With God’s help, Solomon became the wisest and wealthiest man of his time, unmatched in his accomplishments and accumulation of riches (Eccl. 2:1–9). Nevertheless, Solomon confessed that his life was far from satisfying (2:11, 16). He had achieved power, wealth, and prestige, yet lacked the true treasure of knowing and honoring God. Notice how others recalled his legacy:
• Nehemiah (leader of the returning Babylonian exiles) used Solomon’s marriages to idolatrous wives as an example of disobedience (Neh. 13:26, 27; 1 Kin. 11:1–8), warning that God would discipline the nation just as He had disciplined Solomon if the people followed his example.
• Jesus (who lived nearly a thousand years after Solomon) pointed to Solomon’s splendor to invite His followers to trust, love, and serve God rather than worry about material gain or daily problems (Matt. 6:28–32). Jesus said that the queen of Sheba showed more faith in seeking out Solomon than Jesus’ enemies had shown after beholding His miracles and teaching (12:42).
• Stephen (an early church leader) referred to Solomon as the builder of God’s house, but praised David for finding favor with God (Acts 7:45–48).
• Paul (an early church leader) mentioned several celebrated leaders of Israel including Samuel, the judges, Saul, and David—but omitted Solomon (Acts 13:22).
• The unknown author of Hebrews (probably written prior to A.D. 70) catalogued Israel’s heroes of faith (Heb. 11) but did not include Solomon on this list.
Solomon’s life and legacy demonstrate that remarkable achievements—in academia, business, government, or any other field—matter little compared to being faithful to God. The outcome of his life challenges us to structure our priorities to focus on loving and serving God rather than chasing success as the world defines it.
More: For more on evaluating your spiritual condition, see “New Creatures with New Character” at Gal. 5:22, 23.
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When Solomon asked for wisdom so that he might be a good king, the Lord answered his prayer by making him wiser than any of the sages or rulers of his day (2 Chr. 1:12; 9:22; 1 Kin. 4:29–34). The Lord still offers wisdom to anyone who asks for it (James 1:5). His Insight is practical, instructing us in leading responsible, productive, and prosperous lives. For more on this wisdom and how to obtain it, see “Wisdom” at Proverbs 1:2.
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As the temple project developed, Huram, the master craftsman, worked from temple plans largely developed by David (1 Chr. 28:11–19). He led an array of laborers and artisans in creating an architectural masterpiece.
This scene demonstrates that it is people, not plans, that make things happen. Plans help people initiate, guide, and evaluate their work, but human beings must take action and engage their God-given skills to actually get things done. Designs and job descriptions only succeed if they empower workers, encouraging them to excel at using their unique abilities.
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Solomon’s census of foreigners living in Israel recalls David’s count of the people many years earlier, when the king’s recklessness caused the deaths of seventy thousand innocent Israelites (1 Chr. 21:1–14). God apparently did not oppose Solomon’s census as He had David’s numbering, but Solomon’s actions nevertheless created problems that haunted his successor.
Solomon’s purpose was to conscript a labor force for his endless building projects, beginning with the temple. Foreigners prohibited by the law from owning land did not yield much tax revenue, so forcing them to work substituted as a form of taxation.
In addition to more than one hundred and fifty thousand foreign workers, Solomon conscripted thirty thousand Israelite laborers (1 Kin. 5:13), possibly people who were unable to pay Solomon’s heavy tax levies (12:4). These workers were sent to Lebanon in shifts, but the aliens went to the mountains under heavy supervision. Solomon later conscripted additional foreigners to build his palace complex and storage cities (1 Kin. 9:15, 19). These foreigners descended from peoples Israel had conquered under Joshua (2 Chr. 8:7–9).
Solomon’s system of heavy taxes and forced labor allowed him to lead Israel to its greatest height as an empire. But it also created resentment that erupted when his successor Rehoboam attempted to multiply the burden (10:1–19).
More: Solomon’s census was one of seven mentioned in Scripture. To learn more, see “A Second Census” at Num. 26:2.
