Index

Note: Page numbers followed by f indicate figures, and t indicate tables.

A

AAMs See Alkali-activated materials (AAMs)

AAS See Alkali-activate slag (AAS)

Absorbed dose D 18–19

Active Open-Chamber Method 99

Activity concentration index approach 46–50, 186

Air-cooled blast-furnace slag 196

Alkali-activated cements (AACs) 270–273

Alkali-activated materials (AAMs) 5–6

blast-furnace slag 203–207

chemical composition 202–203

coal fly ash 208–215

developement 202

granulated phosphorus slag 219–220

nonferrous slags 217–219

radiological aspects 220

red mud 215–217

steel-melting slags 215

toxic and radioactive waste immobilization 240

Alkali-activate slag (AAS) 203, 205

Alpha (α-) radiation 13

Alpha spectrometry 94

radiological properties 163–165

technical properties 162–163, 165t

Aluminum-rich by-products

aluminum scrap recycling waste 225

anodizing and powder surface coating processes 226

anodizing sludge 227, 227t

bauxitic-type refractories 225–226

bricks production 227

chemical composition 225, 225t

distinct pigments 229, 229f

elemental analysis 225, 225t

extrusion and slip casting 228–229, 229f

mullite 227–229, 228t

pore structure 225, 226f

radiological properties 230

reutilization areas 225

Aluminum scrap recycling waste (ASRW) 225

Analogue-to-digital converter (ADC) 62

ANGLE software 123

Annual average indoor radon concentration 126–128, 127t

ASRW See Aluminum scrap recycling waste (ASRW)

Australian Radiation Protection and Nuclear Safety Agency (ARPANSA) 53

Austria 50–51

Austrian index 56

B

Basic oxygen furnace (BOF) 152, 196

Bauxite residue

radiological properties 160–162, 163–164t

technical properties 160, 161–162t

Beck's method 68

Becquerel (Bq) 13

Beta (β-) radiation 14

Bethe-Bloch formula 17

Blast-furnace slag (BFS)

air-cooled 152, 155, 156t, 196

cement types 194, 195t

ground granulated 152, 155, 156t

iron ores, sinter/scrap 154

metallurgical slags 154, 154f

modern concrete compositions 196, 197t

pelletized 152, 155, 156t, 196

²²⁶Ra, ²³²Th, and ⁴⁰K 155, 157t

Blue concrete 23

BOF See Basic oxygen furnace (BOF)

Building materials 9, 301–302

ceramics 221–233

geopolymers See (Alkali-activated materials (AAMs))

gypsum 235–239

hydrous calcium sulfate See (Gypsum)

industrial by-product recycling 184–187

Portland cement and concretes 188–202

C

Calibration and metrological assurance

detector characteristics 84

HPGe gamma spectrometry 125–126

in situ measurements 125–126

metrological traceability 84

mixed radionuclide solution 120

Monte Carlo computer codes 84, 122–124

reference source 84

scintillation detector 84

semiconductor detector efficiency calibration curve 121, 121f

transmission method 121–122

yield and activity 120

Calibration procedure 70

Cement and concrete industry

coal bottom ash 194

coal fly ash 188–194

copper slag 197–198

iron and steel production slag 194–197

radiological aspects 200–202

red mud 199–200

Cement Barriers Partnership (CBP) 256–257

Ceramic frit production 231–232

aluminum-rich by-products 224–230

coal fly ash 221–224

radiological aspects 232–233, 234t

zircon and zirconia 230–232

Ceramic tile production 231–232

Closed-Chamber Method 98

Coal bottom ash

cement and concrete industry 194

coal mining and combustion 148–149, 150–151t

cement and concrete industry 188–194

radiological properties 145–148, 146–148t

technical properties 145

Coal mining and combustion

coal bottom ash 148–149, 150–151t

coal fly ash 145–148, 146–148t

energy production process 143

²²⁶Ra activity 143, 144t

²³⁸U, ²³²Th, and ⁴⁰K activity 143, 144t

Colimator application 70, 71f

Compacted granular leach test 263

Compton scattering 80–81

Construction materials 1–2, 5–6, 9

Construction product, definition 9

Construction product regulation (CPR) 85, 254

Construction Products Directive (CPD) 254

Contaminants of potential concern (COPCs) 256–257

Continuous measurement method 94

radiological properties 198, 199–200t

technical properties 197, 199t

Cosmic radiation 20–21

Cosmogenic nuclides 15

COST Action Tu1301 “NORM4Building” 1–3

COST network 2, 2f

Council Directive 1996/29/EURATOM 38–39

Council Directive 2013/59/EURATOM 42–45

CPR 305/2011 43–45

CPR See Construction product regulation (CPR)

Crystalline slag 174–175

Czech Republic 51–52, 52t

D

DAF See Dilution-attenuation factor (DAF)

