Pithom, Raamses, and the Land of Goshen
The “land” the Hebrews inhabited during their years in Egypt was the land of Goshen (meaning uncertain; Gen. 47:27), a district believed to have been in the northeastern territory of the Nile Delta. It probably was not irrigated by the Nile or its canals, making Goshen more suitable for raising livestock than for farming.
Goshen was given to Jacob and his family during Joseph’s days in power because they needed pasture for their flocks (47:1–6). By the time of Exodus, Joseph was long forgotten, and the Israelites had become slaves to the Egyptians (Ex. 1:8–11). During this period, the Goshen district may have been a Hebrew ghetto, housing workers who built the cities of Pithom and Raamses. Goshen also served as a place of protection as God spared His people from the plagues He inflicted on Egypt.
The cities of Pithom and Raamses served as depots for food, weapons, and other supplies warehoused by the ancient Egyptians. Raamses was probably located in the northeastern Nile Delta at modern-day Qantir. The precise location of Pithom is less certain. Both cities are believed to have been located in the land of Goshen. The Israelite slaves may have rebuilt or vastly expanded existing settlements at these sites.
More: The departing Hebrews may have plundered the warehouses of Raamses. See “Plundering the Egyptians” at Ex. 12:35, 36. When Israel developed into a wealthy kingdom, Solomon established a nationwide system for shipping and storing goods in specific cities. See “Storage Cities” at 1 Kin. 9:17–19.
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This book’s story of deliverance from oppression begins with political resistance. When two Hebrew midwives refused to do Pharaoh’s bidding, they deliberately broke the law of the land. Their behavior suggests that God’s will for His people sometimes includes acts of civil disobedience.
These women’s actions may seem to contradict biblical teaching that believers should obey the law and respect governing authorities (Rom. 13:1, 2). But the Bible recognizes limits to human authority. When the laws of society come into direct conflict with God’s law, it is more important to obey God than to risk doing the wrong thing by obeying human lawgivers (Acts 5:29).
In the days leading up to the Exodus, Pharaoh so feared the Israelites (Ex. 1:8–10, 12) that he established a policy of infanticide. Rather than fear Pharaoh, however, the midwives feared God (1:17, 21), keeping His command to respect and preserve human life (Gen. 9:3–7; compare Ex. 20:13). The midwives may have even felt that God’s promise to make Abraham into a great nation and to give his descendants the land of Canaan rested in their hands (Gen. 12:1, 2; 13:14–17). When Pharaoh’s command conflicted with God’s command, the midwives chose to obey God.
Thousands of children in the modern world die every day as a direct or indirect result of political, economic, social, or religious policies, some as coldly calculated as Pharaoh’s command. These children are killed by the harsh decisions of people who do not fear God. As Christians, the Hebrew midwives can be our model for how to resist and even peacefully disobey human commands in order to uphold God’s ways. We may not escape retribution, but our consciences can be at rest, knowing we have feared God as our ultimate authority.
More: Pharaoh’s command to kill the Hebrew boys foreshadowed the last of the ten plagues, when God sent an angel of death to kill all the Egyptian firstborn. See “Pharaoh’s Submission” at Ex. 12:29. Pharaoh’s edict also foreshadowed King Herod’s order to execute all the baby boys around Bethlehem in an attempt to get rid of the baby Jesus. Both accounts remind us that the world’s children need not die in vain. See “Grieving the Loss of a Child” at Matt. 2:16–18.
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The Hebrew midwives exhibited a healthy fear of God, which enabled them to boldly risk Pharaoh’s wrath. They exemplified what Christ taught His disciples about not fearing those who kill the body but instead fearing the One “who, after He has killed, has power to cast into hell” (Luke 12:4, 5). Respect for the Lord gave them the courage, direction, and motivation to make godly choices.
As much as we need to remember God’s love, grace, and mercy, we cannot forget that God is to be feared. He treats our sin very seriously; therefore, we should take His holiness very seriously. We need not cringe before God as if He were a tyrant who delights in punishing us. But neither should we trivialize sin as if God were an indulgent grandfather who laughs at our mischief. As both the Egyptians and the children of Israel discovered, “our God is a consuming fire” (Heb. 12:29; compare Deut. 4:24). And as the Bible points out, “The fear of the LORD is the beginning of wisdom” (Ps. 111:10; Prov. 9:10).
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Name means: “People Exalted.”
Home: Egypt, possibly the land of Goshen (Gen. 47:6, 27).
Family: Descendant of Levi (see “The Family of Jacob” at Gen. 35:22–26); husband of Jochebed; father of Moses, Aaron, and Miriam.
Best known as: The father of Moses (Ex. 6:20).
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Despite her limited control over her son’s future, Moses’ mother Jochebed seized every opportunity to have an effect on his development. She had exercised bold faith by refusing to put him to death (Ex. 1:15, 16; 2:2–4), and God honored her trust by not only preserving the baby’s life but also arranging the circumstances that allowed Jochebed to serve as his nurse (2:5–10). Later developments in Moses’ life show how thoroughly his mother shaped her son’s character. Though he grew up as an adopted member of the royal family, Moses chose as an adult to unashamedly identify with the Hebrews and their God, a testament to Jochebed’s influence during his formative years (Heb. 11:24–26).
Most modern mothers have far more opportunity than Jochebed to influence their children. But Jochebed’s refusal to let a prevailing culture negatively impact her child’s development is an inspiration for any mother who struggles to inspire her children to live Christlike lives in a fallen world.
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Name means: “Drawn Out”; may have been a pun (based on the circumstances of his discovery) that was recognizable to Hebrews but not to Egyptians; may have also been related to an Egyptian term meaning “Child” or “Son.”
Home: Egypt for forty years; Midian (near the Sinai Peninsula, east of the Gulf of Aqaba) for forty years; the Wilderness of Sinai for forty years.
Family: Son of Amram and Jochebed; raised by the daughter of Pharaoh; husband of Zipporah and an unnamed Ethiopian woman (Num. 12:1); father of Gershom and Eliezer. See “The Family of Moses, Aaron, and Miriam” at Ex. 6:20–25.
Occupation: Royal ruler in Egypt; shepherd in Midian; leader of God’s people and prophet who received the Law.
Best known as: The man God used to deliver Israel from bondage, and the communicator of God’s law.
More: To find out more about the life and work of Moses, see “Crises of Confidence” at Ex. 3:11—4:17; “Career Paths” at Ex. 4:29; “The Family of Moses, Aaron, and Miriam” at Ex. 6:20–25; “Mapping the Life of Moses” at Ex. 19:3; “Moses Matures” at Ex. 32:10; “The Humblest Man on the Face of the Earth” at Num. 12:3; and “Overcoming Impulses” at Num. 20:10–13.
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God never wastes anyone’s time. If we are willing to be led, He always leads us toward a purpose.
• Joseph possessed God-given abilities in leadership as well as the wisdom to interpret dreams. But he spent years as a household servant and as a prisoner accused of a crime he did not commit. Only after these hardships did he rise to the position of Pharaoh’s second-in-command (Gen. 39:2–4; 41:37–39).
• Moses spent the first two-thirds of his life being shaped for the final third (see “Career Paths” at Ex. 4:29). During his first forty years, he grew up in Egypt, mastering “all the wisdom of the Egyptians” and becoming “mighty in words and deeds” (Acts 7:22). Moses must have thought that this training qualified him for leadership over the Israelites, but his first attempt at taking charge ended in disaster (Ex. 2:11–15). It would be yet another forty years before he was ready to assume the responsibilities God had planned for him.
• Daniel’s schooling included “the language and literature of the Chaldeans” (see “A Secular Education” at Dan. 1:4). Much of this curriculum may have run counter to his Hebrew upbringing, yet Daniel mastered his studies without succumbing to pagan influences. He rose higher and higher in the government until he was advising kings.
• Paul grew up under the tutelage of the rabbi Gamaliel (Acts 22:3), obtaining training in the beliefs and practices of the Pharisees (Phil. 3:5), one of the leading religious and political groups of his day (see “Political Parties of Jesus’ Day” at Matt. 16:1). After his conversion, Paul spent years privately developing his faith before becoming a leader in the early church (Gal. 1:14—2:2).
Many people feel they are always getting ready for something important but never getting to do it. Students, apprentices, entry-level employees, and even executives sometimes chafe at a position’s limitations. But God always has a purpose for us. Our progress may seem slow and our responsibilities beneath us, but today sets the stage for tomorrow. Opportunities come when we make the most of our seasons of preparation.
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The land of Midian to which Moses fled lay on the eastern shore of the Red Sea, putting the desert of the Sinai Peninsula between him and the Egyptians. It also put him in contact with a tribe distantly related to the Israelites. To find out more, see “The Midianites” at Numbers 25:17.
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Name means: “Female Bird.”
Home: Midian, until she married Moses and presumably returned with him to Egypt. She later went back to her father in Midian (Ex. 18:2).
Family: One of seven daughters of Reuel (also called Jethro), a Midianite priest; wife of Moses; mother of Gershom and Eliezer. See “The Family of Moses, Aaron, and Miriam” at Ex. 6:20–25.
Occupation: Shepherdess and homemaker.
Best known as: The wife of Moses.
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At first Moses was simply intrigued by the unusual sight of a bush that burned without being consumed. Then God spoke from the bush, calling Moses by name. The Lord warned Moses that he stood on holy ground, instructing him to remove his sandals as an act of respect. God announced that He had heard the cries of His enslaved people and declared His plan to use Moses to free them. And then God told Moses His name. He is I AM WHO I AM (Ex. 3:14), the Eternal One who has always existed and will exist forever. The name I AM conveys the meaning of God’s name in Hebrew, Yahweh, a name usually indicated in English Bibles by the word LORD in small capital letters. I AM is also the One who is always present, for God has promised to be with His people always.
Moses’ encounter with God at the burning bush is one of many parallels between his life and that of the great prophet Elijah. See “Moses and Elijah” at 1 Kings 19:11 to learn more about their similarities.
More: Mount Horeb (“Waste”) was appropriately named. Located in a remote part of the desert of the Sinai Peninsula (Ex. 3:1), it was nevertheless the site of another incident that forever impacted the world. See “Mount Sinai and the Wilderness of Sinai” at Ex. 19:1, 20.
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Exodus tells the story of God’s actions when Israel, His chosen people, cried out for justice and deliverance, yet the Bible contains hundreds of other passages about deliverance for the poor and oppressed. Many remind us that suffering people need not only mercy or relief but also justice and reform. Biblical teaching suggests several models of deliverance:
Biblical Models of Deliverance
Model | Example |
The Exodus Model (deliverance by removal from oppressors) | God’s rescue of the Hebrews from slavery. Famed for its rallying cry of “Let My people go!” (Ex. 5:1; 7:16; 8:1; 9:1). |
The Jubilee Model (land redistribution) | The periodic leveling of inequalities between the poor and the wealthy as mandated by Israel’s civil code (Lev. 25). Perhaps alluded to by Jesus (Luke 4:18, 19). |
The Naboth Model (land reclamation) | Return of property after powerful King Ahab unjustly took land from a powerless Naboth (1 Kin. 21). |
The Esther Model (social and political deliverance) | Queen Esther’s work within the political structures of a pagan society to save her people from genocide. |
The Jonah Model (deliverance through preaching and repentance) | Prophets of both the Old and New Testaments worked through this model. Jonah’s preaching resulted in the Ninevites turning from sin to God. |
The Cyrus Model (deliverance by pagan political leaders) | God’s sovereign appointment of Cyrus of Persia to accomplish His purposes (Is. 45:13). |
The Kingdom Model (deliverance by, of, and from those in authority) | A New Testament view of governing authorities ranging from Paul’s optimism about the Roman empire (Rom. 13:1–6) to John’s pessimism about the same empire (Rev. 13). God’s people await Christ’s reign “on earth as it is in heaven” (Matt. 6:10). |
The Lord takes note when people suffer oppression and abuse by governments, employers, and others in positions of power. We can rely on Him as a God of justice and the righter of wrongs—if not in this life, then in the life to come.
More: As children of a just and loving God, we are called to help others find freedom, both spiritually and practically. God gives us resources and opportunities to make a difference—but it’s up to us to take advantage of them. See “Faith for Modern Life” in the front matter.
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When Moses heard God call him to the task of liberating the Israelites from Egypt, he questioned his ability to carry out the assignment. Each of his excuses exposed an inner crisis:
A Crisis of Identity
When Moses asked “Who am I?” (Ex. 3:11), it seems he had already settled on an answer: I’m a nobody. Though he was a Hebrew by birth, he had been rejected by his people forty years earlier (2:11–14) and he had no reason to believe they would now accept his help. And though he was an Egyptian by upbringing, Moses had a reputation for rebellion and murder, leaving him with little or no influence among Egyptian royalty. Finally, he was a Midianite shepherd by vocation, and shepherds were considered an abomination by the Egyptians (Gen. 46:34).
Like many people today, Moses likely struggled with a lack of self-confidence due to his background and how he expected to be perceived by others, whether because of his ethnic or cultural heritage, his past mistakes, his low social status, or all of the above. Yet God reassured Moses. He promised His presence, vowing to bring Moses back to the exact spot where he stood (Ex. 3:12). God still gives us the same strong words of encouragement: He will never leave us or forsake us (Deut. 31:6; Josh. 1:5; Heb. 13:5).