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Mount Moriah was the hill just north of the City of David on which Solomon built the temple. The name Moriah appears only once elsewhere in the Bible, connected with “the land of Moriah” where God told Abraham to sacrifice Isaac as a burnt offering (Gen. 22:2). The temple presumably was located at that site.
David purchased the land later used for the temple from Ornan (called Araunah in 1 Sam. 24:15–25) following David’s sin of numbering Israel (1 Chr. 21). Apparently the purchase was one part of a plan fueled by David’s longtime desire to build the temple, which God delayed until Solomon’s reign (17:1–6; 22:1–10).
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The costly materials placed in the temple treasury represented much of the nation’s wealth. Banks as we now know them were nonexistent in the ancient world, so valuables were deposited in temples and palaces, making them prime targets for invading armies (compare 2 Chr. 12:9; 36:18). See “Banking in the Old Testament” at Deuteronomy 15:2.
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The house of the Lord that Solomon built in Jerusalem was located on Mount Moriah, north of the ancient City of David. The temple layout mostly paralleled the tabernacle (see “The Tabernacle” at Ex. 27:9), following specific plans the Lord gave to Solomon’s father David (1 Chr. 28:11–13).
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Our praise may be as formal and elaborate as the temple dedication (2 Chr. 5:2—7:11) or as simple and spontaneous as services of the early church, which often took place in people’s homes (Acts 2:42, 46, 47). What matters is not the setting or structure so much as the object of worship and the worshipers’ hearts (John 4:21–24).
Second Chronicles provides fewer details than a parallel account of the temple dedication in 1 Kings 8—until it comes to the singers and trumpeters. Then we see how the musicians’ harmony in pitch and purpose brought a worship ceremony to its climax. God responded by blessing the ceremony and the temple itself with His glory and presence.
The New Testament never pictures early disciples engaging in the scripted ritual of the temple, yet God responded to Christian worship with similar signs of His presence and power (for example, Acts 4:31). Whether we worship through extravagant ceremonies or simple expressions of heartfelt praise, God invites us to “come before His presence with singing” (Ps. 100:2).
More: The composition performed at the temple dedication may have been Ps. 106. Compare 2 Chr. 5:13 with Ps. 106:1.
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Solomon’s prayer of dedication for the temple gives us the right perspective on places of worship. On one hand, the temple was just a building, a finite construction incapable of housing an infinite Lord. On the other hand, the temple was a special place that God had chosen to bless with His presence (2 Chr. 6:6), making it sacred space (6:20).
Unfortunately, this balanced perspective was often distorted. Some forgot that the building’s holiness came from God, not man, and an inappropriate reverence for worldly things led them to create inappropriate religious restrictions on the temple. Whereas Solomon’s temple was dedicated as a house of prayer for all nations (6:32, 33; compare Is. 56:7), the temple of the New Testament era restricted non-Jews to an outer Court of the Gentiles. Notices in Greek and Latin warned that Gentiles risked death if they trespassed into the inner courts. Still others disrespected the temple’s holiness by using it as a marketplace or valuing its costly components above its sacred purpose. Jesus strongly criticized money changers for turning the site into a “den of thieves” (Mark 11:17) and He rebuked the Pharisees for their lack of reverence for what the temple symbolized (Matt. 23:15–22).
All of this helps us think about the significance and symbolism of church buildings today. No church structure should be treated as anything more or less than a place where God has chosen to bless us with His presence. As such it is good for prayer, worship, teaching, fellowship—every holy purpose we have been called to perform as followers of God’s commands.
More: Far from being off-limits to other peoples, the temple was meant to attract non-Hebrews from around the world so that Israel could be a blessing to the nations and a light pointing to the one true God. See “An International House of Prayer” at 1 Kin. 8:41–43 and “Attracted to Israel’s God” at 2 Chr. 6:32, 33.