Daughter nuclide 13

Decay constant 14

Decision limit (DL)

application 112–115, 112f

determination 115–116, 115f

“Error of the first kind” 109, 109t

“Error of the second kind” 109, 109t

null-hypothesis 109

numerical realization 116

probability density distribution 110, 110f

radioactivity determination 109

Densely ionizing particles 17

Depletion layer 63–64

Deterministic detriments 19

Dilution-attenuation factor (DAF) 277f

Dose rate measurement

angle dependence 90–91

easy-sounding procedure 89

energy dependence 89–90, 90f

Dosimetric models 2f

Dosimetry, uncertainty 117–120, 119t

Drinking water Directive 2013/51/ EURATOM 38, 45–46, 46t

Dwelling exposure scenario 41

E

EAF See Electric arc furnace (EAF)

EEC See Equilibrium equivalent concentration (EEC)

Effective dose E 18–19

EFFiciency TRANsfer (EFFTRAN) 124

Electric arc furnace (EAF) 152, 196

Emitted radiation 13

End of waste (EoW) status 254

Energy imparted to matter 18–19

Equilibrium equivalent concentration (EEC) 22

Equivalent dose H 18–19

Equivalent radon diffusion coefficient 30

EU legislative approach 38–42

RP 122 part II 41–42, 41t, 46

Euratom-Basic safety standards (EU-BSS) 22, 54–55, 85, 301

Euratom Basic safety standards - Annex VIII 42–43

Euratom Basic safety standards - Annex XVIII 42

European Committee for Standardization (CEN) 44

European norm (EN) 44–45

Expanded/foamed slag 175

External radiation dose 20–21

F

Ferrous industry

blast furnaces 149, 151f

input materials and produced dusts 149, 152t

slag 149–155, 153t, 154f, 156t

Flue-gas desulfurization (FGD) 235

Full width at half maximum (FWHM) resolution 65

Fulvic acid (FA) 263

G

Gamma-Method 101–102

Gamma (γ-) radiation 14

Gamma-ray spectrometry 94

analogue-todigital converter 62

analysis 65, 66f

building products 62

calibration and metrological assurance 83–84

calibration methods 63

decision threshold and detection limit 109–117, 109t

harmonized standard for building products 85–88

multichannel analyzer 62

radionuclide 62

raw materials 62

sample spectrum with characteristic peaks 62, 63f

scintillation spectrometry 77–83

semiconductor spectrometry 63–76

spectrum analysis software 62

uncertainty 106–109, 117, 118f

Uranium and Thorium series 63

General exemption or clearance levels (GCL) 41, 41–42t, 43

Geochemical speciation 274, 275–276f

Geopolymers See Alkali-activated materials (AAMs)

Granulated phosphorus slag 219–220

Granulated slag 175

Ground-granulated blast-furnace slag (GGBFS) 194, 195t

phosphogypsum 235–238

radiological aspects 238–239

H

Harmonized dose assessment approach 44–45

Harmonized standards, building products

robustness testing 86–88, 87f

Technical Specification 85–86

High Purity Germanium (HPGe) 64–65

Humic acid (HA) 263

Hydrous ferric oxides (HFO) 263

I

IAEA Safety Glossary 6

I-index 301–302

Indicative dose (ID) 45–46

Industrial by-product recycling

activity concentration index 186

alkaline activation 184–185

gamma radiation component 187

indoor radon concentration 187

manufacturing eco-efficient cements 184–185

monitored quantity and radon exhalation 187

natural materials 186

NORM processing 186

OPC production 184

radionuclides 185

reuse and valorization 185

In Situ Object Counting System (ISOCS) 124, 125f

In situ spectrometry

algorithms 68–69

colimator application 70, 71f

indoor applications 68–70, 70f

limitation 68–69

Monte Carlo simulation 68–69

natural and artificial radionuclides, soil 68

outdoor application 68–69, 69f

surface flat soils 68–69

versatile and efficient tool 68–69

vertical distribution of radionuclides 68

Integrated measurement method 92

Internal radiation dose 16f, 20f, 21–23

International Atomic Energy Agency (IAEA) framework 53

International standard ISO 11665-7 98

Ionization chamber 94

ISOCS software 124–125, 125f

Israeli index 55–56

L

Laboratory gamma-ray spectrometry

high-resolution 76, 77f

NORM vs. artificial radionuclides 71–72

NORM residues 72, 72f

sampling and measurement 70–72

sampling campaign organization 72f, 73

sampling method 73

technological processes 70–71

Laboratory Sourceless Calibration System (LabSOCS) 124

Ladle Furnace (LF) refining process 152

Leaching assessment

alkali metals 258–259

Ba release 270, 270f

cationic behavior 258

chemical analysis 263–264

compacted granular leach test 263

COPCs 256–257

decision scheme 278, 279f

end of life 255

environmental assessment See (Scenario approach)

