed Date of Access. URL. |
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Kiser, Lisa J. “Silencing the Lambs: Economics, Ethics, and Animal Life in Medieval Franciscan Hagiography.” Modern Philology 108, no. 3 (February 2011): 323–42. Accessed September 18, 2011. http://dx.doi.org/10.1086/658052. |
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See 15.4.1 for more details. |
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The order of elements in notes and bibliography entries follows the same general pattern for all types of sources: author, title, facts of publication. However, notes present authors’ names in standard order (first name first), while bibliography entries present them in inverted order (last name first) for alphabetical listing. Notes citing specific passages usually include page numbers or other locating information; bibliography entries do not, though they do include a full span of page numbers for a source that is part of a larger whole, such as an article or a chapter.
In notes, separate most elements with commas; in bibliography entries, separate them with periods. In notes, enclose facts of publication in parentheses; in bibliography entries, do not. The styles are different because a note is intended to be read like text, where a period might signal the end of a citation. Bibliographies are designed as lists in which each source has its own entry, so periods can be used without confusion to separate the elements of author, title, and publication data.
Capitalize most titles headline style, but capitalize titles in foreign languages sentence style. (See 22.3.1 for both styles.) Capitalize proper nouns in the usual way (see chapter 22).
Titles of larger entities (books, journals) are printed in italics; titles of smaller entities (chapters, articles) are printed in roman type and enclosed in quotation marks. Titles of unpublished works (such as dissertations) are printed in roman type and enclosed in quotation marks, even if they are book length. See also 22.3.2.
In titles, any numbers are spelled out or given in numerals exactly as they are in the original. Page numbers that are in roman numerals in the original are presented in lowercase roman numerals. All other numbers (such as chapter numbers or figure numbers) are given in arabic numerals, even if they are in roman numerals or spelled out in the original.
In notes, abbreviate terms such as editor and translator (ed. and trans.). In bibliography entries, these terms are often spelled out when they introduce a name (Edited by) but abbreviated when they conclude it (ed.). The plural is usually formed by adding s (eds.) unless the abbreviation ends in an s (use trans. for both singular and plural). Terms such as volume, edition, and number (vol., ed., and no.) are always abbreviated.
Notes are indented like other paragraphs in the text: the first line is indented and all following lines are flush left. Bibliography entries have a hanging indentation: the first line is flush left and all following lines are indented the same amount as the first line of a paragraph.
Papers that use the notes-bibliography citation style typically include both notes and a bibliography that lists all sources cited in the notes. Although the same information appears in both notes and bibliography, readers need it in both places, because they use notes and bibliographies differently. Notes let readers quickly check the source for a particular reference without disrupting the flow of their reading. Bibliographies show readers the extent of your research and its relationship to prior work. Bibliographies also help readers use your sources in their own research. So unless you have only a handful of sources or your instructor tells you otherwise, always include both notes and a bibliography in your papers. If you do not include a bibliography, make sure that your notes present complete information for each source, at least the first time you cite it.
In most cases, your bibliography should include every work you cite in your text. (For exceptions, see 16.2.3.) You may also include works that were important to your thinking but that you did not specifically mention in the text. Label this kind Bibliography or Sources Consulted. See figure A.15 in the appendix for a sample page of a bibliography.
There are other options:
■ Selected bibliography. Some bibliographies do not include all works cited in notes, either to save space or to omit minor references unlikely to interest readers. You may use a selected bibliography if you have good reasons and your instructor or advisor approves. Label it Selected Bibliography and add a headnote that explains your principle of selection.
■ Single-author bibliography. Some writers list works by one person, usually as a separate list in addition to a standard bibliography, but sometimes as the only bibliography in a single-author study with few other sources. Label such a list Works of [Author’s Name] or some appropriate descriptive title (Published Works of, Writings of, and so on). You can arrange it chronologically or alphabetically by title. If chronologically, list titles published in the same year alphabetically.