A Crisis of Authority
Moses was concerned that he wouldn’t know what to tell his fellow Hebrews. He wondered how to explain who had sent him (Ex. 3:13). Moses thought people would never listen to an outcast emerging from the wilderness claiming to speak for God, especially if he could not establish his authority by providing the name by which God had identified Himself.
God answered that concern with an extensive outline of His identity and authority as Lord: He stated His name (3:14); He recalled His promises to the Hebrews (3:15, 16); He declared Himself more powerful than the Egyptians and their king, as well as the Canaanites (3:16, 17, 19–22); and He reaffirmed His role as the God of the Hebrews (3:18). God reminded Moses that He is always in control. He is Lord. He rules over all the earth and its people.
A Crisis of Faith
Moses anticipated being met by unbelief not unlike that of many people today who say, “I can’t believe in a God that I can’t see. How do I know He’s real?” So God empowered Moses to do miraculous acts to demonstrate God’s presence and power (4:2–9).
When people are prone to disbelief, miracles alone do not always prove convincing. Hearts often stay stubborn even in the presence of powerful signs, because faith is essentially a matter of choice (7:13, 22; Matt. 13:58; Luke 16:30, 31; John 12:37). On the other hand, miracles can strengthen the trust of those who want to believe. By studying God’s supernatural acts, we can be sure that the God who performed them is the same God who spoke to Moses and also speaks to us (Ex. 4:5; John 20:30, 31).
A Crisis of Communication
Moses was certain he lacked ability as a spokesperson. “I am not eloquent,” he confessed to the Lord. “I am slow of speech and slow of tongue.” (Ex. 4:10). This contrasts sharply with Stephen’s assertion that Moses was “mighty in words and deeds” (Acts 7:22)—because Stephen was describing Moses after God empowered him to stand before Pharaoh and lead the children of Israel. Whatever Moses’ deficiencies as a speaker, God vowed to teach Moses what to say and to make his words understood (Ex. 4:11, 12). This is a promise that can continue to encourage God’s followers today when we choose to represent and defend our faith through words (1 Pet. 3:15).
A Crisis of Obedience
Moses’ final excuse was his simple unwillingness to carry out God’s command. In effect, he asked, “Isn’t there someone else You could send?” (Ex. 4:13). His question seems astonishing after all of God’s promises and signs. Moses’ statement kindled the Lord’s anger (4:14), and we can only imagine how God must feel when we contradict His clearly revealed will for our lives.
Yet God anticipated Moses’ reluctance and had already sent Aaron to meet his brother Moses (4:14). God may have intended to surprise Moses with that joyous news; instead, He perhaps conveyed the information with some exasperation. This conclusion to their conversation points to an important truth: doing God’s will is ultimately a matter of obedience. We may have concerns as we consider God’s directives, but after God has addressed all our worries, only one question remains. Will we obey?
Moses’ decision to obey (7:6) resulted in the Israelites’ liberation from slavery under one of the most powerful empires of the ancient world. When we obey God’s commands and find our confidence in Him, there is no limit to the good He may accomplish through us.
More: Moses’ lingering doubts may have contributed to the most tragic incident of his life. See “Overcoming Impulses” at Num. 20:10–13.
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Name means: “Light.”
Home: Probably Goshen, the eastern delta region of Egypt where the Israelites lived during their years of slavery.
Family: Son of Amram and Jochebed; brother of Miriam and Moses; his four sons and their descendants became high priests over Israel. See “The Family of Moses, Aaron, and Miriam” at Ex. 6:20–25.
Occupation: Moses’ spokesman (Ex. 4:14–16); later, the first high priest over Israel (chs. 28–29; Lev. 4:3, 4; 6:20–22).
Best known as: Moses’ brother, who fashioned a golden calf at Mount Sinai (Ex. 32) yet later became the father of the Israelite priesthood.
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Moses lived thousands of years ago in a vastly different society, yet his life offers significant insights for anyone with a changing or even chaotic career path. Like many of us, Moses went through a series of diverse jobs and unanticipated career changes:
• Member of the royal family. Raised in Pharaoh’s court (Ex. 2:10), Moses mastered Egyptian culture and politics (Acts 7:22). He probably did not have the level of responsibility that Joseph had before him (Gen. 41:41), but his privileged position gave him access to the “treasures in Egypt” (Heb. 11:26). He may have thought his position would inevitably launch him into a leadership position over his people, but this forty-year phase of his life ended abruptly when Moses murdered an Egyptian and fled to Midian (Ex. 2:11–15).
• Shepherd. In stark contrast to his previous role, Moses spent the next forty years tending sheep for his father-in-law Jethro (Ex. 3:1). He went from royal splendor to rustic simplicity, from urban sophistication to rural isolation, from ruling an empire to chasing unintelligent sheep. Moses did not choose this season of reduced circumstances, but it was an important time of preparation during his overall story.
• Spiritual and political leader. During his last forty years, Moses led Israel out of Egypt (Ex. 4:27—12:36) and through the wilderness to the Promised Land (12:37—40:38; Lev.; Num.; Deut.). This final assignment utilized skills and experiences from his two previous jobs, with his roles as royal son and Midianite shepherd combining to make Moses the “servant of the LORD” (Deut. 34:5).
Moses lived the first two-thirds of his life in preparation for the final third. For eighty years Moses learned key truths about himself, his world, and his God. This accumulated wisdom proved invaluable as he led the Hebrews to freedom, particularly when the masses turned against God and were sent to wander in the wilderness (Num. 13–14). Moses would never have been fit for that leadership assignment without those eighty years of rigorous preparation.
As we transition through drastic, even unwelcome, career shifts, Moses’ work history reminds us that God has a plan to bring us to maturity with everything we need to accomplish the tasks He has set out for us. He challenges us to willingly accept new assignments and make the most of them. As we look back and see the patterns of God’s guidance in our lives, we can also look forward with confidence that all things will work toward the mighty purpose of the Lord.
More: Just as God made use of the natural talents He had built into Moses, He also wants to use the resources He has given us to accomplish His purposes. See “You Are Unique” at Ps. 33:15 and “Native Talent and Supernatural Ability” at Dan. 1:17.
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The man Moses and Aaron confronted was not the pharaoh “who did not know Joseph” (Ex. 1:8) and in whose court Moses had been raised (2:8–10). That king had sought to execute Moses for murdering an Egyptian, but he had died while Moses was in Midian (2:15, 23). Both rulers were called Pharaoh not as a name but as a title. No one knows the specific identity of the rulers who played prominent roles in Moses’ life.
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The abuse of fear as a motivating force in the workplace is nothing new, as the conflict between Pharaoh and the Hebrews illustrates. A crushing demand for increased output brought on a crisis in which fear directed the behavior of everyone involved.
• As the Egyptians watched Joseph’s descendants rapidly multiply and fill the land, they dreaded an uprising if war should break out (Ex. 1:10, 12). When Moses asked for a long holiday for the laborers, Pharaoh’s harsh inflexibility and increased demands were driven by fear (5:4, 5).
• Israelite supervisors reacted to Pharaoh’s new policy by attacking their own leader, Moses (5:20, 21). They feared the consequences of not meeting Pharaoh’s impossible demand (5:19).
• Moses must have deeply feared his people’s rejection and the prospect of failure in his God-given mission. As soon as Moses heard the Hebrew supervisors’ rebuke, he questioned God and complained that he was the wrong man for the job (5:22, 23).
Whenever investors and owners fear a loss of profit, managers fear a loss of productivity, or workers fear a loss of their livelihood, their fear can distort everyone’s outlook, just as it did in this episode. Yet ultimately God’s plan prevailed. Letting go of fear and anxiety can be difficult, but allowing those emotions to hold us back can make life much more difficult in the long run. Every day presents a new opportunity to turn those feelings over to God and trust in Him.
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God’s promise to give the land of Canaan to Abraham’s descendants meant dispossessing the Canaanites, a group of tribes descended from Noah’s grandson Canaan (Gen. 10:15–20). They had been Abraham’s neighbors and still lived in the land at the time of the Exodus. In the intervening years, their idolatries and immoral behavior had increased to the point where God could no longer hold back His judgment. To find out more about their background and civilization, see “The Canaanites” at Joshua 3:10.
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Authority is often seen as nothing more than keeping others in line and telling them what they cannot do. But God’s instructions to Moses show that authority can bring freedom when wisely applied under the Lord’s direction. For example, a judge can use authority to release an innocent person from jail. A school administrator can use authority to equip teachers with resources to educate their students more effectively. A manager can use authority to reward a worker’s excellent performance and encourage creativity. At its best, authority can affirm and support rather than control and punish, fostering liberty rather than limitation.
More: Even as Paul exercised broad authority in the early church, he recognized that his power was given to build others up rather than tear them down. See “Spiritual Authority” at 2 Cor. 13:10.
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Name means: “Yahweh Is Glory.”
Home: Egypt.
Family: Descendant of Levi; wife of Amram; mother of Moses, Aaron, and Miriam. See “The Family of Moses, Aaron, and Miriam” at Ex. 6:20–25.
Occupation: Homemaker; later a servant to Pharaoh’s daughter (2:8–10).
Best known for: Saving her son’s life by placing him in a basket among the reeds of the Nile (2:1–9).
More: Jochebed lived in desperate times yet she managed to have a profound effect on her son Moses. See “A Mother’s Influence” at Ex. 2:8–10.
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The Family of Moses, Aaron, and Miriam
More: Moses and his siblings came from the tribe of Levi, one of many families that God used to accomplish His purposes in the ancient world. See “The Families of the Old Testament” at Gen. 12:3.
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The Lord’s statement to Moses that “I have made you as God to Pharaoh” may seem puzzling. But the Egyptian pharaohs were revered as gods with absolute authority; their words were accepted as divine pronouncements. Moses had been raised in the royal court (Ex. 2:8–10), so he knew that Pharaoh would pay little heed to statements made by someone he saw as a mere human. Thus the Lord’s message was a reassuring promise to Moses that Pharaoh would see him as a man worth listening to.
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The Lord turned the Nile to blood to impress upon Pharaoh that he was dealing with a far more powerful God than he had assumed (compare Ex. 5:2). This initial plague against Egypt’s life-giving river was an attack on the very foundation of the kingdom’s ecosystem.
A saying goes that “Egypt is a gift of the Nile,” for Egypt would be nothing but desert without its waters. The river not only irrigated the country’s crops but also carried and deposited rich, fertile soil during its annual floods. It was also the main means of transportation, a source of papyrus for writing, and a calendar to mark the seasons.
The Nile’s annual flood occurred during the spring and early summer, when heavy rains and melting snow at the Nile’s southern headwaters created a dramatic rise in the water level downstream (the Nile no longer floods annually due to the Aswan Dam completed in 1970). The Egyptians carefully tracked this flood stage using water-level gauges, or Nilometers. By trapping the floodwaters in a system of channels, dikes, and irrigation works, farmers along the river were able to sustain crops in a climate where rain rarely falls except in late winter.
More: The plagues of Egypt caused a catastrophic upset of the region’s ecological balance. See “An Ecological Disaster” at Ex. 8:8–15.
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When God commanded Pharaoh to “let My people go,” His intention was not that the Hebrews would run wild but “that they may serve Me.”
God doesn’t liberate people from slavery—either to earthly oppressors or to sin—in order to allow them to indulge in selfishness. Instead, He “buys,” or redeems, people for Himself to make them His valued servants.
Biblical freedom does not set us free to do whatever we please. It ushers us into a life of obedient holiness, living as God would have us live (Rom. 6:15–22) and serving others out of love (Gal. 5:13, 14).
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The infestation of frogs and the other nine plagues God sent on Egypt created an ecological nightmare. The disruption of the region’s natural balance impacted water resources, air quality, plants and animals, and many other environmental systems. Yet the responsibility for these disasters fell not on God but on Pharaoh. His refusal to obey God—or even to treat his Hebrew laborers with compassion—invited these judgments. Each plague offered an opportunity for Pharaoh to yield, but it was only after God allowed the natural systems of Egypt to fail that Pharaoh finally relented.
The Creator knew exactly how to upset the delicate balance of Egypt’s ecosystem in order to bring proud Pharaoh to his knees. The plagues were undeniable demonstrations of His power, and His sparing of the Israelites showed that God was in supreme control of every natural force.
More: The plagues of Egypt were a precursor to the destructive judgments that will rain down at the end of the world. See “Faith and the Environment” at Rev. 9:4.
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When Moses finally triumphed over the magicians of Pharaoh, they were forced to admit that God was the source of Moses’ miracles. This incident is similar to a later contest between Elijah and Baal’s prophets on Mount Carmel, when the Lord’s powers again proved superior to those of a pagan god (1 Kin. 18:20–40). In fact, Scripture suggests a number of similarities between Moses and Elijah. See “Moses and Elijah” at 1 Kings 19:11.