EPA and EU methods 264

EPA Method 1313 and EPA Method 1316 260

function of pH 258, 259f

graded/tiered approach 257–258

human health and environmental impacts 253–254

K leaching 268, 268f

monolith leach test 262

natural radioactivity 254

observations and information 278

oxyanionic behavior 258

Pb-210 and Po-210 266–267, 267f

percolation test 255, 262

performance 277–278

pH dependence 261–262

phosphorous slag 266, 267t

principal physical characteristics 256

Ra-226 and Ra-228 259

radiological impact assessment 278–282, 280–281t

radionuclide release behavior 274, 275–276f

radionuclides 258

reactive transport modeling 274, 275–276f

redox capacity test 263

redox conditions and carbonation 274, 277f

sorptive phase parameters 263

source-path-target impact 274–277, 277f

tiered-approach 277–278

type and standard reference 260, 261t

U and Pb 267–268, 268f

U and Th leaching 268, 269f

uncertainty 265–266, 265t

uranium and thorium decay 259

U release 268–270, 269f

Leaching Assessment Framework (LEAF) 303

Leaching Environmental Assessment Framework (LEAF) See Leaching assessment

Legislation regulating radiation protection 9–10

Legislative aspects

Council Directive 2013/59/EURATOM 42–45

CPR 305/2011 43–45

drinking water Directive 45–46, 46t

EU guidance and regulations 38, 38f

national legislations 46–53, 47–49t

NORM residues 37–38

RP 122 part II 41–42, 41t, 46

screening tools 53–57

Linz and Donawitz (LD) refining process 152

Liquid scintillation 94

Lower limit of detection (LLD)

application 112–115, 112f

definition 110–111

determination 115–116, 115f

net rate density distribution 110f, 111

numerical realization 116

single-sided confidence level 110, 111t

single-sided significance level 110, 111t

M

Metallurgical slags 154, 154f

Monolith leach test 262

Multichannel analyzer (MCA) 62

N

National legislations

activity concentration index approach 46–50

Austria 50–51

Czech Republic 51–52, 52t

in EU and non-EU countries 46–50, 47–49t

Ra_eq method 37

screening tool reference values 46–50, 47–49t

Naturally occurring radionuclides (NOR) 279, 281–282

Natural radioactive decay series 15, 16f

Natural radioactivity 38–42

Natural radionuclides

activity concentration 23–28, 25–26t, 27f

convective process 29–30

decay series 16f, 23

equivalent radon diffusion coefficient 30

fraction of free radon 30–31, 31f

function C(x) 30

Keller criterion 33

radium activity concentration 29, 29t, 31, 32t

radon diffusion coefficient 30, 33, 34t

radon diffusion length 33, 34t

radon diffusion transport 30

radon emanation coefficient 28–29, 29t, 32

radon exhalation 28

radon surface exhalation rate 31, 32t

Nonferrous industry

aluminum dross 162–165, 165t

red mud 160–162, 161–164t

slag 155–160, 158f, 159t

Nonferrous slags

radiological properties 158–160, 159t

technical properties 155–158, 158f

Nontechnical aspects

CE marking and certification aspects 296–297

cost aspects 294–295

environmental and health issues 292

NORM by-product 295–296

potential market and acceptance/perception aspects 293–294

product development 297–298

product process interaction 291

properties and status 290–291

recycling types 292–293

size of by-product stream 290

NOR See Naturally occurring radionuclides (NOR)

built-in visualization methods 138, 140f

“comparison” feature 138, 142f

data collection 137

data mining process 137

dose calculation panel 138, 141f

geological origin 138

user interface 138, 139f

utilization 138–143

NORM4Building database 2, 302

NORM4Building network 2, 2f

NORM by-products 5–6, 8–10

coal bottom ash 148–149, 150–151t

coal fly ash 145–148, 146–148t

crystalline slag 174–175

exemption and clearance levels 136

expanded/foamed slag 175

ferrous industry 149–155

granulated slag 175

industrial sectors 136

nonferrous industry 155–165

phosphate industry 169–174

²²⁶Ra activity 143, 144t

²³⁸U, ²³²Th, and ⁴⁰K activity 143, 144t

zircon and zirconia 165–169

NORM residues 2, 6 See also NORM by-products

Null-hypothesis 109

O

Occupancy time 22

Open Charcoal Chamber Method 99

Organ/tissue weighting factors (w_T) 18–19, 19t

P

PAEC. See Potential alpha energy concentration (PAEC)

