Name means: “The Lord Is Salvation”; essentially the same name as Jesus.
Also known as: Hoshea (Num. 13:8, 16).
Home: Timnath Serah, about 17 miles southwest of Shechem, in the mountains of Ephraim (Josh. 19:49, 50).
Family: Son of Nun of the tribe of Ephraim.
Occupation: Military commander.
Best known as: The spy who stood up for God’s promises (Num. 14:6–9) and who later succeeded Moses as chief leader of Israel.
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Three times God reminded Joshua to be strong and courageous. The Hebrew word for strong refers to “sound legs,” while the word for courage refers to “having a secure grasp.” Joshua’s success as a leader depended on standing strong and holding on tight.
Joshua had already proven his ability to stand against opposition. Forty years earlier when the Israelites were poised to enter Canaan, only Joshua and Caleb insisted that the nation move forward under God’s power (Num. 13:1—14:45). As the people again prepared to enter the land, Joshua’s next steps required a secure grasp of God’s plans and values as explained in the Book of the Law (Josh. 1:8). God’s message to Joshua urges us to consider whether we firmly commit ourselves to the right things and hold tight to God’s purposes.
More: Compare Joshua’s approach to leadership with Paul’s statement in Phil. 3:12–14.
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As Joshua prepared to lead his people into Canaan, God told him how to experience success. Some people today point to God’s words to Joshua as support for the claim that the Lord promises material prosperity to believers. But the text includes important qualifications:
• God made a conditional promise specifically to Joshua and Israel. As the Lord commissioned Joshua to conquer the Promised Land, He gave His commander a stipulation and an assurance: if he held unswervingly to the Law, then he would succeed at taking Canaan and settling the land. It was a specific promise for a specific occasion.
• The emphasis was on the blessing that comes from obedience. Some interpret Joshua 1:8 as a general principle that God confers success and prosperity as rewards for obedience. But the emphasis is not on the blessing but on the act of living the Law. Following God’s ways is inherently good for us, with benefits that naturally result from keeping His commands, not as payoff for good behavior.
• The Bible does not promise earthly riches. The Bible’s overall teaching about wealth does not support the idea that God has promised His children success and wealth. Scripture actually discourages us from seeking material prosperity as an end in itself (see “Giving to Get” at 1 Tim. 6:3–6). God may allow us to have health and wealth, but we should not expect them (Eccl. 7:14; see also “Managing Expectations” at 2 Cor. 5:2–5).
Joshua 1:8 defines true success as faithfully following God wherever He guides. Joshua’s responsibility was to lead Israel into the land. God assigns each of us unique tasks. Our greatest joy is to fully carry them out.
More: Scripture has a great deal to say about how God’s people should approach financial matters. See “Christians and Money” at 1 Tim. 6:6–19.
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Survival, Success, and Salvation
Scholars estimate that approximately two million people left Egypt at the start of the Exodus. Of all the grown men who began the journey, only Joshua and Caleb made it to Canaan (Num. 13:30–33; 14:6, 29, 30, 38). Their trust in God after surveying Canaan resulted in their exemption from the sentence passed on their peers: every other Hebrew age twenty and older would wander in the wilderness until death took them.
Even Moses was not to reach Canaan (Deut. 34:1–6). Shortly before his death, he passed military, political, and spiritual leadership to Joshua (31:7, 8), who was “full of the spirit of wisdom” (34:9). In his elevated role, Joshua continued to model the faithfulness he had shown forty years earlier, readily submitting to God’s authority and putting worship before war and conquest (Josh. 5:13–15; 8:30–35; 11:15). As a result, the Lord was with him, and he enjoyed success in carrying out God’s purposes (6:27; 24:31).
It seems appropriate that Joshua’s name was the same as that of Jesus (see Joshua’s profile at Josh. 1:1). Just as Jesus completed the work of salvation, so Joshua completed the work that Moses began by rescuing God’s people from slavery and leading them to the Promised Land. By his name and life, Joshua serves as a reminder of the salvation that comes from the Lord.
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From their camp in Moab, the Israelites prepared to enter “the land which the LORD your God is giving you to possess.” This was the land that God had promised to Abraham’s descendants (Gen. 13:14–17). Its borders were carefully defined by Moses (Num. 34:1–12). Under Joshua, the people were to go in and take possession.
More: Compare this map with the map of the territory over which the Israelites actually took control, located at Judg. 1:27–36.
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• An unknown location northeast of the Dead Sea in the plains of Moab where Israel camped before crossing the river Jordan and entering Canaan.
• Known for its thorny acacia trees (Hebrew: shittim). The acacia was one of few species able to grow in the hot, arid Sinai region. The Israelites used its wood for the ark of the covenant and parts of the tabernacle (Ex. 25:10, 23, 28; 26:15).
• Also called the Abel Acacia Grove (or Abel-Shittim, possibly “Meadow [or Brook] of the Acacias”; Num. 33:49).
• Site where Israelites were seduced into idolatry by Moabite women, incurring God’s wrath (25:1–3; Mic. 6:5; see also “Baal of Peor” at Num. 25:3).
• Site of Moses’ census of the Israelites for military conscription (26:2).
• Place where Moses learned that he would not enter the Promised Land and that Joshua would succeed him (27:12–23).
More: See “The Acacia Tree” at Ex. 25:10 to learn more about this important natural resource for the Israelites.
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Home: Jericho, until it was conquered by the Israelites and she settled with them.
Family: Uncertain, but known to have survived the fall of Jericho and been spared from execution; became the wife of an Israelite, Salmon; mother of Boaz; great-great-grandmother of David; ancestor of Jesus (see “The Women in Jesus’ Genealogy” at Matt. 1:3–6).
Occupation: Prostitute.
Best known for: Exercising faith in the Lord by hiding two Israelite spies (Heb. 11:31), an act that saved her and her family.
More: Rahab may have been a ritual prostitute in Canaanite religious observances. See “Prostitutes in the Ancient World” at Judg. 16:1.
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The location of Rahab’s house on the city wall was not unusual for ancient dwellings. A city wall provided not only a strong defense against invaders but also a solid foundation for home construction. The wall of Jericho was especially well suited for this purpose (see “The Wall of Jericho” at Josh. 6:20). Houses in biblical times varied in kind and size, but four types were common.
Caves
During every period of biblical history, at least some people lived in caves—in the limestone hills of central Israel, for example, and in the Qumran region where the Dead Sea Scrolls were discovered (see “The Dead Sea” at Josh. 15:2). Cave dwellings required little maintenance, and they were cool in summer and warm in winter. Caves were also used as livestock stables. Early Christian tradition held that the Bethlehem stable where Jesus was born was actually a cave.