■ Annotated bibliography. Some writers annotate each bibliography entry with a brief description of the work’s contents or relevance to their research. In most cases, if you annotate one entry you should annotate them all. But researchers sometimes annotate only the most important works or those whose relevance to their research may not be evident. If your annotations are brief phrases, add them in brackets after the publication data (note that there is no period within or after the bracketed entry):
B: Toulmin, Stephen. The Uses of Argument. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1958. [a seminal text describing argument in nonsymbolic language]
You may also add full-sentence annotations on a new line with paragraph indentation:
B: Toulmin, Stephen. The Uses of Argument. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1958.
This is the seminal text in describing the structure of an argument in nonsymbolic language.
16.2.2.1 ALPHABETICAL BY AUTHOR. A bibliography is normally a single list of all sources arranged alphabetically by the last name of the author, editor, or whoever is first in each entry. (For alphabetizing foreign names, compound names, and other special cases, see 16.2.2.2.) Most word processors provide an alphabetical sorting function; if you use it, first make sure each entry is followed by a hard return. If you are writing a thesis or dissertation, your department or university may specify that you should alphabetize the entries letter by letter or word by word; see 16.58–61 of The Chicago Manual of Style, 16th edition (2010), for an explanation of these two systems.
If your bibliography includes two or more works written, edited, or translated by the same individual, arrange the entries alphabetically by title (ignoring articles such as a or the). For all entries after the first, replace the individual’s name with a long dash, called a 3-em dash (see 21.7.3). For edited or translated works, put a comma and the appropriate designation (ed., trans., and so on) after the dash. List all such works before any that the individual coauthored or coedited. Note that it is best to make all these adjustments manually—after you have sorted your complete bibliography alphabetically by name.
B: Gates, Henry Louis, Jr. America behind the Color Line: Dialogues with African Americans. New York: Warner Books, 2004.
_______. Black in Latin America. New York: New York University Press, 2011.
_______, ed. The Classic Slave Narratives. New York: Penguin Putnam, 2002.
_______. The Signifying Monkey: A Theory of African-American Literary Criticism. New York: Oxford University Press, 1988.
_______. Tradition and the Black Atlantic: Critical Theory in the African Diaspora. New York: BasicCivitas, 2010.
Gates, Henry Louis, Jr., and Cornel West. The African-American Century: How Black Americans Have Shaped Our Country. New York: Free Press, 2000.
The same principles apply to works by a single group of authors named in the same order.
B: Marty, Martin E., and R. Scott Appleby, eds. Accounting for Fundamentalisms. Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 2004.
_______. The Glory and the Power: The Fundamentalist Challenge to the Modern World. Boston: Beacon Press, 1992.
Marty, Martin E., and Micah Marty. When True Simplicity Is Gained: Finding Spiritual Clarity in a Complex World. Grand Rapids, Ml: William B. Eerdmans, 1998.
If a source does not have a named author or editor, alphabetize it based on the first element of the citation, generally a title. Ignore articles such as a or the.
B: Account of the Operations of the Great Trigonometrical Survey of India. 22 vols.Dehra Dun: Survey of India, 1870–1910.
“The Great Trigonometrical Survey of India.” Calcutta Review 38 (1863): 26–62.
“State and Prospects of Asia.” Quarterly Review 63, no. 126 (March 1839): 369–402.
16.2.2.2 SPECIAL TYPES OF NAMES. Some authors’ names consist of more than a readily identifiable “first name” and “last name.” In many cases you can determine the correct order by consulting your library’s catalog. For historical names, a good source is Merriam-Webster’s Biographical Dictionary. This section outlines some general principles for alphabetizing such names in your bibliography. In shortened or parenthetical notes, use the last name exactly as inverted (shown below in boldface). If your paper involves many names from a particular foreign language, follow the conventions for that language.
■ Compound names. Alphabetize compound last names, including hyphenated names, by the first part of the compound. If a woman uses both her own family name and her husband’s but does not hyphenate them, generally alphabetize by the second surname. While many foreign languages have predictable patterns for compound names (see below), others—such as French and German—do not.