More: Pharaoh’s sorcerers imitated—or tried to imitate—some of Moses’ and Aaron’s signs (Ex. 7:11, 22; 8:7, 18, 19). These magicians probably used occult arts, practices God strongly forbid the Israelites to use. See “The Seduction of Spirits” at Deut. 18:9–14.
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The statement that God “hardened” Pharaoh’s heart may sound as if the king wasn’t given the choice to submit to God’s repeated demands to release the Israelites. But Pharaoh had the same ability as anyone else to obey God.
God did not intervene in Pharaoh’s decisions in a way that took control of his free will. When the text says that God “hardened” or “strengthened” Pharaoh’s heart, it is a way of saying that Pharaoh became even more determined; he acted even more like the strong-willed person that God had made him to be. Pharaoh maintained complete responsibility for his decisions, and he made the poor decision to become increasingly determined to resist God and prove his own might.
Not every Egyptian responded to the plagues as Pharaoh did. Some of Pharaoh’s own magicians confessed that the miracles of Moses and Aaron were the work of “the finger of God” (Ex. 8:19). A number of Egyptians even joined the Hebrews and left in the Exodus (12:38).
The New Testament presents hard-heartedness as a chronic refusal to respond to God, which can result in a hopeless condition for some believers (Heb. 6:4–12). The writer of Hebrews is careful to point out that “God is not unjust” and warns against sluggish obedience, encouraging readers to be diligent in their labors of love (6:10–12).
More: The Jewish Council was “stiff-necked” and hardhearted when they resisted God and His plans at the trial of Stephen. See Acts 7:51–53.
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Mustering the courage to approach a powerful leader is difficult. Encountering derision can make even the brave lose hope.
Pharaoh responded with sarcasm when Moses and Aaron warned of a plague of locusts. Scripture does not specifically state that the brothers felt disheartened by the ruler’s taunts, but given Moses’ earlier fears (see “Crises of Confidence” at Ex. 3:11—4:17), the two were probably not in high spirits as they left the Egyptian ruler.
The next time you encounter biting sarcasm, especially when it is directed against your faith, here are three ways to handle the situation:
• Know who your God is and why He sent you. If we do not understand God’s purposes for us, it will not take much to knock us off course. Maintaining a close relationship with God and reminding ourselves of our mission as His children will ground us in peace despite hurtful comments.
• Know your own strengths and weaknesses. We need to be honest with ourselves about our vulnerabilities. Then we will be ready for the worst anyone can say about us. Being prepared to confront our weaknesses and utilize our strengths will help us identify opportunities for humility and grace.
• Know your enemy. We must not be naive. People will sometimes oppose us. And when they do, we are better prepared if we anticipate what they stand to gain by defeating us or to lose if we prevail. Moreover, we must remember our ultimate Enemy, who seeks to attack us through deceit and mockery—yet there is no adversary who can ever defeat us when we rest in the protection of the Lord.
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God had an astonishing amount of patience with stubborn Pharaoh. He could have sent the final devastating plague immediately after Pharaoh’s first refusal to free the Hebrews. Instead, He began a systematic course of action to give the ruler a chance to change his mind. Nonetheless, Pharaoh became increasingly hostile to his negotiations with Moses and Aaron (Ex. 7:13, 23; 8:15, 19, 28, 32; 9:7, 12, 34; 10:27, 28).
An agreement was finally reached after the last plague—the death of the firstborn (11:1)—though even then, Pharaoh’s true character resurfaced as he pursued the fleeing Hebrews (14:5–9). Yet in spite of Pharaoh’s stubbornness, the long and difficult process of persuasion was worth pursuing. Jumping immediately to the harshest acts of discipline eliminates the opportunity for people to come to their senses. God’s treatment of Pharaoh shows how to apply pressure slowly when we confront an inflexible opponent, whether it be a family member, a coworker, or even an institution. By patiently meeting resistance with a carefully graduated series of consequences (always acting with others’ best interests at heart), we create the best chance for the other person to grasp the benefits of changing.
More: The patient but firm correction God used on Pharaoh is like the process Jesus outlined for dealing with conflict. See Matt. 18:15–22.
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Pharaoh refused to release the Hebrews from slavery and allow them to leave the country. So the Lord sent ten plagues (Ex. 7:14—12:30) on the Egyptians to break the ruler’s stubborn will and demonstrate His power over the Egyptians’ false gods. The plagues occurred during a nine-month period.
Plague | Result |
1. The water of the Nile River is turned to blood (Ex. 7:14–25). | Pharaoh is hardened (Ex. 7:22). |
2. Frogs overrun the countryside (Ex. 8:1–15). | Pharaoh begs for relief and promises freedom (Ex. 8:8) but later is hardened (8:15). |
3. People and animals are infested with lice (or insects; Ex. 8:16–19). | Pharaoh is hardened (Ex. 8:19). |
4. Swarms of flies cover the land (Ex. 8:20–32). | |
5. Disease kills the livestock (Ex. 9:1–7). | Pharaoh is hardened (Ex. 9:7). |
6. Boils and sores infect the Egyptians and their animals (Ex. 9:8–12). | Pharaoh is hardened (Ex. 9:12). |
7. Hail destroys crops and vegetation (Ex. 9:13–35). | Pharaoh begs for relief and promises freedom (Ex. 9:27, 28) but later is hardened (9:35). |
8. Swarms of locusts cover the land (Ex. 10:1–20). | Pharaoh bargains and begs for relief (Ex. 10:11, 17) but later is hardened (10:20). |
9. Thick darkness covers Egypt for three days (Ex. 10:21–29). | |
10. The Egyptian firstborn, both people and animals, are killed by God’s angel of destruction (Ex. 11:1—12:30). | Pharaoh and the Egyptians beg Israel to leave (Ex. 12:31–33). |
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The “difference between the Egyptians and Israel” was enormous. The Egyptians were an ancient people; the Israelites were relative newcomers to the Middle East. The Egyptians were masters; the Israelites were slaves. The Egyptians had a powerful, well-equipped army; the Israelites had no organized military at all. Yet from the standpoint of Scripture, the most significant difference is that the Egyptians worshiped many gods while the Israelites worshiped the one true God.
Because Egyptian history spans nearly five thousand years (beginning almost three thousand years before the birth of Christ) we must be cautious about making generalizations about the ancient Egyptians. One thing we do know is that they called their land Tawy, “The Two Lands,” referring to Upper (southern) and Lower (northern) Egypt, and also Kemyt, “The Black Land,” which distinguished the fertile soil of the Nile Delta from the pale sand of the surrounding desert. These names reflect the truism that “Egypt is a gift of the Nile” (see “The Nile” at Ex. 7:20).
The Bible denotes Mizraim, a son of Ham, as the ancestor from whom the Egyptians are believed to have descended (Gen. 10:6, 13, 14; 1 Chr. 1:8). An ancient Egyptian priest named Manetho provided a helpful survey of his nation’s history, dividing the kings of Egypt into 30 dynastic families who ruled between 3000 and 300 B.C. These dynasties suggest three major periods of cultural and political achievement, interspersed with periods of relative inactivity:
The Old Kingdom (c. 2700–2200 B.C.)
• Egypt unites as one nation under one king at Memphis (c. 3000 B.C.).
• Irrigation and the plow are introduced.
• The famous pyramids rise.
• People come to believe that the rulers, called pharaohs, are divine.
• The arts, especially painting, sculpture, and architecture, flourish.
• The Great Pyramids and Great Sphinx of Giza are built.
• Civil conflict, famine, and drought lead to the decline and collapse of the Old Kingdom, followed by a period of disunity and hardship.
The Middle Kingdom (c. 2000–1800 B.C.)
• Parallels the time of Abraham’s migration to Canaan (Gen. 11:31—12:6) and sojourn in Egypt (12:10–20).
• New kings centralize the government and secure the nation’s borders.
• Irrigation projects expand agricultural production.
• Trade with Phoenicia, mining in the Sinai Desert, and at least one military campaign indicate a close relationship with the land of Canaan.
• Growing instability leads to a second intermediate period of weakness (1750–1570 B.C.). During this time …
• Many non-Egyptians enter the country, including a group called the Hyksos (“Rulers of Foreign Countries”) who take control of the government.
• Joseph rises to a position of great authority (Gen. 39–50).
• The Hyksos are eventually driven out, leading to the New Kingdom era.
The New Kingdom (c. 1570–1100 B.C.)
• Parallels the biblical record from just before the birth of Moses until the time of Samuel.
• Egypt reaches the pinnacle of its power, ruled by kings who have no memory of Joseph (Ex. 1:8).
• The Hebrews experience persecution (1:11).
• Amenhotep II comes to power, possibly as the pharaoh of the Exodus.
• Several years after the Exodus, King Akhenaten abandons traditional Egyptian polytheism and introduces belief in one solar god, Aten, but his attempts at reform are not widely accepted.
• King Tutankhamen rises to power, restoring the worship of many gods at Thebes.
• The capital is relocated from Thebes to Raamses.
• Government corruption, strikes, inflation, and increasing power of the priests bring the New Kingdom to an end.
The Late Period (1100–330 B.C.)
• Fragmentation of Egyptian power allows David and Solomon to establish a strong Israelite kingdom.
• A political marriage is arranged between Solomon and the daughter of a pharaoh (1 Kin. 3:1; see also “Political Marriages” at 2 Sam. 3:13, 14).
• Lack of Egyptian military power forces greater emphasis on peaceful trade relations with neighboring states.
• Shortly after Solomon’s death (c. 930 B.C.), King Shishak attacks Jerusalem and plunders gold from the palace and temple (1 Kin. 14:25–28).
• Rulers from Ethiopia and the Egyptian city of Sais govern Egypt for several hundred years until the Babylonians destroy Israel (587 B.C.).
• Assyrians attack Egypt (671 and 664 B.C.), as do the Babylonians (605 B.C.), Persians (525 B.C.), and Greeks (330 B.C.).
• The Ptolemies begin to rule Egypt (323 B.C.), developing Alexandria as a center of culture and learning (see Alexandria’s profile and “The Septuagint” at Acts 18:24).
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The Passover was the first of three great festivals of the Hebrews. Its name recalls how God rescued Israel from slavery in Egypt. When Pharaoh refused to free God’s people, the Lord sent His angel to kill all of the Egyptians’ firstborn sons. He told Hebrew families to sacrifice a lamb and smear its blood on the doorpost of their homes as a signal to God that His angel should “pass over” them and spare them from this punishment. Just as the blood of the lambs saved the Hebrews from destruction in Egypt, the blood of Jesus, the ultimate Passover Lamb, saves us from the power of sin and death (John 1:29).
God instituted the Passover to help succeeding generations of His people grasp what He accomplished in bringing Israel out of Egypt. The best religious traditions remind us that we are a dependent people. We owe all that we are and have to God’s grace. In times of prosperity, we can easily forget God’s intervention and blessing. Traditions remind us of things we may not have personally experienced but still need to honor.
Like the ancient Hebrews, we need to remember God’s work among us (Deut. 24:9–22; 1 Cor. 11:26). We share the Lord’s Supper to recall Jesus’ death on the cross. We can use celebrations, symbols, music, and other memorials to express reverence for what God has done for our ancestors and for us. Whether we adhere to detailed, year-long calendars of festivals and holy days, or follow less formal observances, celebrating God’s work in previous generations is part of our precious heritage.
More: Passover was just one of Israel’s annual celebrations. See “Jewish Feasts” at Luke 2:42. Over the centuries, Israel’s religious leaders sometimes let tradition become more important than God’s Word. See “Breaking Tradition” at Matt. 15:1–3.
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We may naturally assume that Pharaoh’s grief over the loss of his firstborn child was what moved him to finally let the Hebrews go. But his decision was probably also based on matters of politics and religion.
The tenth plague was the grand finale in a titanic contest to prove who was more powerful, the God of Israel or the god-king of Egypt. To the Egyptians, Pharaoh was not only a ruler but also a god who controlled their fate. When Moses and Aaron claimed to speak for a new god called “the Lord,” Pharaoh inquired, “Who is the Lord, that I should obey His voice?” (Ex. 5:2). In effect, Pharaoh was throwing down a challenge to the Lord to prove Himself.
God responded by demonstrating His power through nine catastrophic plagues (see “An Ecological Disaster” at Ex. 8:8–15). Pharaoh resisted all nine. But in the tenth plague, God delivered the ultimate blow and struck down Pharaoh’s supposedly divine child. This seriously undercut Pharaoh’s credibility and authority as a god. As Scripture points out, this powerful, deified ruler was suddenly no different from the lowest prisoner in his dungeons or even the animals in his fields (12:29).
No wonder Pharaoh’s last words convey submission and humility: “Be gone; and bless me also” (12:32). Realizing he had been beaten, the supposedly divine king of Egypt asked for pity from a God he now knew to be supreme.
More: Scripture tells of numerous other “battles” fought between the Lord and pagan gods. Two memorable contests occurred between David and Goliath (see “A Battle of the Gods” at 1 Sam. 17:40–54) and between Elijah and Baal’s prophets (see “The Lord Is God” at 1 Kin. 18:37—19:14).