Tents
People whose livelihood depended on moving livestock from place to place usually lived in portable tents. In the patriarchal era, tents were probably made from animal skins. Later they were sewn from goat hair fabric, which was waterproof and resilient. Some people lived in tents for part of the year and in permanent houses during the rest. Farmers might live in tents close to their fields during the growing season, then move back into the city. Tents were still common in the first century A.D. The early church leaders Priscilla, Aquila, and Paul were tentmakers (Acts 18:2, 3), and Paul’s hometown of Tarsus was famed as a center of the tentmaking trade (see the city’s profile at Acts 11:25).
Mud Houses
The Canaanite city-states were class-oriented societies. A few large houses existed, but most citizens lived in small one-room homes of mud brick built on top of one another. The plaster used to cover the mud bricks gave them a beehive-like appearance.
The Four-Room House
After settling in Canaan, the Israelites developed a common style of house that had four rooms arranged around an open courtyard. Entrance into the home was through a door leading into the courtyard. Sometimes one or both of the long rooms flanking the courtyard were open on the side facing the courtyard, with several stone pillars supporting the roof.
These rectangular-shaped houses averaged nine hundred to a thousand square feet, with about one-fourth of that area given to the courtyard. Many houses had second stories, almost doubling their size.
The roof was usually constructed with logs or beams laid across the top of the walls. Branches and thatch were laid on top of the beams and covered with a layer of clay. The flat roof became a vital part of the house. An outside staircase gave easy access, and a low wall around the edge kept family members safe. In a crowded city, the roof provided open space to dry fruit and grains, wash clothes, and catch a cool evening breeze. Sometimes an extra room on the roof served as a spare bedroom (2 Kin. 4:8–11).
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For several centuries the Canaanites had been the dominant civilization of all the peoples that God promised to drive out of the Promised Land. Sometimes the Bible lists the Canaanites along with related tribes, including the Hittites, Jebusites, Amorites, Hivites, and Girgashites (Gen. 10:15–19). More often, the term Canaanites denotes all the groups inhabiting Canaan at the time of Israel’s conquest.
The Canaanites descended from Canaan, the fourth son of Ham (see Shem, Ham, and Japheth’s profile at Gen. 9:18) and the grandson of Noah (see Noah’s profile at Gen. 6:9). While Ham’s other descendants probably settled Egypt and parts of Africa, Canaan’s family migrated to Phoenicia and Palestine, where they developed a highly advanced culture.
Canaanite society was organized into city-states, each ruled by a king. Some cities were large, important commercial centers such as Hazor, Megiddo, Jericho, Jebus (Jerusalem), and Debir. All were surrounded by walls, and some had extremely effective fortifications (see “The Wall of Jericho” at Josh. 6:20).
With access to the two most important trade routes of the ancient Middle East—the Via Maris and the King’s Highway—as well as the Great (Mediterranean) Sea, the Canaanites developed a thriving trade economy. In fact, the term Canaanite eventually became synonymous with merchant or trader (Job 41:6; Is. 23:11). One of Canaan’s key exports was an extremely costly dye called purple, which was made from the murex shellfish found along the coast.
Canaan’s prosperous economy possibly contributed to a sharply divided two-class society. The lower class were virtually slaves and enjoyed few rights. The upper class was organized by occupational guilds, including: farmers, ranchers, and other food producers and processors; silversmiths, ironsmiths, and other metalworkers; craftspeople such as potters, sculptors, chariot builders, and even houseboat builders; merchants; priests and other religious figures; and military personnel.
This was the culture that God promised to drive out and replace with His people. Scripture provides at least three reasons for this upheaval.
1. The curse of Canaan. The Canaanites lived under a curse that Noah had delivered centuries earlier. Noah declared that Ham’s son Canaan and his descendants would serve the offspring of Noah’s other two sons, Shem and Japheth, because Ham had seen “the nakedness of his father” (Gen. 9:20–27). This curse was fulfilled when Shem’s descendants, the Hebrews, entered the land of Canaan and either destroyed the Canaanites or made them their slaves.
2. The promise to Abraham. God told Abraham that He would give the land of Canaan “to you and your descendants forever” (Gen. 13:15; 17:8; Ex. 6:2–8). This could not happen without dispossessing the Canaanites. However, neither Abraham nor his immediate descendants would inherit the land, because the Lord was not yet ready to judge Canaanite iniquity (Gen. 15:16, where “Amorites” also implies Canaanites).
3. The abominations of the Canaanites. God sent Israel against the Canaanites as judgment of their idolatrous fertility rites and moral degradation (see “The Abominations of the Canaanites” at Lev. 18:24–30). Israel inherited the land because God sovereignly elected to destroy a nation of idolaters and give their land to the people He chose.
More: The Old Testament frequently uses the term Amorites as a synonym for Canaanites in general. Discover more in “A Promise and a Purpose” at Gen. 15:16. Purple was a popular luxury product in the ancient world. See “The Trade in Purple” and Lydia’s profile at Acts 16:14.
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The miracle of the parting of the Jordan River so that the people could enter Canaan on dry land recalled the miracle of the parting of the Red Sea (Ex. 14:21–31). It also helped to confirm Joshua as Moses’ successor. Centuries later, a similar miracle would confirm Elisha as the successor to the prophet Elijah. See “Moses and Elijah” at 1 Kings 19:11.
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Scripture’s use of the terms Amorites and Canaanites often encompasses all the peoples living in Canaan between the Jordan River and the Mediterranean Sea. Both nations descended from Canaan (Gen. 10:15–20), and both faced the Lord’s judgment for their idolatry and immorality.
The Amorites were a nomadic people who lived in the hill country on both sides of the Jordan. The Israelites had already encountered the tribes living to the east. A miscalculation by one of their kings, Sihon, enabled the Hebrews to gain a strategic foothold in the Transjordan (see “Following Edom’s Lead” at Num. 21:21–23).
The Amorites warred not only against Israel but also among themselves. Gibeon, a prominent Amorite city north of Jerusalem (see the city’s profile at Josh. 9:3), made peace with the Israelites, alienating a league of five other Amorite cities. These other kings declared war, drawing Israel into conflict, but God used this incident to defeat the Amorites (Josh. 10:1–30).
The Canaanites lived throughout the coastal plains of Palestine and Phoenicia and excelled at trade. Like the Amorites, their communities were organized into city-states led by regional kings. Israel’s early scouts had reported the Canaanites as fearsome giants (Num. 13:31–33). After Israel’s miraculous crossing of the Jordan, it was the Canaanites whose hearts “melted” in fear (Josh. 5:1).
More: Sometimes the Bible uses the term Canaanites to indicate all the people living in Canaan at the time of Israel’s conquest. It also sometimes uses Amorites to stand for all the Canaanite peoples. Learn more in “A Promise and a Purpose” at Gen. 15:16 and “The Canaanites” at Josh. 3:10. Amorite also became a synonym for evil and idolatry. Read the description of Ahab at 1 Kin. 21:26; of Manasseh at 2 Kin. 21:11; and of Jerusalem at Ezek. 16:45.