Kessler-Harris, Alice
Hine, Darlene Clark
Mies van der Rohe, Ludwig
Teilhard de Chardin, Pierre
■ Names with particles. Depending on the language, particles such as de, di, D’, and van may or may not be considered the first part of a last name for alphabetizing. Consult one of the resources noted above if you are unsure about a particular name. Note that particles may be either lower-cased or capitalized, and some are followed by an apostrophe.
de Gaulle, Charles
di Leonardo, Micaela
Van Rensselaer, Stephen
Beauvoir, Simone de
Kooning, Willem de
Medici, Lorenzo de’
■ Names beginning with “Mac,” “Saint,” or “O’.” Names that begin with Mac, Saint, or O’ can have many variations in abbreviations (Mc, St.), spelling (Sainte, San), capitalization (Macmillan, McAllister), and hyphenation or apostrophes (O’Neill or Odell; Saint-Gaudens or St. Denis). Alphabetize all such names based on the letters actually present; do not group them because they are similar.
■ Spanish names. Many Spanish last names are compound names consisting of an individual’s paternal and maternal family names, sometimes joined by the conjunction y. Alphabetize such names under the first part.
Ortega y Gasset, José
Sánchez Mendoza, Juana
■ Arabic names. Alphabetize Arabic last names that begin with the particle al- or el- (“the”) under the element following the particle. Names that begin with Abu, Abd, and Ibn, like English names beginning with Mac or Saint, should be alphabetized under these terms.
Hakim, Tawfiq al-
Jamal, Muhammad Hamid al-
Abu Zafar Nadvi, Syed
Ibn Saud, Aziz
■ Chinese and Japanese names. If an author with a Chinese or Japanese name follows traditional usage (family name followed by given name), do not invert the name or insert a comma between the “first” and “last” names. If the author follows Westernized usage (given name followed by family name), treat the name as you would an English name.
Traditional usage |
Westernized usage |
Chao Wu-chi |
Tsou, Tang |
Yoshida Shigeru |
Kurosawa, Noriaki |
16.2.2.3 OTHER THAN ALPHABETICAL. Occasionally, readers will find an order other than alphabetical more useful. Single-author bibliographies are often more usefully arranged chronologically, as are specialized listings such as newspaper articles, archival records, and so on. You may also find it useful to invent an order for a specific purpose—for example, a list of topographical maps arranged by state or region. If you do use an order other than alphabetical or chronological, explain your choice in a headnote.
16.2.2.4 CATEGORIZED LISTINGS. You may organize a longer bibliography into categories to help readers see related sources as a group. Some common ways of categorizing longer bibliographies into sections include these:
■ By the physical form of sources. You can create separate lists for manuscripts, archival collections, recordings, and so on.
■ By the primacy of sources. You can separate primary sources from secondary and tertiary ones, as in a single-author bibliography.
■ By the field of sources. You can group sources by field, either because your readers will have different interests (as in the bibliography to this book) or because you mix work from fields not usually combined. For example, a work on the theory and psychology of comic literature might categorize sources as follows: Theory of Comedy, Psychological Studies, Literary Criticism, Comic Works.
If you categorize sources, present them in either separate bibliographies or a single one divided into sections. Introduce each separate bibliography or section with a subheading and, if necessary, a headnote. In a single bibliography, use the same principle of order within each section (usually alphabetical), and do not list a source in more than one section unless it clearly could be categorized in two or more ways. If you use different principles of order, create separate bibliographies, each with its own explanatory heading.