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When the Hebrews finally left Egypt, they stripped their former owners of financial and material wealth. They perhaps also cleaned out the warehouses in Raamses, the storage city the Hebrews were building when they cried out to God about their cruel bondage (see “Pithom, Raamses, and the Land of Goshen” at Ex. 1:7, 11; see also Ex. 2:23). God did not sanction random looting; the goods the Hebrews requested from the Egyptians were payment for years of servitude. Their former masters willingly gave silver, gold, and clothing.
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The Feast of Unleavened Bread, or Passover, was observed on the fourteenth day of the first month, Nisan (March/April), with the service beginning in the evening (Lev. 23:6). To find out more about this special day and its significance in New Testament times, see “Passover” at Luke 22:7.
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After the first Passover, the Lord commanded the Hebrews to set apart their firstborn children to Him. Scripture does not detail what setting a child apart meant, but it likely involved spiritually releasing the child to fulfill God’s plans as a sign of trust and obedience to a good God. This release of a child to the Lord was symbolized by a ritual of redemption in which the newborn was “exchanged” for an offering brought by the parents. Scripture highlights a few stories of firstborn children dedicated to the Lord, notably Samson (Judg. 13:5, 24, 25), Samuel (1 Sam. 1:11, 24–28), John the Baptist (Luke 1:66, 80), and Jesus (2:7, 22–24).
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Miraculous pillars of fire by night and cloud by day (Ex. 13:21; 14:19, 20) must have been reassuring signs to a throng of escaped slaves that their God was present and actively intervening to lead them through the wilderness.
God employed a communication method often used by large traveling groups in the ancient world. Armies marching over long distances, with lines sometimes drawn out for miles, needed a way for troops leading the way to communicate with troops bringing up the rear. Leaders lit a brazier of burning coals to carry at the front of the march. At night, the fire provided a light that could be seen for miles. During the day, water poured on the coals produced a cloud of smoke and steam. Rear-guard troops traveling over unfamiliar terrain had only to march toward these beacons to stay on course. In Israel’s case, God Himself was in the fire and cloud, which He produced supernaturally.
When we wish for clear direction today, we may not find pillars of fire and cloud in the skies, but we can be assured that God communicates to us through the Bible, His written revelation to humanity. The vast majority of what we need to know about God’s will is laid out in Scripture. If we aim toward that, we usually end up in the right spot.
Scripture does not offer turn-by-turn directions for every detail of life—what job we should pursue, where we should live, how many hours we should sleep. For many decisions we are meant to exercise our practical intelligence, just as the Israelites had to make their own decisions about how to cross a particular stream, how much baggage to load on an animal, or how many layers of clothing to wear each day.
God still sometimes leads us through supernatural intervention, and we can also rely on prayer and the conviction of the Holy Spirit. But the Bible puts God’s plans right in front of us, ready to provide answers to any who seek them.
More: Gideon is often cited as a model for godly decision-making, but he also exhibited hesitation and fear in his quest to know God’s will. See “Discovering God’s Will” at Judg. 6:36–40.
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Miracles Do Not Happen Every Day
The parting of the Red Sea is one of the Bible’s most renowned miracles. A miracle might be defined as a supernatural intervention by God into the world’s natural order to accomplish His purposes and glorify His name.
God usually allows the universe to operate according to the laws of physics that He ordained. The Red Sea, for example, normally obeys the law of gravity and its waters remain unparted. But at times God overrules natural law and causes extraordinary things to happen. These are true miracles (also called signs, wonders, or mighty acts), as when God pushed aside the waters of the Red Sea to allow the Hebrews to cross on dry ground.
Because Scripture records some 150 miracles, we might expect God to perform miracles on our behalf whenever the need arises. Yet miracles by definition are uncommon. Moreover, a study of the miracles in the Bible shows an interesting pattern of occurrence. Most miracles seem to be clustered around four key periods:
1. Israel’s early history. During the Exodus from Egypt and the initial conquest of the Promised Land, God performed many miraculous acts. These are recorded in Exodus, Leviticus, Numbers, and Joshua.
2. The prophetic ministries of Elijah and Elisha. God performed numerous miracles to help Elijah and Elisha warn His people about their sinful ways. These are recorded in 1 and 2 Kings.
3. Jesus’ life. When Christ came to provide salvation through the Cross and make known God’s kingdom, dozens of miracles authenticated His ministry. These are recorded in the four Gospels: Matthew, Mark, Luke, and John.
4. The early church. As the Holy Spirit filled and mobilized the early church to spread the gospel to all peoples, another cluster of miracles took place, especially through founding leaders such as Peter and Paul. Many of these are recorded in Acts.
Without question, God performs miracles, intervening in the natural order of the universe whenever and however He chooses. But the biblical record of miracles should balance our expectations. On the one hand, we should avoid counting on a miracle when, by its very nature, it is not something to be expected. On the other hand, we should never say never to what God can accomplish.
More: Jesus refused to oblige His opponents’ demands for miracles, yet He performed plenty of them for all to see. See “The Miracles of Jesus” at Mark 8:11, 12.
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No one knows exactly where the Israelites crossed the sea on dry ground. Several routes have been proposed:
1. The traditional route has the Hebrews crossing just north of Lake Timsah, then turning south into the Wilderness of Shur and the route for Mount Sinai, believed to be in the far south of the Sinai Peninsula.
2. An alternative route suggests that the people traveled north of the main highway that connected Egypt with the east, called the Way of the Sea. The southern end of this thoroughfare was called the Way to the Land of the Philistines. The road was probably guarded by numerous Egyptian garrisons (Ex. 13:17). So the people may have traveled north from Migdol through Baal Zephon (14:2). The gulf there could have been the one called the Reed Sea (Hebrew: Yam Suph).
3. A third proposed route suggests that the Israelites crossed south of Great Bitter Lake and Little Bitter Lake. Then, instead of turning south, they headed directly east across the Sinai Peninsula to Ezion Geber. This was a route used by Egyptian traders, but it would have been a difficult trip for such a large group of people moving so slowly.
4. A fourth possible route follows the Way to Shur east toward Kadesh Barnea.
5. Traditional location of Mount Sinai.
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The Leading of the Lord
Born into slavery on a large plantation in Maryland as Araminta Harriet Ross (1820–1913), Harriet Tubman became the best known of all the conductors on the Underground Railroad, a vast network of secret routes and safehouses used by nineteenth-century American slaves to escape to freedom in the North. After making her own escape, Tubman returned on nineteen separate missions to lead more than three hundred slaves to freedom. She never lost a passenger, and her tireless work earned her the nickname Moses.
Little is known about Tubman’s family origins except that one of her grandmothers arrived in the United States on a slave ship from Africa. Tubman was one of nine children born to her parents, and during her childhood, three of her sisters were sold and permanently separated from the family. When Tubman’s mother received word that their owner was negotiating the sale of her youngest son, she hid the boy for a month and threatened to split the head of any man who came to take him. The master backed off in what was almost certainly a pivotal moment in Tubman’s young life: she witnessed the power of resistance.
At age five Tubman was hired out to another family to care for a white baby. She was beaten if the child cried, and Tubman later recalled a day when she was whipped five times before breakfast. Yet Tubman refused to allow herself to be beaten into absolute submission. She layered her clothing to help soften the blows, ran away for days at a time, and even at times fought back. At age twelve she refused to restrain a slave attempting to escape, and when an overseer heaved a weight at the young man, Tubman was struck instead. She suffered a head injury that afflicted her with seizures, severe headaches, and narcoleptic episodes for the rest of her life. She also experienced visions that she interpreted as religious experiences.
In 1849 Tubman escaped from slavery with her brothers Ben and Henry, but they turned back after an advertisement about rewards for their capture gave her brothers second thoughts. When Tubman escaped again, this time leaving her brothers behind, she made her way safely to Philadelphia. Later, during her years as a conductor on the Underground Railroad, Tubman demanded strict obedience from her followers, because a fugitive who returned to his master would likely be forced to reveal information that would compromise her mission. Though she was never forced to pull the trigger, Tubman would hold a revolver to the head of any reluctant escapees and ask them to reconsider.
Tubman became a friend of many leading abolitionists and their sympathizers, including Frederick Douglass (see here for an article on his life) and John Brown. Tubman’s ultimate Advocate was the One in whom she held supreme confidence: “I always tole God,” she said, “I’m gwine to hole stiddy on you, an’ you’ve got to see me through.” Tubman listened carefully to God’s voice during her missions, following wherever He led her. “I can’t die but once” became her motto, and she put all concern for her own protection in the hands of her Deliverer.
During the Civil War, Tubman continued her good works as a nurse, laundress, and spy for Union forces. Yet despite numerous honors, Tubman lived much of her later life in poverty. Not until thirty years after the war was she granted a government pension in recognition of her work for the Federal Army.
It was said of Tubman that “a more ordinary specimen of humanity could hardly be found among the most unfortunate-looking farmhands of the South.” Nonetheless, this humble woman’s bright legacy lives on today as a beacon of hope for all who yearn to break free from a society at odds with God’s purposes.
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Some people see two Gods in the Bible—a “God of the Old Testament” who is violent and retaliatory and a “God of the New Testament” who is loving and conciliatory. However, a careful reading of the Scriptures reveals one God who is good, true, powerful, pure, and compassionate—and never vindictive or brutal. Moses’ song to the Lord describes Him as …
• Powerful (Ex. 15:6). Moses praised God’s triumph in war. This victory should be seen in light of Pharaoh’s evil record (chs. 1–14). God dispenses justice to all sinners—and ultimately His just nature led Him to sacrifice His own Son on behalf of sinners (John 3:16–21; Rom. 5:8, 18–21). God uses His awesome power to show compassion to the lost or to render justice to those who resist His eternal reign (Ex. 15:18).
• Pure (15:11). God’s character is holy, a moral perfection that sets Him apart from all other so-called gods (1 Sam. 2:2; Rev. 15:4). His holiness necessitates that sin be punished (Ps. 96:13; 98:9; John 3:17–21), so He establishes consequences for sinful rebellion. A holy God desires His people to be holy (Is. 1:10–14; Mic. 6:6–8; Matt. 12:7).
• Compassionate (Ex. 15:13). God shows love and mercy toward us even though we turn from Him and disobey (Dan. 9:9; 1 Tim. 1:13, 16). None of us deserves this love (Rom. 3:9–20; 9:14–18), which can only come from God (John 3:11–21). It is the compassion Jesus demonstrated by dying for us when we were sinners fully deserving condemnation (Rom. 5:6–11).
The Old Testament story is at times cruel and ugly. But the horror comes not from God but from human sin and rebellion. Nor does the New Testament tell only a peaceful and pleasant tale. Jesus’ voluntary death on behalf of guilty sinners portrays human brutality at its worst. Scripture does not avoid the dark story of a fallen humanity, but it also offers bright hope. A good, true, powerful, pure, and compassionate God has reached out to us and provided a way to Himself.
More: To learn more about God’s character and nature, see the articles under “Knowing and Serving God” in the Themes to Study index.
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Philistia was a region along the southwestern coast of Canaan to which a tribe known as the Philistines had migrated, probably by way of Crete (see “The Philistines” at Judg. 13:1). Centuries after the Israelites entered the Promised Land, the Romans renamed the entire land of Canaan “Palaestina,” a name associated with the Philistines. The modern name Palestine is derived from it. See “A Name for the Land” at Numbers 34:2.
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• A pool or well of water located in the Wilderness of Shur (Ex. 15:22, 23; Num. 33:8–9).
• Name means “Bitter,” indicating that its water was undrinkable.
• First stop for the Israelites after crossing the Red Sea and the site where God satisfied the Israelites’ thirst by miraculously turning bitter waters to sweet. This was a test of the people’s faith, after which the Lord made a covenant with them (Ex. 15:25, 26).
• Identified with modern-day Ain Hawarah on the Sinai Peninsula.
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To us, the term wilderness often connotes remote, uninhabited regions of lush forests. But in the Bible, wilderness almost always indicated a dry, barren, rocky, solitary wasteland or sandy desert such as the Wilderness of Sin crossed by the children of Israel. Few of these areas were suitable even for grazing livestock.
In the New Testament, unnamed wilderness areas in Palestine became places of retreat for John the Baptist and Jesus (Luke 3:2; 4:1, 42; 9:10–12). Someday God promises to do a “new thing” to the wilderness regions by providing rivers and streams in the desert (Is. 35:1, 6, 7; 43:19, 20), making them much like the original Garden of Eden (51:3).