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• Site possibly a mile northeast of Jericho where Israel first camped after crossing the Jordan River (Josh. 4:19).
• Name means “Circle” or “Wheel,” appropriate to important events that took place there: the establishment of a monument built with 12 stones from the Jordan, possibly set up in a circle (4:20), and the circumcision of uncircumcised Hebrews who “rolled away the reproach of Egypt” (5:8, 9).
• Place where Israel held its first Passover in Canaan and the manna ceased (5:10–12).
• Israel’s base of military operations during the conquest of Canaan.
• Place where many important events took place: where Joshua allotted territories to the tribes (14:6), Saul was crowned king (1 Sam. 11:14, 15), God rejected Saul (13:4–12; 15:12–35), David was welcomed back as king following Absalom’s revolt (2 Sam. 19:15, 40), and Elijah prepared to be translated to heaven (2 Kin. 2:1, 2).
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As a general who fearlessly engaged battlefield enemies, it was natural for Joshua to challenge a stranger who had drawn his sword. But he discovered that the “Man” outside Jericho had not come to fight. He came to lead. He was the “Commander of the army of the LORD.”
So it is today. God will not settle for serving as a low-ranking soldier in our personal campaigns, whatever they may be. He does not give us His resources so we can pursue our own agendas. He comes as the Lord, the Sovereign One, the supreme Commander. To give Him our allegiance does not mean we give up all control or personal responsibility, but it does demand we deal with Him as He truly is—the Lord God, our Creator, Savior, and Commander.
More: If we do not let Jesus be Lord of all, He cannot be Lord at all. See “Lord of the Sacred and the Secular” at Luke 6:1–5.
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• One of Palestine’s oldest cities, located on the west bank of the Jordan River almost 10 miles north of the Dead Sea.
• Known as the city of palm trees (Deut. 34:3).
• Site of a perennial spring that has drawn settlers since prehistoric times.
• First Canaanite city taken by the Israelites after they crossed the Jordan (Josh. 6:1–21).
• Virtually abandoned until the time of King Ahab, when Hiel the Bethelite rebuilt it at the cost of his two sons, fulfilling Joshua’s curse (6:26; 1 Kin. 16:34).
• Notorious in Jesus’ day for thieves who plundered travelers along the narrow winding mountain road up to Jerusalem (Luke 10:30).
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Joshua and the Israelites besieged Jericho by employing a tactic still useful today—the praise march. The biblical text simply calls it a “march,” but elements of praise permeated the effort.
Joshua’s army marched around the city for seven days. The only sound allowed was the blowing of the priests’ trumpets as they preceded the ark (Josh. 6:9, 10). On the seventh day, when everyone’s pent-up emotions must have been aching for release, Joshua signaled the army to shout and a roar erupted, a sound exceeded only by the crashing walls (6:16, 20).
Joshua was convinced that God would win this battle, for he knew he waged a holy war—a war that God declared, took responsibility for, and resolved (see “Holy War” at Deut. 20:16). Confident that God would fulfill His promise, Joshua marched his troops around Jericho in an act of public praise that peaked with a victory cry: “Shout, for the Lord has given you the city!” (Josh. 6:16).
In our day and age, holy war is no longer an option, at least in the way of the old covenant. Today many believers take action through more peaceful means, such as a worship march.
• Some groups organize marches and demonstrations to support or oppose a particular policy. People march, play instruments, shout, wave banners and signs—there is nothing subtle about this approach. The point is to stand up and be counted as God’s people.
• Other groups take a quieter approach, a prayer walk. Christians agree to pray daily or weekly for a specific area—a block, neighborhood, or city. They might pray while walking the dog or commuting. As they pass through the area, they pray for the homes, businesses, and people they see. Their experience often dramatically increases their insight into a community and compassion for the people who live there.
• Some Christians undertake a marathon of community development. Nehemiah began by praying for Jerusalem in response to distressing news. After arriving at the city, he quietly inspected its walls, devised a plan, recruited personnel, and gathered everything necessary for rebuilding. He overcame opposition and obstacles as he redeveloped the city. By committing to a long-term process, he finished by saying, “This work was done by our God” (Neh. 6:16). The rebuilding was a work of worship.
Methods of ministering are vast and varied. Some use a praise march like Joshua. Others prefer a prayer walk, just as Abraham prayed for Sodom (Gen. 18:23–33). Still others commit themselves to a work of worship, like Nehemiah. God has a strategy that fits our situation no matter what walls we may face. He always has the power to bring them crumbling down.
More: The apostle Paul intentionally proclaimed the gospel in the city. Learn more about his effective approach in “Paul’s Urban Strategy” at Acts 16:4.
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The Bible presents the fall of Jericho’s wall as a miracle. The more we learn about the wall, the more readily we see why it required God’s intervention to breach. Excavations of ancient Jericho show that a double wall ringed the city. The wall was built on top of a massive earth mound more than forty feet tall. At the bottom was a stone wall and at the top was a brick wall. The dirt bank was covered with a slippery plaster that made the wall almost impossible for attackers to scale.
God may have used an earthquake to topple the walls, since the city was located at the north end of the Dead Sea in the Jordan River Valley, situated on a major fault line (see “Israel’s Shaky Ground” at Num. 16:31, 32). The movement of an entire geological formation, not just the city’s walls, would require an even bigger miracle. Either way, God accomplished His purposes.
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Grace Under Pressure
Alvin Cullum York (1887–1964), also known by his nickname Sergeant York, became one of the most decorated soldiers of World War I. But like many military heroes, he also faced a lifetime of personal struggles. As one of eleven children, he grew up in a two-room Tennessee log cabin and went to school for less than a year before dropping out to work the family farm and hunt game so he could help put food on the table. After his father’s death in late 1911, York rejected Christianity and became a violent alcoholic who gambled away his paychecks and was arrested several times for brawling.
Yet even during this time, York regularly at-tended church, where he often led the singing, and on New Year’s Day 1915 he attended a revival meeting that led him to a conversion experience. During a moment York later described as feeling as though lightning had struck his very soul, he accepted Christ as his Savior and immediately renounced his old habits. He refused invitations to go drinking, taught Sunday school, and became a church elder.
York’s stalwart commitment to honor his conscience, along with his coming to faith in a pacifist congregation, left the young man deeply torn when he received a draft notice to fight in World War I. He believed no one had the right to kill a fellow human being, no matter the reason. Nonetheless, when his requests for conscientious objector status were denied, York reported for duty. He argued with a pair of military commanders—also Christian men—turning page after page of Scripture until they came upon Ezekiel 33:6, which York accepted as a biblical basis for just war.