By convention, you may omit the following types of sources from a bibliography:
■ newspaper articles (see 17.4)
■ classical, medieval, and early English literary works (17.5.1) and (in some cases) well-known English-language plays (17.8.5.2)
■ the Bible and other sacred works (17.5.2)
■ well-known reference works, such as major dictionaries and encyclopedias (17.5.3)
■ brief published items, such as reviews of published works or performances (17.5.4), abstracts (17.5.5), and pamphlets and reports (17.5.6)
■ unpublished interviews and personal communications (17.6.3), blog entries and comments (17.7.2), and postings to social networks (17.7.3) or electronic discussion groups or mailing lists (17.7.4)
■ individual documents in unpublished manuscript collections (17.6.4)
■ some sources in the visual and performing arts, including artworks (17.8.1) and live performances (17.8.2)
■ the US Constitution (17.9.5), legal cases (17.9.7), and some other public documents (17.9.2.5)
You may choose to include in your bibliography a specific work from one of these categories that is critical to your argument or frequently cited.
If you use many such sources from a single larger entity—for example, several documents from a single manuscript collection—you may cite the larger entity, as discussed in the relevant sections of chapter 17.
Writers use several different kinds of notes, depending on their field, their readers, and the nature of their project. This section explains your options and how to choose among them.
Your department may specify whether you should use footnotes or endnotes, especially for a thesis or dissertation. If not, you should generally choose footnotes, which are easier to read. Endnotes force readers to flip to the back of the paper or of each chapter to check every citation. If you include substantive comments in endnotes (see 16.3.5), readers may ignore them because they cannot tell without turning back which notes are substantive and which only cite sources.
On the other hand, choose endnotes when your footnotes are so long or numerous that they take up too much space on the page, making your report unattractive and difficult to read. Also, endnotes better accommodate tables, quoted poetry, and anything else that requires a lot of room or complex formatting.
If you use endnotes and include only a few substantive notes, you can reduce the risk that readers will miss them by separating substantive notes from source notes. Number source notes and print them as endnotes. Signal substantive notes with asterisks and other symbols (see 16.3.3) and print them as footnotes.
Whenever you refer to or otherwise use material from a source, you must insert into your text a superscript number that directs your reader to a note that gives bibliographical information about that source. Put the number at the end of the sentence or clause containing the quotation or other material (see also 25.2). Normally, the note number should follow any mark of punctuation, including a closing parenthesis.
Magic was a staple of the Kinahan charm.1
“This,” wrote George Templeton Strong, “is what our tailors can do.”2
(In an earlier book he had said quite the opposite.)3
If, however, the note refers to material before a dash, put the reference number before the dash:
The bias surfaced in the Shotwell series4—though not obviously.
Do not include more than one reference number at the same location (such as 5, 6). Instead, use one number and include all citations or comments in a single note (see 16.3.5).
Avoid putting a note number inside or at the end of a chapter title or subtitle. If your note applies to the entire chapter, omit the number and put an unnumbered footnote on the first page, before any numbered notes. You may, on the other hand, attach a note number to a subhead.
Number notes consecutively, beginning with 1. If your paper has separate chapters, restart each chapter with note 1. Do not skip a number or use numbers such as 5a.
If you use endnotes for source citations but footnotes for substantive comments (see 16.3.1), do not number the footnotes. Instead, label the first footnote on a page with an asterisk (*). If you have more than one footnote on a page, use superscript symbols in the sequence* † ǂ §.
For notes to tables, see 26.2.7.
Use regular paragraph indents for both footnotes and endnotes. Begin each note with its reference number, formatted not as a superscript but as regular text. Put a period and a space between the number and the text of the note. For notes labeled with symbols (see 16.3.3), a space but not a period should appear between the symbol and the text of the note.
If your local guidelines allow it, you may instead use superscripts for reference numbers and symbols in notes. You should then begin the text of each note with an intervening space but no period.
16.3.4.1 FOOTNOTES. Begin every footnote on the page on which you reference it. Put a short rule between the last line of text and the first footnote on each page, including any notes that run over from previous pages, even if your word processor doesn’t do so automatically. If a footnote runs over to the next page, it is best if it breaks in midsentence, so that readers do not think the note is finished and overlook the part on the next page. Single-space each footnote. If you have more than one footnote on a page, put a blank line between notes. See figure A.10 for a sample page of text with footnotes.