Wilderness Areas in Scripture
Wilderness | Significance |
1. Beersheba (Gen. 21:14) | The area where Hagar fled after being cast out by Sarah. |
2. Beth Aven (Josh. 18:12) | The hill country of Benjamin east of Bethel. |
3. Damascus (1 Kin. 19:15) | The desert area near the city of Damascus, well-known in the ancient world for the trade routes traversing it. |
4. Edom (2 Kin. 3:8) | The land occupied by Esau’s descendants between the Dead Sea and the Gulf of Aqaba. |
5. En Gedi (1 Sam. 24:1) | A desert area west of the Dead Sea, named for a freshwater spring; David fled there to escape Saul. |
6. Gibeon (2 Sam. 2:24) | The region surrounding the city of Gibeon, six miles northwest of Jerusalem; site of a great pool (Jer. 41:12) dug into solid rock, which was both the city’s water supply and the center of a wine-making industry. |
7. Jeruel (2 Chr. 20:16) | The area between En Gedi and Tekoa; site of the victory of King Jehoshaphat over the Moabites and Ammonites. |
8. Judah (Judg. 1:16) | The area south of Jerusalem on the western side of the Dead Sea. |
9. Kadesh (Ps. 29:8) | The site of Israel’s refusal to go up and possess the Promised Land, in opposition to God’s command. |
10. Kedemoth (Deut. 2:26) | The desert area near the Levitical city of the same name (Josh. 21:37). |
11. Maon (1 Sam. 23:24) | An area west of the Dead Sea in which David hid from Saul; also the home of Nabal (1 Sam. 25:2, 3). |
12. Moab (Deut. 2:8) | The remote area west of the Dead Sea and home to the Moabites. |
13. Paran (Gen. 21:21) | The section of the Sinai Peninsula where Ishmael settled. |
14. Red Sea (Ex. 13:18) | The Bitter Lakes region just north of Suez; probable site of Israel’s crossing of the Red Sea. |
15. Shur (Ex. 15:22) | The northwest portion of the Sinai Peninsula where Israel began their wilderness journey after crossing the Red Sea. |
16. Sin (Ex. 16:1) | A district in the southwest part of the Sinai Peninsula where the Lord miraculously provided quails. |
17. Sinai (Ex. 19:1) | The portion of the Sinai Peninsula surrounding Mount Sinai, where the Law was given to Moses. |
18. Tekoa (2 Chr. 20:20) | The area just to the southeast of the city of Tekoa, west of the Dead Sea; David’s general Joab sent to Tekoa for a “wise woman” to reconcile the king with his son Absalom (2 Sam. 14:2). |
19. Zin (Num. 13:21) | The portion of land at the southern end of Canaan; base of operations for Israel when it sent spies into Canaan. |
20. Ziph (1 Sam. 23:14) | The area around the city of Ziph in the hill country of Judah; a place where David fled from Saul. |
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Omers and ephahs were measures of volume. See the “Weights and Measures” table in the back matter to learn more.
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• An Israelite encampment in the Wilderness of Sin (“Thorn”; not to be confused with the English word sin) at the foot of Mount Horeb.
• Name means “Rests” although there was no water there for the people to drink. However, God miraculously provided water by having Moses strike a rock (Ex. 17:1–6).
• Renamed Massah (“Tempted”) and Meribah (“Contention”) because of the Israelites’ unbelief (17:7).
• Site of an attack by the Amalekites (17:8–16). During the battle, Moses lifted up his rod to assure victory. Aaron and Hur supported his arms throughout the day. Moses erected an altar there to commemorate the victory.
More: God’s provision of water at Rephidim recalls two other miraculous acts—the striking of the Nile River by Moses to turn it into blood (Ex. 7:20), and the turning of bitter waters to sweet at Marah (15:22–26). Moses’ actions on this occasion honored God. Later, under identical conditions, things did not turn out well. See “Overcoming Impulses” at Num. 20:10–13.
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Moses learned what countless leaders throughout history have discovered: life is hard at the top. Lacking water, the people complained bitterly to their leader as if he had caused the situation or had the power to fix it. This incident reminds us that our exercising authority correctly does not guarantee that others will treat us favorably. A person in authority often must make a trade-off between being steadfast and being popular. When we are in charge, we should not be shocked when people complain despite our attempts to do right or simply to do our best.
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God’s Promise, Our Responsibility
The Lord vowed to “blot out the remembrance of Amalek” for the Amalekites’ unprovoked attack on the Israelites at Rephidim. Years later, God gave Israel’s first king an opportunity to fulfill this promise—a responsibility that he failed to carry out, leading to further conflict and destruction for Israel until another group of people took up the charge. See “The Amalekites” at 1 Sam. 15:2, 3.
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Name means: “Excellence.”
Also known as: Reuel (“Friend of God”; Ex. 2:18), Raguel (variant form of Reuel; see footnote at Num. 10:29), and Hobab (“Beloved”; Judg. 4:11).
Home: Midian, near the Sinai Peninsula, east of the Gulf of Aqaba.
Family: Father of Zipporah; father-in-law of Moses. See “The Family of Moses, Aaron, and Miriam” at Ex. 6:20–25.
Occupation: Priest of Midian.
Best known for: Offering wise management advice to his overburdened son-in-law Moses, helping him delegate judicial responsibilities to others (18:13–23).
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Practical Principles for Leadership
Organizations rise or fall with their leadership. And while the Bible was not composed as a management manual, it nevertheless offers principles to help leaders serve people more effectively. Several passages directly relate to leadership issues, and Moses’ conversation with Jethro is one of the most significant. Several practical pointers may be drawn from their exchange:
• Moses, a man of authority, respected the authority of Jethro (Ex. 18:7, 24). Moses could have grown defensive when Jethro offered advice. Instead, he showed respect, listened, and responded willingly to his father-in-law’s counsel. We cannot expect people to respect our authority if we disrespect the authorities over us.
• Authority is intoxicating (18:14, 15). Moses apparently knew little about delegating responsibility. When Jethro asked him why “you alone sit, and all the people stand before you,” Moses replied that “the people come to me to inquire of God.” This statement could reflect the allure of being in charge. Fortunately, Moses gave up some of his control. We will never exercise authority wisely if we are addicted to the ego boost of having others depend on us.
• Authority should be invested in others prudently (18:21). Jethro did not suggest that Moses fill a handful of leadership positions with relatives and cronies. He described job qualifications based on proven character, offering a reminder that delegation is a privilege, not a right. We must consider the quality and ability of prospective appointees rather than make decisions based purely on personal preference.
• Authority is a resource, not a reserve (18:22, 23). By delegating authority to subordinates, Moses could take the people further as a community than if he retained control alone. Rather than thinking of authority as a position to be preserved, we should regard it as a resource to expend, empowering others to act more effectively.
• Effective leadership increases the health and longevity of an organization and its people (18:22, 23). Moses probably prolonged his own life and ensured the nation’s progress by appointing effective judges. No organization can survive if only a handful of its workers shoulder the work. When we give each member a stake in the outcome, we bring far more eyes, ears, brains, and hands to bear on complex decisions.
More: Additional principles of leadership can be observed in Nehemiah. See “Leadership Principles from Nehemiah” at Neh. 1:1. One unique contribution of biblical leadership models is the idea that leadership starts with humility. See “Leading to Serve” at John 13:1–20.
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Moses was a workaholic headed toward a breakdown. Fortunately, his astute father-in-law saw what Moses could not. Moses’ failure to delegate authority would eventually exhaust him and exasperate his people. Jethro saw the looming danger and spoke up to warn his son-in-law.
Workaholics often need deliberate intervention because they are often the last to see the damage their compulsive work habits cause themselves and the people around them. Worse yet, when things go badly, they work harder, making the problem even more serious.
We may need to be a Jethro by taking someone aside and explaining the real cost of excessive work. We can offer strategies for change and suggest resources for help. If we ourselves tend toward overwork, chances are good that a Jethro is already prodding us to slow down. Maybe our Jethro is a spouse we seldom engage in meaningful conversation. Maybe it is a son or daughter who long ago gave up expecting us to take time out to play. Maybe it is a friend we avoid because we hate having our unhealthy habits called out.
Moses responded immediately to Jethro’s suggestions (Ex. 18:24). Like Moses, we have the opportunity to let confrontations and caring advice roll off our backs, or to take action and make a change for the better.
More: God always intended for mankind to work, and He created work to be inherently good. See “God: The Original Worker” at John 5:17. However, God also intended for people to rest from their labors. See “A Day of Rest” at Gen. 2:1–3 and “The Human Machine” at Ex. 23:12.
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Mount Sinai and the Wilderness of Sinai
Three months after the Israelites left Egypt, they arrived at the Wilderness of Sinai, a phrase that may refer to the entire wilderness of the Sinai Peninsula. In that case, it included the Wilderness of Sin, through which the Israelites passed between Elim and Mount Sinai (Ex. 16:1); the Wilderness of Paran in the central Sinai Peninsula (Num. 10:12); the Wilderness of Shur, east of Egypt in northern Sinai (Gen. 16:7); and the Wilderness of Zin, close to the border of Canaan (Num. 13:21).
However, the “Wilderness of Sinai” may also refer to the wilderness at the foot of Mount Sinai, where the Israelites pitched their camp. Yet despite the importance of God’s meeting with Moses on Mount Sinai, the exact location of the site is unknown.
Mount Sinai is the same as Mount Horeb (Ex. 3:1), where God spoke to Moses in a burning bush and commissioned him to lead Israel out of Egypt (3:2–10). Horeb may refer to a mountain range or ridge, with Sinai indicating a particular summit on the ridge. The Bible typically uses the name Sinai to indicate the physical location where Israel met God (for example, Ex. 19:11) and the name Horeb to reflect on the events that happened there (for example, Deut. 1:6).
Several peaks in the Sinai Peninsula have been suggested as the biblical Mount Sinai: Jebel Musa (named after Moses; 7,519 feet), which has a broad plain at its base that could have held the Hebrew encampment; Jebel Serbal (6,759 feet); and Jebel Katarina (8,551 feet).
More: God doesn’t dwell on mountains, but he chose Mount Sinai as the place to come down and meet Moses to deliver the Law. He also chose other sites as locations for special appearances. See “Sacred Space” at Gen. 28:22. Elijah also heard God’s voice at Mount Sinai, but under radically different circumstances. See “The Mountain of God” at 1 Kin. 19:8.
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The ascent of Mount Sinai to receive the Law may have been the climax of Moses’ 120-year life, but there were many other important times spent in a wide variety of places:
1. Moses is born to Hebrew slaves in Egypt, possibly in the land of Goshen (Ex. 2:1, 2; compare Gen. 47:27; Ex. 8:22).
2. At three months of age, Moses is hidden by his mother in “the river,” presumably the Nile, where he is found by Pharaoh’s daughter. She adopts him and he grows up in the royal family, possibly at Thebes (Ex. 2:3–10).
3. Moses flees to Midian after killing a Egyptian (Ex. 2:11–15). He meets Reuel (Jethro) and marries his daughter (2:16–22). After 40 years, God calls him to lead His people out of Egypt (3:1—4:17).
4. Moses returns to Egypt, where he calls down ten plagues on the Egyptians until Pharaoh permits the Israelites to leave (Ex. 5–13).
5. Moses leads his people across the Red Sea (Ex. 14).
6. God gives Moses the Law and instructions concerning the tabernacle at Mount Sinai (Ex. 19–31).
7. For 40 years Moses leads the people through the wilderness (Lev., Num.).
8. On the plains of Moab, Moses reviews the Law and prepares a new generation to enter the Promised Land (Deut. 1–33).
9. Moses views Canaan from the top of Mount Nebo before dying. God buries him in an unmarked grave near Beth Peor (Deut. 34).
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After coming down from the mountain, Moses “sanctified” the people (Ex. 19:14), making them ritually clean to stand before God. Part of the ritual cleansing was abstaining from sexual relations for three days. As the people prepared to meet God at Sinai, Moses warned the men of Israel, “Do not come near your wives” (19:15).
This does not suggest that sex is somehow sinful or dirty, because ceremonial uncleanness is not the same as moral uncleanness. Part of the ceremonial cleansing also involved washing clothes (19:14), and dirty clothes obviously are not sinful. But God gave clear instructions about how His people should dress when they approached Him (ch. 28). Being ceremonially clean meant dressing according to the Lord’s instructions.
When Moses instructed the people to refrain from sex as they prepared to meet God, perhaps the goal was to focus their minds and hearts on the important event they were about to witness. But one fact is certain: sex is not unholy. The Bible teaches that sexual intimacy between married partners is natural and expected, a sacred act that God has blessed (1 Cor. 7:1–5; Heb. 13:4).
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The Ten Commandments: A Summary of God’s Law
In His divine Law, God gave the Israelites more than six hundred specific commandments. All of them were based on the Ten Commandments, the summary of the Law recorded on stone tablets and stored in the ark of the Testimony (25:16). To learn more about the practical implications of these ten fundamentals, see the articles here in Exodus 20 as well as the following:
“Staying Focused” | |
“Love God, Love People” | |
“The Blessing of the Sabbath” | |
“Ten Freedoms” | |
“Ten Practical Commandments” |
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Since the time God commanded His people not to make carved images, some people have wrongly concluded that He opposes all art. But the second Commandment simply prohibits creating or treating anything as a substitute for God, a point made clear by the command, “You shall not bow down to them nor serve them,” meaning idols. For four hundred long years, the Israelites had watched their Egyptian neighbors worship carvings of animals and other idolatrous images. Scripture denounces such foolish practices (Ps. 115:4–8), but it never denounces art. God often called the Hebrews to use art in worshiping Him.
• Artists were to use costly materials to make exquisite tabernacle furnishings and priestly vestments (Ex. 25–28).
• The builders of the tabernacle were supervised by Bezalel and Aholiab, skilled artisans to whom the Spirit gave special artistic abilities and craftsmanship (28:3; 35:30—36:5).