Parent nuclide 13

Particles transfer 17

Pelletized blast-furnace slag 196

Percolation test 255, 262

Phosphate industry

phosphogypsum 170–174

production 169–170

European soil 171–173, 174t

NORM4Building database 171, 171–173t

radiological properties, building materials 236–238

²²⁶Ra, ²³²Th, and ⁴⁰K 173–174

technical properties 170–174, 235–236

Photoelectric effect 18, 80–81

Potential alpha energy concentration (PAEC) 22

Primary raw material 6, 7t

Primordial radionuclides 15

Production process 8

R

Radiation exposure

external radiation 20–21

internal radiation 16f, 20f, 21–23

structure 20, 20f

Radiation physics

α-radiation interaction 17

β-radiation interaction 17

doses and units 18–19

γ-radiation interaction 18

Radiation protection (RP) 96 38–39

Radiation protection (RP) 112 39–40

Radiation protection (RP) 122 part II 41–42, 41t, 46

Radiation weighting factor (w_R) 18–19, 19t

α radiation 13

β radiation 14

decay constant 14

γ radiation 14

SI derived unit 13

Radiogenic nuclides/radionuclides 15

Radon and radon progeny measurement methods

classification 92–94, 93t

continuous measurement method 94

detection principles 93t, 94–95

integrated measurement method 92

short and long-lived radon progeny 91

spot measurement method 94

Radon detection principles

alpha spectrometry 94

gamma spectrometry 94

ionization chamber 94

liquid scintillation 94

solid-state nuclear track detectors 94

ZnS(Ag) scintillation 94

Radon diffusion transport 30

Radon emanation and exhalation measurements

emanation coefficient 101–102

mass exhalation rate 100–101, 100f

modeling indoor radon concentration 102

surface exhalation rate 97–99

Radon emanation coefficient 28–29, 29t, 302–303

Radon exhalation 28, 302–303

Radon measurement

building material 102–104

classification 92–94, 93t

continuous measurement method 94

detection principles 93t, 94–95

emanation and exhalation 97–102

indoor radon concentrations 95–97, 96f

integrated measurement method 92

short and long-lived radon progeny 91

spot measurement method 94

Ra_eq method 37

Random sampling 73

Random systematic sampling 73

Reactive transport modeling 274, 275–276f

cement and concrete industry 199–200

nonferrous industry 160–162, 161–164t

Redox capacity test 263

S

Sampling density 73

Sampling method

composite sample 74, 74f

documentation 74

human and technical resources 74

laboratory sample preparation 75

QA/QC procedures 74, 76

quantity sample and laboratory sample sizes preparation 74

random sampling 73

random systematic sampling 73

representativeness and traceability 76

single sample 74, 74f

spatial distribution 74

systematic sampling 73

Sampling unit 73

Scenario approach

applicability and accuracy 274–277

characterization 274

Scintillation detectors

advantage 125–126

disadvantage 125–126

Scintillation spectrometry

calibration and device response 78, 78f

expanded measurement uncertainty 82, 83t

laboratory and in situ measurement 77, 77f

least square algorithm 82

measured ad model spectrum 83, 84f

mixture of radionuclides 78, 78f

model of measurement 79

mono-nuclide sources 78, 78f

secular equilibrium 78–79

self-absorption processes 80–81

sensitivity matrix 79–80, 80t

software development 78

spectra analysis 78–79

three typical energy intervals 78–79

three-windows method 78–79

values of coefficient μ_j,m 80–82, 81t

Screening tools

Austrian index 56

A_x values 53–54

EU BSS index 54–55

gamma dose rate 53–54

I(ρd) 56–57, 57f

Israeli index 55–56

Secondary raw material 6, 7t

Semiconductor spectrometry

activity and uncertainty calculation 65–67, 66f

advantage 82–83

depletion layer 63–64

FWHM resolution 65

in situ spectrometry 68–70, 70–71f

laboratory gamma-ray spectrometry 70–76, 72f, 74f

modern germanium detectors 65

n-type semiconductor 63–64

p-n junction 64, 64f

p-type semiconductor 63–64

typical NaI(Tl) detector 65

Solid-state nuclear track detectors (SSNTD) 94

Spot measurement method 94

Steel slag 152, 196

Stochastic detriments 19

Supplementary cementitious materials (SCMs) 5–6

Systematic sampling 73

T

Technical Specification (TS) 44–45

application 87–88

characteristics 86

measurement method 85

parameters 86, 87f

regulations and standardized practices 86

Transmission method 121–122

U

annual average indoor radon concentration 126–128, 127t

dosimetry 117–120, 119t

gamma-ray spectrometry 106–109, 117, 118f

leaching assessment 265–266, 265t

W

Weakly ionizing particles 17

X

Z

Zircon and zirconia

ceramics 230–232

radiological properties 166–169, 168t

technical properties 165–166, 167f

Zircon sand milling 231–232

ZnS(Ag) scintillation 94