With his battalion under heavy fire in the north of France, York watched in horror as his fellow soldiers died around him. When a burst of fire killed six men in his unit and wounded three others, York was left in charge of the remaining seven. He crawled alone toward the enemy. As a nest of machine guns opened fire upon him, he picked off gunners as quickly as he could. “I was sharpshooting,” York later recalled. “I don’t think I missed a shot. It was no time to miss.… All the time I kept yelling at them to come down. I didn’t want to kill any more than I had to. But it was they or I. And I was giving them the best I had.” Finally, a German officer shouted his offer of surrender. After killing twenty-eight soldiers and silencing thirty-two machine guns, York and his seven men took 132 prisoners. York credited the victory to God: “No other power under heaven could bring a man out of a place like that.… [But w]hen you have God behind you, you can come out on top every time.”
York returned home without fanfare until the Saturday Evening Post recounted his story for its two million readers. York could have become wealthy from telling his story, but he instead formed a foundation to broaden educational opportunities in middle Tennessee. He often disappointed audiences who wanted to hear tales of war; he thought it was more important to talk about the difficulties and needs of mountain boys and girls. During the Great Depression, his efforts encountered financial difficulties. Yet even when he was ousted from his own board, he continued to give money to the cause. His later charitable work resulted in tax battles and limited successes. His ongoing political commentary and an Oscar-nominated film about his life brought him both acclaim and criticism.
As York aged, he suffered from obesity, pneumonia, strokes, and failing eyesight, and he spent his last ten years confined to his bed. At many points his life resembled those of biblical military leaders like Joshua, Saul, or David—powerful warriors, flawed men, always in need of God’s grace.
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• Canaanite city probably located east of Bethel (Gen. 12:8) near Beth Aven (Josh. 7:2) and north of Michmash (Is. 10:28).
• Name means “The Ruin.”
• Near where Abraham pitched his tent before journeying to Egypt (Gen. 12:8).
• Probably a small city at the time of the conquest and no match for Israel (Josh. 7:3). After Achan’s sin brought Israel’s humiliating defeat, 30,000 men tricked Ai’s warriors into an ambush, took the city, burned it to the ground, and hanged its king (8:28, 29).
• Possibly a place later inhabited by the Ephraimites (1 Chr. 7:28, “Ayyah”).
• Taken over after the Babylonian exile by the Benjamites (Neh. 11:31, “Aija”).
• Exact location still disputed.
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Name means: “Troublesome”; Joshua asked him, “Why have you troubled us? The LORD will trouble you this day” (Josh. 7:25); Achan’s burial place was named the Valley of Achor (“Valley of Trouble”; 7:26).
Family: Descendant of Judah; he had several sons and daughters who were also punished.
Best known as: The man who disobeyed God by stealing plunder from Jericho, resulting in Israel’s initial defeat at Ai (6:18; 7:1, 12, 20, 21).
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Achan’s confession was straightforward. Rather than try to hide what he had done, he openly declared not only the fact of his sin but also exactly what he had done wrong. He and his family suffered the required punishment for his transgression (Josh. 7:24, 25), but his confession cleansed the nation. While sin always has consequences, Scripture nevertheless urges us to confess our sins, which often brings profound benefits. See “Confessions That Bring Healing” at 1 Samuel 15:24.
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Whenever we sin, we repeat Adam and Eve’s offense, a fact Achan’s situation makes clear. Not only is similar language used to describe both incidents, but both brought devastating social consequences.
Achan’s Sin | Adam and Eve’s Sin |
Similar biblical language | Similar biblical language |
“When I saw among the spoils a beautiful Babylonian garment, two hundred shekels of silver, and a wedge of gold weighing fifty shekels, I coveted them and took them” (Josh. 7:21, emphasis added). | “So when the woman saw that the tree was good for food, that it was pleasant to the eyes, and a tree desirable to make one wise, she took of its fruit and ate. She also gave to her husband with her, and he ate” (Gen. 3:6, emphasis added). |
Individual sin with social consequences | Individual sin with social consequences |
Achan’s sin destroyed him and his family (Josh. 7:24, 25) and exacted a heavy toll from Israel as a nation (7:11, 12). | Adam’s sin passed from father to son (Cain killed Abel, and so on), thus polluting the whole human race (Gen. 3:14–19; 4:5–8; Rom. 5:12). |
The three verbs used—I saw, I coveted (desired), I took—correspond exactly, showing that Achan acted as Adam and Eve had acted long before. Each coveted what belonged to God, took it, and broke a covenant. In both cases, sin destroyed relationships, not only for those committing the sin but also for generations to come.
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People use diverse means to signal when a significant agreement has been reached—a handshake, a formal gathering of signatures, an exchange of gifts, a ceremony. The Israelites ratified their covenant with God by assembling at Mount Gerizim and Mount Ebal in central Canaan. Half the people stood on one hill and half on the other while Joshua and the Levites reviewed the conditions of the Law. The people voiced their commitment to the terms by shouting, “Amen!” It must have been an unforgettable experience.
More: Learn more about the important events at Mount Gerizim and Mount Ebal at “Signing Off on the Covenant” at Deut. 27:11–13.
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• A major Canaanite city about six miles northwest of Jerusalem.
• Name means “Pertaining to a Hill.”
• In an alliance with three other cities—Chephirah, Beeroth, and Kirjath Jearim—used deception to make lasting peace with the Israelites (Josh. 9:3–27); when they were caught, the deceivers were forced to do menial labor.
• Subsequently defended by Israel against an Amorite attack; a timely hailstorm and a miracle of the sun standing still contributed to victory (10:1–14).
• Location of a gruesome contest with 12 of David’s soldiers and 12 of Saul’s grandsons slaughtering each other with swords, giving the site the name “Field of Sharp Swords.” After the battle, David’s army pursued and defeated Abner’s army (2 Sam. 2:12–17).
• The site at which Solomon asked God for wisdom in a dream (1 Kin. 3:5–9).
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King Sihon of the Amorites had captured Heshbon from the Moabites and made it his capital. Despite his military prowess, he badly erred by refusing to let Israel travel through his land. Find out more about his downfall in “Following Edom’s Lead” at Numbers 21:21–23. For more on Heshbon, see the city’s profile at Numbers 21:26.
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God instructed Israel to destroy the Canaanites, yet by making peace with the Gibeonites Joshua failed in that assignment. Three prime lessons emerge:
1. The decision was based on appearances rather than careful reflection and investigation. The text suggests that Joshua and the elders of Israel reached a hasty decision, failing to check the facts. Had they sought more than circumstantial evidence, they could have avoided being fooled.
2. The decision was made without seeking the Lord’s counsel. This was Israel’s gravest mistake. Joshua usually moved ahead only after worshiping God and seeking His direction (Josh. 5:13–15; 8:30–35; 11:15). Acting apart from the Lord locked him into a bad bargain.