• For the temple at Jerusalem, construction workers followed God’s detailed instructions, creating an architectural masterpiece that dazzled all who saw it (see “Sparing No Expense” at 1 Kin. 5:5).
• Musicians and poets composed hymns and psalms that inspired Hebrew worship and later moved Christians to praise God (see “Composers of the Psalms” at the introduction to Psalms and “Psalms into Hymns” at Ps. 103:1).
These artistic achievements could not be more different from the golden calf the Israelites fashioned in the wilderness (Ex. 32:1–6). On that occasion, having been called and equipped by God to create a beautiful place of worship, they instead resorted to idolatry, breaking the second Commandment almost as soon as God had given it. The problem was not art itself but the rebellious twisting of creativity into an evil God never intended.
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The fourth Commandment says to keep the Sabbath (literally the “Day of Cessation”) “holy.” To understand the power and meaning of this command, we must look back to the prologue to the Ten Commandments (Ex. 20:2). It is critical that we read each of God’s commands in the context of the close relationship between God and His people:
• He is their sovereign Lord.
• He is their Almighty God.
• He is their Deliverer.
• He is their Savior.
• They are His children.
When God’s people recognize and value their relationship to the Lord, they will exhibit the behaviors outlined in the Ten Commandments. They will, for example, set aside one day each week, the “Day of Cessation,” to intentionally emulate what their Lord did on the seventh day of creation.
On that seventh day, God rested, or ceased, from His creative labors. He did not stop sustaining, maintaining, and redeeming the world, but He did pause from creating, shaping, and forming it. That is what He asks His people to do: to set the day apart for Him, to savor their relationship with Him, to do what He loves and desires—everything except the routine labors meant for the other six days of the week.
Christians have some latitude in how they fulfill God’s intentions for the Sabbath (see “The Lord’s Day” at Rom. 14:5–13). But the spirit of keeping the Sabbath holy still means honoring God, focusing on others rather than ourselves, and pursuing fellowship, unity, and compassion for other believers.
More: To discover more about the origins of the Sabbath, see “A Day of Rest” at Gen. 2:1–3.
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The biblical word translated covet refers to many different types of desire, including a wrong desire for something that belongs to someone else (Deut. 5:21) and an inordinate attachment to one’s own property.
It is also possible to covet things that belong to God. When the Israelites entered the Promised Land, a man named Achan took treasure from the ruins of Jericho, items God had claimed as His own (Josh. 6:17–19; 7:20, 21). Such desire amounts to idolatry, elevating a thing above God. Scripture warns us to lay aside this kind of covetousness (see “Everyday Idolatry” at Col. 3:5).
The word sometimes translated covet can also refer to a good desire. For example, God’s judgments are to be “desired” more than gold (Ps. 19:10). So whether a longing is right or wrong depends on the object of our desires. To love anything more than God is to commit the sins of coveting and idolatry, but to desire the righteous gifts of God is an act of goodness.
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Slavery has existed across many cultures throughout most of the world’s history. The Hebrews had been slaves in Egypt, and they held servants and slaves in the Promised Land. Biblical laws concerning slavery did not condone the practice, but they did limit its worst aspects. Early Christians wrestled with the conflict between their faith and the institution of slavery (see “Slaves” at Rom. 6:16).
More: For a case study of how a believing master was forced to deal with the implications of a slave becoming a brother in Christ, see the introduction to Philemon.
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Singlehood, Society, and Female Slaves
The Law commanded that a man who had sold himself as a slave to pay his debts should be freed after seven years of service (Ex. 21:2). Yet there was no law mandating freedom for female debt slaves. It might be that female slaves often became concubines of their master (see “Concubines” at Gen. 30:3–13). A concubine was unlikely to find a man willing to marry her, and an unmarried woman would have little means of surviving on her own. Singlehood was difficult for anyone in that day—female or male—and the Law was compatible with the idea of a female slave permanently remaining in her master’s household.
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Because God gave His law to an agricultural society, it includes detailed codes regarding open pits and goring oxen. Nevertheless, ancient principles of caring for human life and safety and awarding restitution for personal injury carry over into any society.
God took a strong interest in preventive health care (for example, Lev. 13:1–59), including community and workplace safety. An injured party was due restitution appropriate to the case: the penalties for injuring another person approximated the loss suffered by the injured party (for example, Ex. 21:23, 24; Lev. 24:17–22). However, the Law did not allow for injured parties to profit from their losses.
These Old Testament prescriptions for settling property and injury cases can inform our perspective as citizens of a litigious society. While we are not bound by the same civil codes as the Hebrews, we can learn much from their practical approach to offering and seeking restitution.
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Making the Punishment Fit the Crime
Devising just penalties is a challenge in any legal system. But Old Testament laws concerning the theft of animals show how to make the punishment fit the crime. The penalty for stealing and slaughtering or selling an animal was more than double the penalty for stealing an animal and then getting caught, likely because slaughtering or selling the stolen goods increased the costs of apprehending, trying, and convicting the thief. Disposing of stolen goods also demonstrated the thief’s determination to avoid repayment. The heavier punishment provides a biblical basis for graduated penalties based on a criminal’s attempt to evade capture and conviction.
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The Law explicitly permitted defensive use of lethal force by private citizens, but not in all situations. At night, one could kill an intruder, but after sunrise, one could not. Why? At night a homeowner could not tell whether an intruder meant to steal or to kill. In daylight, it would be easier to discern an intruder’s intent. The homeowner could not kill a thief who merely threatened property because life is more valuable than any possession. But the homeowner was allowed to kill in response to a threat against human life.
This section of the Law dealt with theft, not murder. Self-defense against a potential murderer was permitted at any time, night or day, but killing a thief solely to protect property was not allowed. Citizens were to depend on community authorities to capture the thief, restore stolen property, and impose a penalty for the theft.
More: For more on the government’s role in protecting citizens and limiting crime, see “Governmental Authority” at Rom. 13:1–7.
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When people inflict harm on people or property unintentionally, laws concerning reckless injury set forth a principle of restitution. Modern insurance and other sources of financial aid make our situation somewhat different, but Scripture strongly supports people’s right to security for both their persons and their property.
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Leaving valuables with a neighbor for safekeeping was common in Old Testament times. Institutional banking was not practiced in ancient Israel until the time of the Babylonian captivity (beginning in 587 B.C.). This lack of depositories may have shaped the monetary and lending policies of the Israelites. See “Banking in the Old Testament” at Deuteronomy 15:2.
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The bride-price was a sum paid to a bride’s family to acknowledge the financial loss created by the woman’s marriage. Since a woman became part of her husband’s family, her marriage caused her original family to lose a valuable worker. The bride-price repaid at least a portion of the family’s loss. It was often a gift of substantial value.
In a few instances, the Bible reports that brides received gifts from their families when they married. Laban gave maids to his daughters Leah and Rachel when they married Jacob (Gen. 29:24, 29). Caleb gave springs of water to his daughter (Josh. 15:19). And when the daughter of Pharaoh married Solomon, she was given an entire city (1 Kin. 9:16).
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Protect the Widows and Orphans
James wrote in his New Testament letter that part of “pure and undefiled religion” was to “visit orphans and widows in their trouble” (James 1:27). He may have had in mind the Law’s express prohibition against mistreating those without husbands or fathers.
Widows and orphans (along with aliens; Deut. 27:19) were more likely to be oppressed by evildoers because they had no one looking out for them. They may also have lacked means to seek legal recourse for wrongs they suffered even though systems existed to provide such protection.
God’s people were commanded to pay special attention to these disadvantaged persons. The community was to ensure not only that they were free from oppression but also that their situation did not leave them without provisions (14:29; 16:11–14; 24:19–21; 26:12, 13). We too have a responsibility to care for those who have been left without means of support (for examples, see “Supporting the Weak” at Gal. 2:10). Our responsibility begins, of course, with caring for our own relatives in distress (1 Tim. 5:8).
More: For an overview of widows in the Bible and God’s concern for them, see “The Widow’s Oil” at 2 Kin. 4:1–7; “A Widow’s Worth” at 2 Kin. 4:2; and “Widows” at 1 Tim. 5:3.
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Some Christians believe that the Bible prohibits charging interest on any loan, citing texts such as Exodus 22:25–27. In applying biblical principles to modern financial transactions, it is crucial to remember that the Old Testament law helped structure a theocracy, a society fully dedicated to God. Societies and economies that operate on secular and pluralistic values have radically different systems.
Even so, God’s people can still pursue the spirit of the Law. God prohibited charging interest on loans to the poor because doing so would cause oppression. The understanding was that the destitute had no choice but to seek a loan in order to survive, having nothing to offer as collateral but the clothes off their backs. Profiting from such a person’s plight would be cruel. It meant making a poor person shiver in the cold for the sake of economic gain.
Lending at no interest requires a loss of value to us as lenders because of inflation, meaning that money’s present value is greater than its future value. Furthermore, the money we loan cannot be used to buy goods or services. Yet God views our loss as an appropriate gift to the poor borrower and He promises to bless us if we live with open hands toward the needy, for He hears their cries (compare Deut. 15:11). God also promises to exact vengeance on those who torment the destitute (Ex. 22:22–24; James 5:1–6). He is their loving Protector, and as His representatives, we should work to emulate His generosity and compassion.
More: In a society dominated by the middle class, it can sometimes be hard to identify the proper recipients of charity and the best ways to help people at different levels of need. See “Who Are the Poor?” at 2 Cor. 9:9, 10.
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It is hard to imagine an entire country halting work for twelve months. Yet that is exactly what God told Israel to do every seventh year. People were to quit working the land and rest from ordinary labor. Bondservants were to be set free (Ex. 21:2, 3; Deut. 15:12–18), and debt payments were to be suspended (15:1–3).
God’s people were to survive during that twelve-month holiday through the Lord’s direct blessing. He promised to make their harvest during the sixth year produce enough for three years, enough to feed the country until the harvest of the eighth year. That gift had one condition: Israel had to faithfully follow sabbatical year regulations (Lev. 25:18–22).
We have no record that they ever did.
The Law’s emphasis on rest challenges our compulsive habits, and our patterns of work and rest reveal how much we trust God’s provision. We can ponder how we would have lived as an Israelite in Old Testament times—whether we would have been able to trust God enough to rest one day each week (Ex. 23:12) and one year out of every seven.
More: The Law established every fiftieth year as a Jubilee year, which, like a sabbatical year, mandated that fields lie fallow. If a sabbatical year and a Jubilee year came back-to-back, workers would enjoy two years off. To find out more about the Jubilee year, see Lev. 25:8–17.
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God knew His creatures so well that His law granted people and animals a day of rest each week. Neither humans nor beasts are capable of working without ceasing. Yet the age we live in has a tendency to regard people as machines rather than living beings who require rest and refreshment. This trend is accelerated by an increasingly widespread belief system that reduces everything to the material and ignores the spiritual side of life.
The Law’s amplification of the fourth Commandment to keep the Sabbath holy (20:8–11) reflects God’s view of both work and humanity. We are not products of technology capable of nonstop activity. We are living souls made in God’s image (Gen. 1:27). Just as He rested from His work, so should we.
More: As creatures made in God’s image, we are God’s coworkers in overseeing creation, a fact with profound implications for day-to-day work. See “People at Work” at Ps. 8:6.
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God’s promise that no Israelite woman would be barren removed what ancient people saw as a curse. Barrenness was such a disgrace that it was considered grounds for divorce. See “Barrenness” at Genesis 18:11, 12.
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A Worship Center in the Wilderness
A sanctuary or place of worship is often referred to as “God’s house,” yet that term can be misleading. God, who is spirit and present everywhere (Ps. 139:7–10; John 4:24), does not need a house to live in. God instructed His people to build a worship center so He could “dwell among them” not because He needed a place to live but because they needed a place to worship. The sanctuary, or tabernacle, was for their benefit more than His, as evidenced by the details of its construction (Ex. 25–31).
The former slaves of Egypt had probably seen magnificent temples in the empire along the Nile. The Israelites may have even helped construct some of them. Yet as refugees in the wilderness, they had no central location for worshiping the God who had delivered them from bondage. They must have been awed to hear the Lord’s plans for an exquisite sanctuary of their own, outfitted with finely crafted fixtures and ornaments.
The tabernacle was a true work of art. Craftsmen and artists led the project, demonstrating that they too were among Israel’s Spirit-filled leaders, along with Moses and God’s appointed priests (31:1–11). Their wisdom, management ability, and technical expertise made it possible for the entire community to join in the work (39:42).
Funding the tabernacle construction was also a community effort. Financed by freewill offerings (25:2–9) in addition to a mandatory tax (30:12–16), the rich and poor alike shared the cost, and therefore the ownership, of the project.
When we participate in financing and building our church facilities, we gain a deeper participation in the worship that happens there. We can know that we have built a sanctuary for God, and He has come to dwell among us.