16.3.4.2 ENDNOTES. Endnotes should be listed together after the end of the text and any appendixes but before the bibliography. Single-space each note, and put a blank line between notes. Label the list Notes. If you restart numbering for each chapter, add a subheading before the first note to each chapter: “Chapter 1” and so forth. See figure A.14 for a sample page of endnotes.
16.3.5.1 CITATIONS. If you cite several sources to make a single point, group them into a single note to avoid cluttering your text with reference numbers. List the citations in the same order in which the references appear in the text; separate citations with semicolons.
Only when we gather the work of several scholars—Walter Sutton’s explications of some of Whitman’s shorter poems; Paul Fussell’s careful study of structure in “Cradle”; S. K. Coffman’s close readings of “Crossing Brooklyn Ferry” and “Passage to India”—do we begin to get a sense of both the extent and the specificity of Whitman’s forms.1
N: 1. Sutton, “The Analysis of Free Verse Form, Illustrated by a Reading of Whitman,” Journal of Aesthetics and Art Criticism 18 (December 1959): 241–54; Fussell, “Whitman’s Curious Warble: Reminiscence and Reconciliation,” in The Presence of Whitman, ed. R. W. B. Lewis (New York: Columbia University Press, 1962), 28–51; Coffman, “‘Crossing Brooklyn Ferry’: A Note on the Catalogue Technique in Whitman’s Poetry,” Modern Philology 51, no. 4 (May 1954): 225–32; Coffman, “Form and Meaning in Whitman’s ‘Passage to India,’” PMLA 70, no. 3 (June 1955): 337–49.
It is also useful to group citations when you refer readers to a number of additional sources (called a “string cite”):
N: 2. For accounts of the coherence-making processes of consciousness from, respectively, psychological, neuropsychological, and philosophical points of view, see Bernard J. Baars, A Cognitive Theory of Consciousness (New York: Cambridge University Press, 1988); Gerald Edelman, Bright Air, Brilliant Fire: On the Matter of the Mind (New York: Basic Books, 1992); and Daniel Dennett, Consciousness Explained (Boston: Little, Brown, 1991).
16.3.5.2 CITATIONS AND COMMENTS. If a note includes both a citation and a substantive comment, put the citation first with a period after it, followed by the comment in a separate sentence.
To come to Paris was to experience the simultaneous pleasures of the best contemporary art and the most vibrant art center.9
N: 9. Natt, “Paris Art Schools,” 269. Gilded Age American artists traveled to other European art centers, most notably Munich, but Paris surpassed all others in size and importance.
When you include a quotation in a note, put the citation after the terminal punctuation of the quotation.
Property qualifications dropped out of US practice for petit juries gradually during the nineteenth century but remained in force for grand juries in some jurisdictions until the mid-twentieth century.33
N: 33. “A grand jury inquires into complaints and accusations brought before it and, based on evidence presented by the state, issues bills of indictment.” Kermit Hall, The Magic Mirror: Law in American History (New York: Oxford University Press, 1989), 172.
Be judicious in your use of substantive comments in notes. If a point is critical to your argument, include it in the text. If it is peripheral, think carefully about whether it is important enough to mention in a note.
In some fields, your instructor may expect you to give full bibliographical data in each note, but in most you can give a complete citation the first time you cite a work and a shortened one in subsequent notes. In a few fields, writers use a shortened form for all citations, with complete data listed only in the bibliography.
If you don’t know the practice common in your field, consult your local guidelines.
A shortened note should include enough information for readers to find the full citation in your bibliography or in an earlier note. The two main choices are author-only notes and author-title notes. In many fields, writers use the author-title form for all shortened notes; in others, writers use the author-only form for most shortened notes, but the author-title form when they cite more than one work by the same author. If a source does not have an author (or editor), you can use a title-only note. Figure 16.2 provides templates for each type of shortened note.
Figure 16.2. Templates for shortened notes
The following templates show what elements should be included in what order in the three types of shortened notes (see 16.4.1 for when to use each type). They also show punctuation, capitalization of titles, and typography of the elements. Gray shading shows terms as they would actually appear in a citation. ## stands in for note number; XX stands in for page numbers cited.