3. The Israelites nevertheless honored their decision (9:18–20). To the nation’s credit, it kept its commitment to spare the Gibeonites.
The Gibeon incident challenges us to examine the basis of our own decision-making and honestly evaluate how well we seek God’s guidance and follow through on our agreements, even when they come at a cost.
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Joshua honored his peace agreement with the Gibeonites even after the Israelites realized they had been deceived (Josh. 9:16–19), an indication of how seriously Joshua and his peers treated their commitments. Years later, King Saul felt free to violate this treaty, with disastrous results. See “A Spiritual Cause to a Natural Event” at 2 Samuel 21:1.
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• A fortified Gibeonite city and a member of the league of four cities that made peace with Israel (Josh. 9:3–21).
• Name means “City of Forests.”
• Exact site unknown, but possibly eight or nine miles northwest of Jerusalem.
• Also called Baalah (15:9), Kirjath Baal (15:60), Kirjath (18:28), and Baale Judah (2 Sam. 6:2). The names suggest that the city was a Canaanite high place (see “The High Places” at Deut. 12:2).
• After surrendering peacefully to the Israelites, was first assigned to the tribe of Judah (Josh. 15:60) and later to Benjamin (18:14, 15, 28); located on the border between the two.
• City where the ark of the covenant was returned when the Philistines no longer wanted it (1 Sam. 7:1, 2); the ark stayed there for 20 years until it was transferred to Jerusalem (2 Sam. 6:2, 3).
• Home of Urijah the prophet, who spoke against the city (Jer. 26:20–24).
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Gaza, Gath, and Ashdod were three of five principal Philistine cities. Samson pulled down the roof of a temple in Gaza, killing a Philistine crowd (Judg. 16:23–30). Gath was the home of Goliath, the giant killed by David (see Goliath’s profile at 1 Sam. 17:4). Ashdod’s strategic location gave it military and commercial significance. For more on these cities, see Gaza’s profile at Judges 16:1, Gath’s profile at 1 Samuel 27:3, and Ashdod’s profile at 1 Samuel 5:1.
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• A royal city of the Canaanites in the mountainous territory allotted to Naphtali (Josh. 19:37), 15 miles north of the Sea of Chinnereth (Galilee).
• Name means “Holy.”
• Made a Levitical city (see “The Levitical Cities” at Josh. 21:1–3) and a city of refuge (see “Cities of Refuge” at Num. 35:11) west of the Jordan River.
• Headquarters for Barak, Israel’s military commander under the judge Deborah, who led 10,000 men into battle against the Canaanite general Sisera (Judg. 4:6–16).
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Moses had promised that Reuben and Gad could settle in the lush, mountainous region of Gilead east of the Jordan River if they helped the other tribes conquer lands to the west (Num. 32:28–30). Having honored their commitment, the two tribes and the half tribe of Manasseh were given Gilead, including its principal city, Heshbon. Learn more about this urban center whose name means “Reckoning” at the city’s profile at Numbers 21:26.
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The memory of Balaam the soothsayer hung heavily over the plains of Moab inherited by Reuben. An intriguing figure, Balaam refused three times to speak curses against Israel for profit, yet his lust for money later led to his downfall. Discover more at “The Unscrupulous Prophet” at Numbers 22:6, 7.
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Just a few miles north of Heshbon, Jazer was a desirable city to call home. It was well-fortified and surrounded by valuable grazing land, making it highly attractive to the Gadites (Num. 32:1–5). See the city’s profile at Numbers 32:1.
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Ramath Mizpah (“High Place of the Watchtower”) is sometimes identified with Ramoth Gilead, a major commercial center on the north-south route connecting Syria to the King’s Highway (see “The King’s Highway” at Num. 20:17). Its importance made it the site of many battles between Israel and Syria, and the city changed hands frequently. For more about Ramoth Gilead, see the city’s profile at 1 Kings 22:29.
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Name means: “Dog.”
Home: Given Hebron in Judah as his inheritance (Josh. 14:6–15).
Family: Son of Jephunneh of the tribe of Judah; also called a Kenizzite; father of Achsah, a daughter he gave in marriage to his nephew Othniel for capturing Kirjath Sepher.
Best known as: One of two spies sent to the Promised Land who advocated conquest rather than retreat (Num. 13:30). For his trust in God he was allowed to survive the wilderness years and enter Canaan (14:6, 29, 30).
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Nearly alone among an unbelieving nation, Caleb displayed unflinching devotion and seasoned courage. When the mass of escaped slaves wanted to return to Egypt, only he and Joshua stood against them, convinced that God would keep His promise to give them the land of Canaan (Num. 13:30; 14:6–9). Though the older Caleb was likely the spokesperson, Joshua later became Moses’ successor.
As a result of his faithfulness, Caleb survived to enter Canaan and helped Moses divide the land (34:16–19). He led his people, Judah, as they took control of their territory. The Lord seemed to prolong Caleb’s life to remind a younger generation that He fulfills His word. When eighty-five-year-old Caleb gazed at Hebron, he cried, “Give me this mountain!” (see the site’s profile at Gen. 23:19). Granted his request, he fearlessly drove out the Anakim living there—a response to the timidity of his peers, who forty years earlier wailed about giants in the land (Num. 13:31–33; Josh. 14:12; 15:13, 14). In the end, Caleb’s persevering faith triumphed over both the size of his enemies and his friends’ fears.
More: Receiving a city as a reward was not uncommon in the ancient world. Jesus told a parable about “good and faithful servants” rewarded with responsibility over five or ten cities. See Luke 19:12–27.
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At various times in Scripture the Dead Sea of southern Palestine was known as the Salt Sea (Gen. 14:3; Josh. 15:2), the Sea of the Arabah (Deut. 3:17), and the eastern sea (Joel 2:20; Zech. 14:8). The Arabic name is Bahr Lut, meaning “Sea of Lot.” Since the second century A.D. this unusual body of water has been most commonly known as the Dead Sea.
Middle Eastern topography is dominated by a geologic fault extending from Syria south through Palestine all the way to Nyasa Lake in east-central Africa. The Dead Sea lies at southern end of the Jordan Valley, the deepest depression of this geologic fault. The surface of the Dead Sea is the lowest point on earth, approximately 1,300 feet below sea level. The lake’s deepest point—another 1,300 feet—is on the northeast corner at the foot of the Moab mountains. The Dead Sea measures about fifty miles long and nine to ten miles wide, but its surface area varies from year to year depending on rainfall and irrigation.