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The wood of the acacia tree, used to build both the ark and the tabernacle (Ex. 25:10; 36:20), was orange-brown in color, hard grained, and insect repellent. Many species of acacia grow in the desert of the Sinai Peninsula and in southern Canaan and Egypt. The large, thorny tree has rough, gnarled bark and bears long, locust-like pods with seeds inside. It produces round, fragrant clusters of yellow blossoms. A site northeast of the Dead Sea where Israel camped prior to entering Canaan was apparently so thick with acacia trees that it was named Acacia Grove (see “Acacia Grove” at Josh. 2:1).
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The ark, commonly known as the ark of the Testimony or the ark of the covenant, was the most sacred of all the furnishings in the tabernacle. A chest that measured approximately forty-five inches long, twenty-seven inches wide, and twenty-seven inches deep, it held three priceless items: a copy of the stone tablets on which the Ten Commandments were written (Ex. 25:16, 21), a golden pot of manna from the wilderness journey (16:32–34), and Aaron’s rod, which blossomed when God chose the tribe of Levi to be priests among the Israelites (Num. 17:1–11).
More: During the latter years of the period of the judges, the Israelites suffered a major spiritual, political, and military defeat when they foolishly carried the ark into battle, where it was captured by the enemy. See “The Capture and Return of the Ark” at 1 Sam. 5:11.
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The golden lid of the ark of the covenant was called the mercy seat. The term is derived from a Hebrew word meaning “to atone for,” “to cover over,” or “to make propitiation.” Thus it refers both to the object’s purpose as a covering for the ark and as a place of propitiation for sin. For the ancient Israelites, the mercy seat was seen much as Christians today regard the Cross, as a physical symbol of God’s grace and atonement.
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The table in the tabernacle was a stand that held an offering of twelve loaves representing the twelve tribes of Israel. The bread was kept continually before God’s presence, hence the terms showbread and table of showbread. Each Sabbath, fresh bread was placed on the table by the Kohathites, a family of the tribe of Levi given that special responsibility (1 Chr. 9:32).
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The golden lampstand stood in the holy place of the tabernacle, opposite the table of showbread (Ex. 26:35). It held seven lamps, flat bowls of oil each holding a wick with the lit end hanging out. The flames were never to be put out (Lev. 24:2).
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The altar of burnt offering was located in the court of the tabernacle, near the entrance (Ex. 40:6). After animals were ritually slaughtered, their body parts were placed on the altar and burned. The blood of the sacrifice was sprinkled on the four horns at the corners of the altar.
More: When Solomon was crowned king of Israel, one of his adversaries fled to the court of the tabernacle, where he grabbed hold of the horns of the altar and begged for his life. See “The Horns of the Altar” at 1 Kin. 1:50, 51.
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The tabernacle was the portable worship center transported by the Hebrews throughout their wilderness journey. After they entered Canaan, the structure was set up at Shiloh (Josh. 18:1) and later stationed at Nob (1 Sam. 21:1–6) and Gibeon (1 Kin. 3:4).
The term tabernacle generally refers to the entire worship complex. However, sometimes the word is used to designate only the “tent of meeting” (Ex. 39:32, 40; 40:2, 6, 29), which housed the ark of the covenant.
The tabernacle, though impressive, was temporary. After the Israelites gained possession of Canaan and their government stabilized into a monarchy under David and Solomon, the tabernacle was replaced by a permanent temple. At that time, Solomon moved the tabernacle to Jerusalem (1 Kin. 8:4). To see what the temple structure may have looked like, see “Solomon’s Temple” at 2 Chronicles 5:1.
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The priests’ garments represented their function as mediators between God and the people. Over the standard garments worn by all priests, the high priest wore an ephod, a two-piece ornamented apron or vest. He also wore a breastplate of judgment decorated with twelve precious stones engraved with the names of the twelve tribes of Israel (Ex. 28:15–30). In the pocket of the breastplate, directly over the high priest’s heart, were the Urim and Thummim, a means by which God communicated His will to the people (see “Seeking Guidance Through the Urim and Thummim” at Ex. 28:30).
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Seeking Guidance Through the Urim and Thummim
God provided the Urim (meaning “Lights”) and Thummim (meaning “Perfections”) as a means of divine guidance for Israel. They involved gems or stones either attached to or carried inside the breastplate worn by the high priest when he consulted God. For this reason, the breastplate is often called the “breastplate of judgment” (Ex. 28:15, 29, 30).
While we know that this decision-making system existed, no one knows with certainty how it worked. The Urim and Thummim are mentioned only three other times in the Pentateuch (Lev. 8:8; Num. 27:21; Deut. 33:8), once during the early monarchy (1 Sam. 28:6), and twice after the Babylonian exile (Ezra 2:63; Neh. 7:65). There is no specific indication that the people used them to make decisions at other times.
There is wide speculation about how the Urim and Thummim delivered a verdict. Some believe that the gemstones were cast like dice. Others argue that the stones were engraved with symbols that signified yes or no, true or false. The Jewish historian Josephus (c. A.D. 37–100) believed that the Urim and Thummim had to do with the flashing of the precious stones in the breastplate. Other writers, theorizing that the Urim and Thummim were in fact the very same stones set into the breastplate, held that the letters in the names of the twelve tribes of Israel engraved on the stones stood out or flashed in succession to spell out God’s reply. Another theory says that by staring at the glow of the stones, the high priest went into a trance during which God spoke to him.
All of these theories are pure guesswork. However, it is obvious that in the days before much of the Scriptures were written or collected, the people needed some other form of divine guidance. We now have God’s complete written revelation and therefore have no need for devices such as the Urim and Thummim.
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The altar of incense was located inside the tent of meeting in the tabernacle (Ex. 40:26, 27). It was much smaller than the altar of burnt offering inside the main entrance to the courtyard (27:1–8). On this altar priests burned sweet-smelling incense every day.
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As the children of Israel prepared to cross the wilderness, God told Moses to count them all. This first nationwide census of Israel counted everyone twenty years old and above (this likely included only men, who were the heads of their families). The count was followed by a levy of half a shekel of silver on each person numbered. That amount, perhaps about five dollars in the modern market, was small enough that every family could pay it, whether rich or poor.
The collection helped furnish the tabernacle, but it also had an important symbolic value: it was deemed a “ransom … to the Lord” and “atonement money.” It represented the atonement for sin made by Christ, which was also foreshadowed by the “blood of the sin offering of atonement” (Ex. 30:10). The small size of the tax may have been a reminder that God does not desire money but instead desires that His followers experience the important act of giving and the uplifting discovery that when people work together, even small gifts can serve big needs.
More: Censuses played a major role in the life of Israel and biblical history. See “A Second Census” at Num. 26:2.
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It is difficult to say exactly how much the “shekel of the sanctuary,” or temple shekel, was worth. A shekel was a unit of weight, so its worth varied considerably depending on what material was being measured. Some believe that the temple shekel was smaller than an ordinary shekel, weighing about 11.3 grams, a little more than one-third of an ounce. This would represent a small amount of money in any society. For more on units of coinage and money in the Bible, see “A History of Money” at 1 Chronicles 29:8; “Money in the New Testament” at Revelation 16:21; and the table “Weights and Measures” in the back matter.
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The bronze laver stood between the tent of meeting and the altar where burnt sacrifices were offered. It held water that priests used to ritually purify their hands and feet before entering God’s presence.
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God is the Author and Enabler of every human ability. He gives talents to each person on earth to accomplish important work. Here He names two specific men that He made to be craftsmen (Ex. 31:2, 6). He filled people like Bezalel and Aholiab with wisdom, understanding, and knowledge by His Spirit, enabling them to carry out wonderful tasks.
During the construction of the tabernacle, God took a strong interest in the beauty, craftsmanship, materials, artistry, design, function, colors, and other details of the work. Rather than leave the results to chance, He gave Moses instructions about every aspect of the job (35:25–35; 36:1–8; 38:22, 23; 39:3–27).
All of this shows that our personal abilities are special gifts designed by God, not to be taken for granted, viewed with pride, or compared unfavorably to the abilities of others (1 Cor. 4:7; 2 Cor. 10:12). God knows our names and every skill and task He has assigned to us. Every human ability is designed by God and matters to Him—whether playing the flute in a high school band or composing grand orchestral music; laying a straight line of bricks or designing an elaborate garden; cooking, drawing, teaching, encouraging—the list goes on and on (see “You Are Unique” at Ps. 33:15). Our job is to discover our gifts and make the most of them for His glory.
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Names mean: “In the Shadow of God” (Bezalel); “Tent of the Father” (Aholiab).
Family: Bezalel was from the tribe of Judah; son of Uri; descended from Perez. Aholiab was from the tribe of Dan; son of Ahisamach.
Occupation: Master craftsmen; both were skilled in working with metal, jewelry, and wood, as well as weaving and embroidering; they were also able to teach others (Ex. 35:30–35).
Best known for: The artisans skilled by the Spirit of God to design, embellish, and oversee the construction of the tabernacle (31:3; 36:1).
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God said that Bezalel was filled with the Spirit of God to accomplish the work of designing and building the tabernacle. Find out how the Spirit fills and equips us to do excellent work in “The Spirit of God in the Workplace” at Exodus 35:31—36:1. For an overview of the Bible’s teaching on work, see the articles under “Work” in the Themes to Study index.
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People sometimes say they would believe in God if they could just see Him. This common protest implies that God has not revealed Himself plainly enough for people to believe in and follow Him.
One of the prime occasions when God revealed Himself to human beings took place atop Mount Sinai. God’s presence descended on the mountain for days, producing a spectacular display of thunder, lightning, trumpet sounds, and smoke. The overwhelming sight caused people to tremble with fear (Ex. 19:16; 20:18).
Clearly people were convinced that they were standing before God—yet while this may have verified His existence, it did not change the people’s hearts. Even as the Lord’s presence hovered over the mountain, the Israelites fashioned an idol and began worshiping it in riotous abandon (32:1–6). What an incredible rejection of God!
History offers ample evidence of God’s revelation of Himself to humanity. Creation reveals His existence (Ps. 19:1–4; Rom. 1:19, 20), the Bible reveals His will (John 5:46, 47), and Jesus Christ reveals His Person (1:14; 14:7–11). If these and countless other signs are not enough to persuade someone to turn to God in faith and obedience, probably nothing else will—not bolts of lightning, not the thunder of His voice, not even someone rising from the dead (Luke 16:31).
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The success or failure of any venture often comes down to good leadership. Yet at Mount Sinai we find that even the ultimate leader—God Himself—experienced the disappointment of a mission gone awry. Authority is a two-way street. It involves not only the exercise of a superior’s authority but also a subordinate’s willingness to follow. Israel declined to accept God’s leadership not only here but on many other occasions. When we wish that our bosses, pastors, or political leaders were more assertive, we can help by respecting the authority they do exercise. Our following can help inspire their leading.
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Moses is widely considered one of the greatest heroes of the Bible. Yet his life was marked not only by success but also by failures and mistakes. When we struggle with our own personal growth and spiritual development, we can look to the life of Moses for encouragement. He did not start out as a giant of the faith. Nor did he end his career in a blaze of glory. Yet God honored this man’s lifelong quest for godliness. The record of this quest resembles the path we are called to walk as followers of Christ (Eph. 4:15; Col. 1:10; 2 Pet. 3:18).
First Forty Years
• Born to minority parents enslaved to cruel Egyptian masters (Ex. 1:7–14; 2:1, 2; Acts 7:19, 20).
• Raised by his mother, who had become his nurse (Ex. 2:4, 7–9).
• Adopted by Pharaoh’s daughter (2:5, 6; Acts 7:21, 22).
• Given the name Moses (“Drawn Out”; Ex. 2:10); presumably becomes a bicultural member of the Egyptian court.
• Educated in Egyptian culture and language, making him uniquely gifted in words and deeds (Acts 7:22).
First Transition
• Rescues a Hebrew slave by killing an Egyptian (Ex. 2:11, 12; Acts 7:23, 24).
• Fears for his life and flees to the desert (Ex. 2:13–15; Acts 7:25–29).
Second Forty Years
• Arrives in Midian and shows compassion by protecting and helping rural shepherdesses (Ex. 2:15–17).
• Appears to be an Egyptian to the Midianites (2:19).
• Invited to join Jethro’s family; marries Jethro’s daughter Zipporah, who bears him a son named Gershom (2:21, 22) and a son named Eliezer (18:4).
• Rediscovers his Hebrew roots and learns shepherding, a despised vocation among his Egyptian stepfamily (3:1; compare Gen. 46:34).
Second Transition
• Receives a call from God to deliver the Hebrews from slavery (Ex. 3:7–10).
• Resists the assignment, citing a lack of credentials, an inability to communicate well, and other excuses (3:11—4:17).
• Finally obeys and returns to Egypt (4:18–20), almost losing his life on the way (4:24–26).
• Rejoins his older brother Aaron, who becomes his partner in the task of freeing the Hebrews (4:27, 28).
• States his demand for freedom to Pharaoh, ends up making life worse for the Hebrews (5:1–19), and faces severe criticism from the people for their new troubles (5:20–23).
• Challenges the Egyptian power structure and its beneficiaries through a series of heaven-sent plagues (7:14—12:32).
Third Forty Years
• Leads his people out of Egypt after plundering their former masters (Ex. 12:31–51).