Author-Only Notes
1. Single Author
N: ##. Author’s Last Name, XX–XX. |
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2. Gladwell, 85–90. |
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For a work cited by editor or translator instead of author (see 17.1.1), use the editor or translator in place of the author. Do not add ed. or trans., as in a full note. |
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N: ##. Editor’s or Translator’s Last Name, XX–XX. |
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9. Greenberg, 15. |
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If two or more authors have the same last name, distinguish them by adding first names or initials. |
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2. Two or Three Authors | |
N: ##. Author #1’s Last Name and Author #2’s Last Name, XX–XX. |
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7. Morey and Yaqin, 52. |
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N: ##. Author #1’s Last Name, Author #2’s Last Name, and Author #3’s Last Name, XX–XX. |
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15. Soss, Fording, and Schram, 135–36. |
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3. Four or More Authors | |
N: ##. Author #1’s Last Name et al., XX–XX. |
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10. Bernstein et al., 114–15. |
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Author-Title Notes
4. Books
N: ##. Author’s Last Name, Shortened Title, XX–XX. |
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2. Gladwell, Tipping Point, 85–90. |
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For books by more than one author, follow the pattern for authors’ names in templates 2 and 3. |
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5. Articles | |
N: ##. Author’s Last Name, “Shortened Title,” XX–XX. |
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8. Kiser, “Silencing the Lambs,” 328. |
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For articles by more than one author, follow the pattern for authors’ names in templates 2 and 3. |
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Title-Only Notes
6. Books without an Author
N: ##. Shortened Title, XX–XX. |
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11. Account of Operations, 252. |
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7. Articles without an Author | |
N: ##. “Shortened Title,” XX–XX. |
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17. “Great Trigonometrical Survey,” 26–27. |
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An author-only note includes the author’s last name and page numbers (or other locator), separated by a comma and followed by a period. If the work has an editor rather than an author, use the editor’s last name but do not add ed. An author-title note adds a shortened title composed of up to four distinctive words from the full title. Use a comma to separate the author and the shortened title, and print the title with italics or quotation marks as you would in a full note.
N: 1. Harriet Murav, Music from a Speeding Train: Jewish Literature in Post-Revolution Russia (Stanford, CA: Stanford University Press, 2011), 219.
4. Murav, 220.
or
4. Murav, Speeding Train, 220.
12. Françoise Meltzer, “Theories of Desire: Antigone Again,” Critical Inquiry 37, no. 2 (Winter 2011): 170.
17. Meltzer, 184.
or
17. Meltzer, “Theories of Desire,” 184.
20. Hasan Kwame Jeffries, “Remaking History: Barack Obama, Political Cartoons, and the Civil Rights Movement,” in Civil Rights History from the Ground Up: Local Struggles, a National Movement, ed. Emilye Crosby (Athens: University of Georgia Press, 2011), 260.
22. Jeffries, 261–62.
or
22. Jeffries, “Remaking History,” 261–62.
For multiple authors or editors, list the last names in the same order in which they appear in a full note.
N: 5. Daniel Goldmark and Charlie Keil, Funny Pictures: Animation and Comedy in Studio-Era Hollywood (Berkeley: University of California Press, 2011), 177–78.
8. Goldmark and Keil, 180.
or
8. Goldmark and Keil, Funny Pictures, 180.
At one time, writers shortened citations in notes by using Latin terms and abbreviations: idem, “the same”; op. cit., for opere citato, “in the work cited”; and loc. cit., for loco citato, “in the place cited.” This practice has fallen out of favor, so avoid all Latin citation terms except one—ibid., from ibidem or “in the same place.” Some writers still use ibid. to shorten a citation to a work cited in the immediately preceding note.
N: 30. Buchan, Advice to Mothers, 71.