The Lisan (“Tongue”) Peninsula is a large spit of land that once separated the northern and southern basins of the Dead Sea, with a channel flowing in between. During the reign of King Jehoshaphat, a coalition of Moabites and Ammonites used this geographical feature to stage a surprise attack on Judah (2 Chr. 20:1, 2). Some believe that the ruins of Sodom and Gomorrah (see the cities’ profile at Gen. 18:20 and “The Legacy of Sodom and Gomorrah” at Gen. 19:29) lie in the extremely shallow waters south of the Lisan Peninsula.
The Dead Sea is almost entirely surrounded by hills and cliffs. The Jordan River, hillside streams, and seasonal rivers bring millions of gallons of water into the Dead Sea each day, but the water has no natural exits. Extreme heat and sparse rainfall result in an extremely high evaporation rate that keeps the water level from rising. Due to its salinity—the Dead Sea is 8.6 times saltier than the ocean—fish and plants cannot live in its waters.
These harsh conditions are what make the sea “dead.” Yet this body of water still has valuable properties. Tributaries flowing through nitrous soil and sulfur springs arrive with abundant deposits, and over millennia this has created an enormous concentration not only of salt but also potash, bromine, magnesium chloride, and other minerals, making the Dead Sea the richest mineral deposit on earth.
More: On the barren west shore of the Dead Sea lies a rich oasis with semitropical vegetation. See En Gedi’s profile at 1 Sam. 23:29.
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Judah was allotted a number of towns once occupied by the Anakim, the so-called giants of Canaan (see “Giants in the Land” at Num. 13:33 and “The Anakim” at Deut. 9:2), but subsequently inhabited by the Philistines. The most important of these was Gaza. The people of Judah failed to drive out Gaza’s residents and lived to regret it. Gaza and its neighbors were a thorn in Judah’s side for centuries. Learn more about Gaza at the city’s profile at Judges 16:1.
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Judah was given Kirjath Jearim (“City of Forests”) but apparently knew it by the name Kirjath Baal (“City of Baal”). In all likelihood the city was a high place (see “The High Places” at Deut. 12:2), home to a shrine where Baal was worshiped. Find out more in the city’s profile at Joshua 9:17.
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The presence of the tabernacle at Shiloh made it the center of Israel’s religious life in the era after the Israelites entered Canaan. Its accessible location in the territory of Ephraim made it an ideal site for periodic pilgrimages for worship. For more on this important city, see its profile at 1 Samuel 1:3.
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At Joshua’s direction, seven tribes who had not yet received their inheritance sent surveyors to inspect their allotted territories. Joshua used their feedback to help divide Canaan proportionately. To make his final decisions, Joshua elected to cast lots. Scripture does not detail his exact method, but it apparently involved an element of chance.
It may seem odd that Joshua left the outcome of a decision with long-term consequences up to chance. We might assume he would rely on more direct communication from God. But the text explains that Joshua cast the lots “before the Lord in Shiloh,” where the tabernacle was erected. Thus God may have superintended the outcome, as some believe the Urim and Thummim were used (see “Seeking Guidance Through the Urim and Thummim” at Ex. 28:30). Joshua may also have cast lots “before the Lord” to demonstrate that the division of land proceeded according to the Lord’s command and was carried out with integrity.
The text does not explain whether God determined the outcome. But it clearly shows that the results were out of Joshua’s hands. Even if the land was divided purely by chance, no one could blame Joshua for unfair behavior.
Christians might wonder if this scene implies that we should draw straws, flip a coin, or roll the dice to make difficult decisions. While Joshua’s example raises this possibility, however, it also demonstrates several principles worth keeping in mind:
• No decision-making process should attempt to avoid human responsibility. God expects us to make choices and accept consequences. Just as Joshua sent surveyors to evaluate the land, we need to gather information and seek counsel to make informed decisions. And just as the Hebrews agreed to abide by the results of casting lots, we should stick by our vows.
• No approach to decision-making should negate God’s clearly revealed will. The Bible plainly reveals the core facts we need in order to follow God. Our methods and outcomes must never violate Scripture’s express teachings.
• The point of casting lots and similar methods of decision-making is to ensure fairness, integrity, and objectivity. Whatever our method, we must ensure it is indeed fair and free of manipulation. An evenhanded approach will avoid and even end conflicts (Prov. 18:18). Nonetheless, leaving a decision to chance is probably best used for deciding among essentially equal alternatives.
Scripture records several occasions when lots were cast for evil purposes (for example, Esth. 3:7; Matt. 27:35). Yet as Joshua showed, casting lots can bring about good (see also 1 Chr. 24:5; Acts 1:15–26). At times God Himself commanded lots to be cast (Lev. 16:8). The most important thing to remember is that no matter what process of decision-making is adopted, we should seek to fulfill God’s will.
More: Joshua took enormous risks when he accepted responsibility for dividing the Promised Land. Learn more in “A Good Risk” at Josh. 19:49, 50. Gideon used a fleece to help him determine God’s purposes. See “Discovering God’s Will” at Judg. 6:36–40.
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A deep, narrow ravine south of Jebus (later named Jerusalem; see the map at “The Noisy, Dirty, Smelly, Holy City” at Matt 4:5) called the Valley of Hinnom, or the Valley of the Son of Hinnom, marked the boundary between the territories of Benjamin and Judah. This once unremarkable location later became highly significant.
During the divided monarchy, the valley was the site of a pagan altar or high place (see “The High Places” at Deut. 12:2) known as Tophet (“Fireplace”). There parents sacrificed their children to the god Molech. The Bible singles out Ahaz and Manasseh, kings of Judah, as having led this disturbing ritual (2 Chr. 28:3; 33:6). Scripture praises King Josiah for destroying this idolatrous altar during his reforms (2 Kin. 23:10; see also here for an article on the life of Josiah).
Jeremiah, who prophesied during Josiah’s reign, foretold that God would judge Israel for committing the awful abominations of human sacrifice as well as other evils, causing such destruction that the Valley of Hinnom would become a cemetery known as the Valley of Slaughter (Jer. 7:31, 32; 19:1–6; 32:35). This prediction began to be fulfilled when the Babylonians destroyed Jerusalem in 587 B.C.
The Valley of Hinnom later became Jerusalem’s city dump. Residents used the site to burn refuse and the dead bodies of criminals and animals, so fires continually smoldered there. The valley was so noxious that its name became a synonym for hell. The Hebrew phrase ge (“valley of”) hinnom eventually became the Greek Gehenna (translated as “hell” in Matt. 5:22; Mark 9:43, 45, 47). Jewish tradition held that hell’s entrance began at that valley.
More: The fires that smoldered at Gehenna fouled the air of Jerusalem in Jesus’ day, contrary to the city’s image as the Holy City. See “The Noisy, Dirty, Smelly, Holy City” at Matt. 4:5.
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In the New Testament, the city of Ophrah was known as Ephraim, a place where Jesus and His followers retired for refuge and rest. For more about this retreat, see the city’s profile at John 11:54.