• Confronted by complaints from the people about his leadership and their desert trials (15:22—16:36).
• Receives the Law from God and presents it to the people (chs. 20–23).
• Intercedes for the people after they commit idolatry (32:1–35).
• Delegates authority and establishes arbitration procedures (Num. 11:1–35).
• Survives opposition from his sister Miriam and his brother Aaron (12:1–16).
• Makes a major mistake by striking a rock instead of speaking to it as God had instructed (20:11–13).
• Names Joshua as his successor (27:12–23).
• Commits the Law to the priests as its teachers and administrators when the people settle the Promised Land (Deut. 31:9, 26).
• Gives his farewell address to the people (chs. 32–33).
• Views the Land of Promise from a distance (34:1–4).
• Dies and is mourned by the people (34:5–8).
More: The Bible offers many additional examples of people who struggled as they tried to live righteous lives for God. See “Even Spiritual Giants Fall Short” at Gal. 1:11–24.
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Aaron started out as a competent leader. But the incident with the golden calf shows him abdicating his leadership role and allowing the people to corrupt themselves in Moses’ absence. His excuses did not justify the situation or let him escape responsibility. For insight into Aaron as a strong leader who nevertheless displayed tragic weaknesses and fell into sin, see “Falling Short” at Leviticus 10:19.
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The episode of the people bowing before the golden calf brought the Israelites very close to being instantly consumed by the Lord’s wrath. Only Moses’ earnest intervention averted immediate judgment. This scene is one of many in Scripture showing the necessity of bringing our sins before God to seek His mercy and forgiveness. For more examples of people confessing sin for themselves or others, see “Confessions That Bring Healing” at 1 Samuel 15:24.
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Moses spoke to God as his friend. And thanks to Jesus Christ, Christians are also God’s friends: “No longer do I call you servants,” He told His followers, “for a servant does not know what his master is doing; but I have called you friends” (John 15:15, emphasis added). We need never think that we are alone in our problems. God is right here with us. He is the Friend “who sticks closer than a brother” (Prov. 18:24).
More: Moses spoke with God “face-to-face” (Ex. 33:11), yet Scripture says that Christians can have an even closer relationship with God because the Spirit of God lives in our hearts (2 Cor. 3:7–11). God also continues to speak clearly to us through His written Word, the Bible. See “God Speaks” at Num. 1:1.
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The infinite God exceeds our limited ability to know Him, so that no human being knows exactly what God looks like. In fact, we cannot even say that God “looks like” anything. As Spirit, He has no body (John 4:24).
God told Moses that no one can see Him and live (Ex. 33:20). Even if we cannot see Him directly, Scripture records that people have encountered other manifestations of God. Moses was able to see God’s “back” (33:23). Isaiah saw the Lord sitting on His throne (Is. 6:1–8). Ezekiel had a vision in which God appeared as a man clothed in fire standing above a storm cloud that resembled a chariot (Ezek. 1:1–28). We should keep in mind that these human reporters related what they experienced as best they could. But no one can fully describe or explain God. He exceeds human comprehension.
We might feel that our inability to perceive God with our physical eyes limits our ability to know Him. But God has transcended those limits by sending Jesus, who is God in human form (John 1:14; 14:8, 9; Col. 1:15). Through Him, we can believe in a God we cannot see and relate to a God whose infinite nature lies far beyond our knowledge (John 20:29; Eph. 1:15–21; 3:14–19).
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When God showed Himself to Moses, He revealed not only His appearance but also His character. He declared Himself a God of mercy, grace, patience, and goodness who also executes justice, forgiving sin but not allowing wrongdoers to go unpunished. This stands as solid proof that there are not two Gods in Scripture but one (see “What Is God Like?” at Ex. 15:6–13). These two aspects of God’s moral character—the merciful and the just—complement rather than contradict each other. For God to be merciful, He must right the wrongs that people do; that calls for justice. For God to be just, He must allow for the weakness and limitations of His creatures; that demands mercy.
We too must balance mercy and justice in our dealings with others. Our mercy should not give way to indulgence (see “Merciful Kings” at 1 Kin. 20:31), nor should our justice degenerate into vengeance.
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Moses asked God to forgive the people’s sin and “take us as Your inheritance,” perhaps referring to God’s promises to Abraham (Gen. 17:19) and His statements elsewhere naming Israel as His chosen people (Deut. 4:20).
Scripture describes three kinds of inheritance: the earthly inheritance of children receiving the estate of their parents, the Christian’s inheritance “in Christ” (see “What’s In It for Us” at Eph. 1:11), and Christ’s inheritance of the redeemed children of God (see “A Perfect Inheritance” at Eph. 1:18). Moses’ prayer had close connections with this last type of inheritance.
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God told the Israelites that He was driving out the Canaanite nations from the Promised Land, a promise easily misunderstood if not interpreted in light of the covenant that preceded it (Ex. 34:1–10).
The covenant established the Israelites as God’s chosen people, but God’s choice did not imply inherent superiority. As Moses pointed out, Israel was “a stiff-necked people” that needed pardon from iniquity and sin (34:9). Indeed, God chose the Hebrews not because they were special but because of His own love and sovereign will (Deut. 7:7, 8).
God told the Israelites to drive the Canaanites from the Promised Land—sometimes destroying them entirely—because their “chosenness” included responsibility for establishing His reign in the land. Exterminating the Canaanites was not a war of ethnic cleansing but a decisive effort to eliminate their idolatry and pagan practices (see “The Canaanites” at Josh. 3:10 and “The Abominations of the Canaanites” at Lev. 18:24–30). Canaanites who submitted to the God of Israel and surrendered were to be spared (Josh 2:8–13; 6:17).
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We can be sure we are trapped by our jobs when we cannot take a break or if we grow anxious when we think we are not accomplishing something concrete. Work is a gift from God essential to our nature (see “People at Work” at Ps. 8:6). Even so, God never intended for work to define us. He does not measure our worth by our productivity. He loves us for who we are, the way He has made us to be.
By establishing a Sabbath, or a day of rest, God put work into its proper perspective. Taking a break from our routines reminds us that …
• Work has limits and does not totally define who we are (Ex. 20:9, 10; Ps. 127:1, 2).
• God has created all things and gives us the gift of life (Ex. 20:11; Ps. 104).
• God delivers His people from bondage (Deut. 5:15; Heb. 4:1–11).
God meant this regular day of rest for our good. It allows us to restore our mind, body, and spirit after the demands of our labors. It gives us time to celebrate what we have accomplished as we gather with others to worship God. If we ignore the Sabbath principle, we may lose our health, become addicted to our work, and develop an inflated sense of self-importance. Or we can use our days off to benefit ourselves, our families, our work, and our faith!
More: Modern Christians are not the only ones who struggle with observing a Sabbath rest. The people of Jesus’ day abused the Sabbath, and the Lord often had to challenge their misunderstandings. See “Jesus Confronts the Legalists” at Luke 6:1–11 and “Doing Good on the Sabbath” at John 5:1–17.
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The Spirit of God in the Workplace
As the people of Israel labored to build the tabernacle, the Spirit was actively involved with them and their project, imparting all the skills needed to design and construct the tabernacle—metalwork, carpentry, engraving, weaving, jewelry-making, and other talents. Notice the characteristics of these Spirit-driven workers:
• They were women and men (Ex. 35:20–22, 25).
• Their hearts were “willing” or “stirred” (35:5, 21, 22, 26); that is, they were motivated to accomplish their tasks.
• They were skilled or “gifted” by God to do their various assignments (35:10, 25, 34, 35; 36:1, 2).
• They were generous with their skills and possessions in order to get the job done (35:5, 22, 29; 36:3–7); they were hard and loyal workers.
• The finished product showed that they did their work with excellence.
No matter what we do with our days, God cares about our work. He is constantly present with us as we labor, imparting both talent and character, making us fit to demonstrate the fruit of the Holy Spirit (Gal. 5:16–26). The same Spirit that was present with ancient Israelite workers longs to help us carry out our work to the glory of God.
More: “Codes of Conduct for the Christian Worker” at Col. 3:22—4:1 can help you evaluate your character, relationships, skills, and productivity in light of the Holy Spirit’s work in you. The Spirit helps you accomplish your work through the talents and motivations that He has designed you with. See “You Are Unique” at Ps. 33:15.
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Not long after escaping from Egypt, the children of Israel struggled with problems in the desert that threatened the cohesiveness of their community.
• They complained about a lack of good food (Ex. 16:2, 3).
• They quarreled with Moses about water (17:2, 3).
• Their many needs for arbitration brought Moses to the point of exhaustion (18:13–27).
• They fell into idolatry after becoming impatient over Moses’ lengthy stay on Mount Sinai, incurring judgment from God (32:1–35).
When Moses finally started the monumental task of constructing the tabernacle and its furnishings, the project rallied the people around a unifying cause and unleashed a tide of generosity (36:2–7). The whole community came together in encouraging ways. Suddenly the people showed willing hearts (35:21, 26), diligence at work, and openhandedness that exceeded the needs of the project. Their leaders even had to restrain them from bringing more resources!
When our workplaces are consumed with conflict and complaining, we can ask God to show us a project or cause that might draw everyone together and result in generous service toward others.
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The world has never lacked talented people, thanks to God’s distribution of a marvelous diversity of gifts and skills to help us accomplish meaningful work. The experience of Israel in the wilderness testifies to this fact.
God started by elevating Moses as a gifted leader. When it came time to construct the tabernacle, however, Moses lacked the right skills. He was not a builder or an artist. But God had already scattered among the migrants from Egypt skilled workers such as Bezalel and Aholiab (Ex. 36:1) and countless more, including women who wove yarns and fine linen (35:25, 26) and others who gave freely and worked hard (35:10, 21, 29; 36:3–7). All of these people labored according to the abilities the Spirit had given them.
Moses exercised his own skill as a leader when he 1) identified these people as skilled craftsmen, 2) affirmed them in their responsibilities, and 3) freed them to do their jobs under expert supervision. By delegating tasks wisely, Moses followed God’s own example, who boldly entrusted responsibility to the human race at the beginning of creation (Gen. 1:29; 9:2–3; 12:7; 13:15–17).
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Moses assembled a trio to form a leadership team for the complex project of tabernacle construction:
• Ithamar, the youngest son of Aaron and Elisheba (Ex. 6:23). He functioned as a comptroller or accountant, tracking the articles and resources collected for the building (38:21). Later, he supervised two priestly families of Levites (Num. 4:21–33).
• Bezalel, the son of Uri of the tribe of Judah. He was the designer and lead architect, providing designs and giving instructions for craftspeople working with stone, metal, wood, and cloth (Ex. 35:30—36:1; 38:22).
• Aholiab, the son of Ahisamach of the tribe of Dan. He was a skilled artisan who also served as a designer and provided instruction for the decorative elements needed for the project, especially in the art of engraving, design, and embroidery (35:34—36:1; 38:23).
These leaders and their teams did their work “according to all that the LORD had commanded Moses” (39:32, 42). This ultimate stamp of approval shows why Moses was so pleased (39:43). Like this leadership group, we are designed to function in community, where various temperaments, skills, resources, and strengths come together to produce products and services that benefit others.
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The Responsibility of Authority
People in positions of power hold their authority as a trust on behalf of others, a fact symbolized by the stones on Aaron’s breastplate. The gems were a reminder that the priests represented the tribes of Israel. Whatever Aaron and his descendants did, whatever choices they made, the breastplate helped them keep the people in mind. Whenever we are in authority, we should likewise weigh carefully and frequently our responsibility to those who depend on us. We may enjoy the perks of being in power, but our task is to fulfill the obligations and honor the trust that others have given us.
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Good work deserves to be acknowledged. After the tabernacle’s organizers and workforce had completed the project according to the Lord’s exact specifications, Moses blessed them. A blessing is a sign of approval that can be as refreshing to the recipient as fresh rain or dew that renews faded grass (Ps. 133:3). And a thorough performance review or quality check can bring tremendous blessing to an employee who has done a good job. There are people all around us to whom we might offer the revitalizing gift of a blessing.
More: To discover more about blessings in the Bible, see “The Blessing” at Gen. 49:28 and “Blessings and Benedictions” at Num. 6:24–26.
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Moses set an excellent example for all who followed him by doing his job “according to all that the LORD had commanded him.” His persistence and precision set the pace for everyone else and reaped invaluable rewards. For example, the management team in charge of constructing the tabernacle emulated Moses’ example by performing their tasks with “wisdom and understanding, in knowledge and all manner of workmanship,” so that they completed the project “according to all that the LORD had commanded” (Ex. 35:30, 31, 35; 36:1). Likewise, all of the workers under them carried out their tasks “as the LORD had commanded” (39:1, 5, 7, 21, 26, 29, 31, 32, 43).
Excellence in Israel began with Moses. It spread to managers supervising and coordinating the project. Then the workers followed suit. Excellence has a way of catching on. When we model excellence and quality in our lives, others will imitate us.
More: The three managers who led the complicated project of building the tabernacle were handpicked for the assignment not only by Moses but also by God Himself. See “Teamwork” at Ex. 38:21–23 and “Called by Name” at Ex. 31:1–11.
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