31. Ibid., 95.
32. Ibid.
In notes, ibid. should not be italicized; at the start of a note, it should be capitalized. Since ibid. is an abbreviation, it must end with a period; if the citation includes a page number, put a comma after ibid. If the page number of a reference is the same as in the previous note, do not include a page number after ibid. Do not use ibid. after a note that contains more than one citation, and avoid using ibid. to refer to footnotes that do not appear on the same page.
16.4.3.1 PARENTHETICAL NOTES VERSUS FOOTNOTES OR ENDNOTES. You may want to use parenthetical notes if you are discussing a particular work at length and need to cite it frequently. Such in-text references can make your text easier to follow. The first time you cite the work, provide full bibliographical data in a footnote or endnote; for subsequent references, use parenthetical notes instead of shortened notes (see 16.4.1). For examples, see 16.4.3.2.
You may also use parenthetical notes for certain types of sources that readers can identify with only a few elements, such as a newspaper article (see 17.4), a legal case (17.9.7), an older literary work (17.5.1), a biblical or other sacred work (17.5.2), or a source in the visual and performing arts (17.8). These sources can often be omitted from your bibliography (see 16.2.3).
In studies of language and literature, parenthetical notes have generally replaced footnotes or endnotes for most source citations, including the first reference to each work.
16.4.3.2 FORMATTING PARENTHETICAL NOTES. Insert a parenthetical note where you would place a reference number for a note: at the end of a quotation, sentence, or clause. The note comes before rather than after any comma, period, or other punctuation mark when the quotation is run into the text. One exception: with a block quotation, the note follows the terminal punctuation mark (see 25.2.2.1 for an example).
The fullest parenthetical note includes the same information as the author-title form of a shortened note, with the elements separated by commas. (Note that both the elements and the punctuation are slightly different from those used in parenthetical citations in author-date style, described in chapters 18 and 19; do not confuse or combine the two styles.)
“What on introspection seems to happen immediately and without effort is often a complex symphony of processes that take time to complete” (LeDoux, Synaptic Self, 116).
According to one expert, the norms of friendship are different in the workplace (Little, “Norms of Collegiality,” 330).
In some fields, writers are expected to use this full form for all parenthetical notes; in others, they are allowed to shorten them, since such notes interrupt the flow of a text. If your field allows shortening, you have three options for most types of sources:
■ Page numbers only. You may include in the parentheses only the page number(s) or other locator if readers can readily identify the specific source from your text, either because it is a main object of your study (as in the first example below referring to Harriet Beecher Stowe’s Uncle Tom’s Cabin) or because you mention the author or title in your text. Either way, you must provide full bibliographic information elsewhere.
“Poor John!” interposes Stowe’s narrative voice, “It was rather natural; and the tears that fell, as he spoke, came as naturally as if he had been a white man” (169).
Ernst Cassirer notes this in Language and Myth (59–60).
■ Author and page number. You should include the author and page number(s) or other locator if readers cannot readily identify the source from your text, as long as you cite only one work by that author.
While one school claims that “material culture may be the most objective source of information we have concerning America’s past” (Deetz, 259), others disagree.
■ Title and page number. You should include a shortened title and page number(s) or other locator if readers can readily identify the author from your text but you cite more than one work by that author.
According to Furet, “the Second World War completed what the First had begun—the domination of the great political religions over European public opinion” (Passing of an Illusion, 360).
If you cite a work often, you can abbreviate the title. If the abbreviation is not obvious, you may specify it in the note for its first citation. (If you use more than five such abbreviations in your citations, list them in a separate section of your paper; see A.2.1.10.)
N: 2. François Furet, The Passing of an Illusion: The Idea of Communism in the Twentieth Century, trans. Deborah Furet (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1999), 368 (cited in text as PI).
According to Furet, “the Second World War completed what the First had begun—the domination of the great political religions over European public opinion” (PI, 360).
For newspaper articles and other types of sources in which author, title, and page number are not the key identifying elements (see 16.4.3.1 and the relevant sections of chapter 17), modify the parenthetical note style as needed.
In a New York Times article on the brawl in Beijing (August 19, 2011), Andrew Jacobs compares the official responses with those posted to social media networks.