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An inheritance can bless a family, but it can also become a terrible curse that drives a rift between its members. When the goal is to divide an estate without dividing the family, much depends on who disburses the assets and how well they do their job.
When Israel divided Canaan, Joshua functioned as the trustee of an estate, ensuring each tribe received the lands to which it was entitled. Undertaking this delicate job with anything less than the highest integrity would leave him open to charges of unfairness or of neglecting commitments made by Moses.
Joshua discharged his responsibility by seeking the welfare of the twelve tribes above his own. He ran the risk of getting the leftover lands of Canaan, but he avoided any question of impropriety.
This policy strongly contrasted with the practices of Canaanite and Amorite kings of the city-states that the Israelites inherited. Pagan kings lorded over their people, seizing the first and the best for themselves. Joshua assumed the posture of a servant-leader, forsaking greed and self-interest to seek his people’s highest good (see “Servant-Leaders” at Matt. 20:25–28).
We can emulate Joshua’s example. As we make decisions that impact others, we can do right by seeking their benefit before our own, trusting the details of our own welfare to God.
More: The Bible addresses not only family inheritance but our inheritance in Christ (see “What’s In It for Us” at Eph. 1:11) and Christ’s inheritance of the redeemed children of God (see “A Perfect Inheritance” at Eph. 1:18).
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The Law established several cities of refuge, neutral zones to which a person accused of manslaughter could flee for protection from avenging relatives until an inquiry could be held. There were three cities of refuge strategically located on each side of the Jordan River—six in all. Find out more at “Cities of Refuge” at Numbers 35:11 and through profiles of each city: Kedesh at Joshua 12:22, Shechem at Genesis 33:18, Kirjath Arba (later called Hebron) at Genesis 23:19, Bezer at Joshua 21:36, Ramoth Gilead at 1 Kings 22:29, and Golan at Joshua 21:27.
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Unlike Israel’s other eleven tribes, Levi was not allotted land in Canaan. God instead designated Himself as the Levites’ portion (see “Sharing the Wealth” at Num. 18:20–24). Because God considered the Levites a gift to His people to facilitate worship and sacrifice (Num. 18:5, 6), He commanded each tribe to set aside a proportionate number of cities for the Levites (35:1–8).
The Levites were probably not the only people who inhabited the forty-eight Levitical cities scattered throughout Israel, but they enjoyed special status alongside the other citizens. For example, Levites were allowed to graze livestock on lands near their cities. Much of their support came from a 10 percent national tax collected every three years (see “A Ten Percent Tax” at Deut. 26:12–15). Mosaic law protected Levites from dispossession (Lev. 25:32–34), and unlike other tribes, they were granted an unlimited right of redemption. Yet because of their dependence on their communities for sustenance and protection, Levites were accountable to local residents.
Levitical cities were often on the borders between tribes rather than at their centers, with the result that Levites were distributed relatively evenly throughout the country. Their cities became mission stations for their God-appointed task of teaching the tribes (Deut. 33:8–10; 2 Chr. 35:3–6). Their cities were not meant to be sites for shrines but bases for equipping every city and tribe to understand and follow the Law. Levitical cities also became centers of justice and political influence, where Levitical teaching shaped not only religious but also civil and political policies, as evidenced by King Jehoshaphat’s reforms. He sent Levites along with governmental officials to teach the Law so that peace would prevail over rebellion (2 Chr. 17:7–10).
Six of the Levitical cities were also designated as cities of refuge (see “Cities of Refuge” at Num. 35:11) where persons accused of manslaughter could flee for protection until city elders investigated and rendered judgment. This put the Levites in a position to influence issues of justice. These influential responsibilities made some Levitical cities major centers for Israel’s cultural and religious life, notably Gibeon, Bethel, and Gilgal.
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• A city in Manasseh’s territory in the Bashan region east of the Jordan River; exact location undetermined.
• Name means “Circuit.”
• Assigned as a Levitical city to the Gershonite Levites (Josh. 21:27) and one of three cities of refuge east of the Jordan River (Deut. 4:43; Josh. 20:8).
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• A fortified city in the wilderness on the Plain of Moab.
• Name means “Fortress.”
• May also have been known as Bozrah (Jer. 48:24), though not the same as the city in Edom (Gen. 36:33; 1 Chr. 1:44).
• Assigned to the territory of Reuben.
• Set aside as a Levitical city (Josh. 21:36) and one of three cities of refuge east of the Jordan River (Deut. 4:43; Josh. 20:8).
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When God told Israel to erect the tabernacle and initiate a system of sacrifices, He clearly commanded that all burnt offerings were to be presented at the door of the tabernacle (Lev. 17:8, 9). The altar set up east of the Jordan River by the tribes of Gad and Reuben and the half tribe of Manasseh therefore appeared to violate a divine directive. The rest of the tribes reacted by preparing for civil war (Josh. 22:10–12).
However, the “great, impressive altar” (22:10) turned out to be nothing more than a monument (22:26, 27). Rather than evidence that the tribes had forsaken the Lord’s commandments, the monument was set up so that the tribes and their children would not abandon God. They even named the monument “Witness” as a sign of their commitment (22:34).
This incident illustrates our need for open communication. The young nation came to the brink of civil war as a result of mere hearsay, but when both sides took the time to listen to the other’s perspective, hostilities dissipated. Sharing a commitment to listening can help us remember to ask questions and elicit peaceful discussion rather than provoke needless conflicts.
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Phinehas was a natural choice to lead the group of rulers sent to investigate the altar in Gilead. Not only was he the nation’s high priest, he had a reputation as someone to take seriously (see his profile at Numbers 25:7).
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Joshua and Paul: Profiles in Leadership
Parallels:
Early indications of leadership potential
Joshua:
• Selected by Moses to lead a battle (Ex. 17:9).
• Became Moses’ personal assistant (24:13).
• Served as one of the 12 spies sent to scout the land of Canaan (Num. 13:2, 8, “Hoshea”).
Paul:
• Studied under the renowned rabbi Gamaliel (Acts 22:3), which prepared him to become a Pharisee (Phil. 3:5).
• Was present at the Jewish Council meeting when Stephen was stoned to death (Acts 7:57—8:1).
• Aggressively tried to stamp out Christianity (8:1–3; 9:1, 2).
Parallels:
Similar call to leadership
Joshua:
• Called to lead the Israelites into the Promised Land (Josh. 1:2).
Paul:
• Called to lead the Gentiles into the promise of eternal life in Christ’s family (Acts 9:15; Gal. 2:7, 8).
Parallels:
Extended preparation for leadership
Joshua:
• Served a long internship under Moses—at least 40 years.
Paul:
• Lived under the care of the disciples at Damascus for some three years (Acts 9:19; Gal. 1:15–18).
• Spent 14 years in study before his first tour of preaching (Gal. 1:18—2:2).
Parallels:
Significant initial conflicts
Joshua:
• Was unable to convince the other spies and the people to trust God and take the Promised Land (Num. 14:6–10).
• Experienced a resounding victory at Jericho (Josh. 6:20, 21) but a crushing defeat at Ai (7:2–5).
Paul:
• Nearly killed at Damascus (Acts 9:23–25).
• Initially rejected by the disciples at Jerusalem (9:26).
• Experienced significant disputes with Barnabas and Peter (15:36–41; Gal. 2:11–14).
Parallels:
Growth through increasing faith and dependence on God
Joshua:
• Recalled how God had led His people (Josh. 22:1—23:16).
• Challenged new leaders to fear the Lord (24:1–28).
Paul:
• Reviewed his life and faith (2 Tim. 3:10, 11).
• Challenged Timothy to faithfully follow the path that God had laid out for him (4:6–8).
Parallels:
Lasting legacy
Joshua:
• “Israel served the LORD all the days of Joshua” (Josh. 24:31).
Paul:
• “To me, to live is Christ, and to die is gain” (Phil. 1:21).
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The Peoples of the Old Testament
Joshua mentioned seven tribes that the Israelites found living in Canaan at the time of the conquest. The table below summarizes these and other groups mentioned in the Old Testament.
Name | Description |
Amalekites (1 Sam. 15:2, 3*) | A nomadic people descended from Esau; conducted frequent raids on the Israelites from their hideouts in the Negev and Sinai regions. |
Ammonites (1 Chr. 19:1–9*) | Descendants of Lot; lived east of the Jordan near the Jabbok River and often joined Moabites and Edomites in attacking Israel. |
Amorites (Gen. 15:16*) | A nomadic, barbarous people living in Canaan at the time of Abraham. |
Anakim (Deut. 9:2*) | Among the earliest inhabitants of Palestine; known for their large stature. |
Arabs | A name rarely used in the Bible but includes many tribes living throughout the Arabian Peninsula, notably the Ishmaelites and Midianites (see below). |
Arkites | Descendants of Canaan; lived in a city in Phoenicia. |
Assyrians (2 Kin. 17:5, 6*) | A nation in Mesopotamia; dominated the Middle East between the ninth and seventh centuries B.C. and carried the northern kingdom of Israel into captivity in 722 B.C. |
Babylonians (2 Chr. 36:6*) | Successors to the Assyrians; dominated the Middle East in the seventh and sixth centuries B.C. and carried the southern kingdom of Judah into captivity in 587 B.C. |
Canaanites (Josh. 3:10*) | The dominant civilization of Canaan between the twenty-first and sixteenth centuries B.C.; expelled by the Israelites. |
Edomites (Gen. 36:9*) | Descendants of Esau; lived between the Dead Sea and the Gulf of Aqaba and constantly feuded with the Israelites. |
Egyptians (Ex. 11:7*) | A great civilization ruled by pharaohs during the early biblical period and under whom the Israelites lived for 430 years in slavery. |
Girgashites | Descendants of Canaan; frequently listed among Canaanite tribes. |
Hittites | Descendants of Heth, son of Canaan; lived in the Judean hills near Hebron (probably not related to the Hittite empire of Syria). |
Hivites | Descendants of Canaan; lived in Lebanon into the time of Solomon, who conscripted them into his labor force (1 Kin. 9:20). |
Horites | Inhabitants of Edom driven out by Esau’s descendants (Deut. 2:12, 22). |
Ishmaelites | Descendants of Abraham by Hagar and thus relatives of the Israelites; believed to be ancestors of the Arabs. |
Jebusites | Descendants of Canaan and inhabitants of Jebus (Jerusalem), which was captured by David (2 Sam. 5:6, 7). |
Kadmonites | An obscure tribe whose land God promised to give to Abraham’s descendants (Gen. 15:19). |
Kenezzites (Kenizzites) | A group of Edomites to whom the family of Caleb was related (Num. 32:12). |
Kenites | A group of Midianites who may have operated metalworks southeast of the Gulf of Aqaba and who lived on friendly terms with the Israelites. |
Midianites (Num. 25:17*) | Five families descended from Abraham through the son of his wife Keturah; lived between the Arabian Desert and the Red Sea; frequently attacked the Israelites. |
Perizzites | An obscure tribe frequently mentioned with the Canaanite tribes; their name may mean “Villagers”; seem to have preferred to live among the hills of Canaan. |
Persians | Successors to the Assyrians and Babylonians; ruled a massive empire stretching from India in the east to Egypt and Macedonia in the west. |
Philistines (Judg. 13:1*) | Israel’s perennial enemies to the southwest along the Mediterranean coast, from whose name the word Palestine is derived. |
Phoenicians (2 Chr. 9:21*) | Israel’s seafaring allies during the days of David and Solomon. |
Rephaim | A group of people spread throughout Canaan at the time of Abraham; like the Anakim, they were said to be giants (Deut. 2:20, 21). |
Syrians | The peoples living north of Canaan; area composed of a number of city-states. |
*See the texts indicated for articles on these groups.
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The Lord told Israel, “I have given you a land” (compare Josh. 1:3, 11, 15). His remark indicates that the land ultimately belonged to God; Israel took possession of Canaan as a gift from His hand, a resource to be treasured and managed wisely.
Scripture includes many affirmations that all of our possessions ultimately come from a good God:
• The earth itself, with all of its resources, is a gift from God (Gen. 1:29–31; 2:15; 9:2, 3; Ps. 8:6–8).
• The ability to work and earn a living flows from God (Deut. 8:18; see also “The Toil of Work” at Gen. 3:17–19 and “People at Work” at Ps. 8:6).
• The capacity to enjoy the basics of life—food, family, work—comes from God (Eccl. 3:13; 5:19).
These gifts do not come without condition. Like everything else in this world, God’s gifts are temporary. Someday we will give an account for how we have used them for His glory (Gen. 9:5; Rom. 14:12; 2 Cor. 5:10). And like Israel in its new land, God invites all of us to a life of thankful dependence on Him and careful stewardship of the resources He has given us.
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The name that Aaron gave to his son Eleazar means “God Has Helped.” The named turned out to be highly appropriate. Eleazar likely came out of Egypt as a boy, stood at Mount Sinai when the Law was given, watched the tragedy unfold at Kadesh Barnea, trudged through the wilderness for forty years while his parents’ generation died off, and watched the Lord deliver Canaan into Israel’s hands. It was an extraordinary set of experiences. Through it all, God stayed faithful to His promises, helping His people at every turn, often despite their grumbling and rebellion. Learn more about this man whose life spanned the Exodus period at his profile at Numbers 3:32.
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