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The temple at Jerusalem was meant to be a magnet drawing people from all over the world to worship the Lord. Throughout Scripture we see foreigners attracted to Israel’s God:
Foreigner | What Happened |
The queen of Sheba | Awed by Solomon’s accomplishments, she praised God (2 Chr. 9:8). |
Rulers of neighboring kingdoms | These kings were drawn to hear Solomon’s God-given wisdom (2 Chr. 9:22–24). |
The widow of Zarephath | As a result of welcoming the prophet Elijah, the Phoenician woman and her son were saved from famine and the son was raised back to life (1 Kin. 17:8–24). |
Naaman | The Syrian general was healed of leprosy and believed in God because he listened to the advice of his wife’s Jewish servant and sought out Elisha (2 Kin. 5:1–19). |
Ebed-Melech | The Ethiopian official demonstrated faith in God by intervening to save Jeremiah, a courageous act for which the Lord spared him when Jerusalem fell (Jer. 38:7–13; 39:15–18). |
Nebuchadnezzar | Because of Daniel and the Lord’s discipline, the Babylonian king learned that the God of Israel rules. As a result, he instituted a reign based on truth, justice, and humility (Dan. 4:34–37). |
Darius | After witnessing Daniel’s deliverance from the lions’ den, the Persian ruler concluded that the Lord is the living God (Dan. 6:24–27). |
The wise men | Drawn by a star they saw in the east, the Magi worshiped the newborn Jesus (Matt. 2:1, 2). |
Greeks in Jerusalem | This group asked to meet Jesus, possibly having heard about Him in Galilee (John 12:20–22). |
An Ethiopian eunuch | After journeying to Jerusalem to worship in the temple, this African official was ministered to by Philip and began to follow Jesus (Acts 8:26–40). |
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As spirit, God has no body and is invisible to the human eye (John 4:24, 6:46; Col. 1:15). But He reveals His presence by showing His “glory” (Hebrew: chabod). The glory of the LORD was a term used by Israelites to describe how God showed Himself through visible signs such as thunder, lightning, clouds, or fire (for example, Ex. 3:1–6; 19:16–19; Num. 12:5; 2 Chr. 5:13, 14).
When Christ was transfigured, He revealed God in perfect human form, prompting John to write, “The Word became flesh and dwelt among us, and we beheld His glory, the glory as of the only begotten of the Father” (John 1:14, emphasis added). When the Holy Spirit filled the first Christians in the upper room, He revealed Himself through tongues of fire and other signs (Acts 2:1–4). God also reveals His glory through creation (Ps. 19:1) and through His people (Eph. 1:12; Col. 1:27). As followers of Jesus, we are each a temple of God; His glory dwells in us (1 Cor. 6:19, 20).
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Forgiveness Follows Repentance
God’s grace is free but not cheap. It cost Jesus the agony of death on a cross, and it costs those who receive God’s forgiveness the price of repentance, or turning from sin.
The Lord reminded His people of this relationship between forgiveness and repentance by stating His promise to heal their land as an if-then condition (see the diagram at “National Renewal” at 2 Chr. 7:14). To God, forgiveness follows repentance, and repentance is not merely saying sorry, shedding tears, or looking sad. True repentance means turning from thoughts and acts that displease God and turning toward a godly life.
It is a violation of His nature for God to reward those who make a habit of sin. If we want God’s blessing, we must pursue God’s ways. “Be holy,” He urges us, “for I am holy” (Lev. 11:44; 1 Pet. 1:15, 16).
More: In Robinson Crusoe, Daniel Defoe’s protagonist experiences a profound journey of repentance while stranded on a desert island. To learn more, see here for an article on the life of Daniel Defoe.
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As Christians struggle against moral and spiritual chaos on a national level, the promise that God will heal the land sounds appealing. But it is important to note that when God made this promise, He was speaking specifically to Israel, the people called by His name (compare 2 Chr. 6:5, 6, 33). Israel enjoyed a special covenant relationship with God that no other nation has shared. God’s words in 2 Chronicles 7:12–22 essentially restate this unique national covenant (compare Lev. 26; Deut. 29).
God’s pledge to heal the land was not unconditional. In order for the Lord to fulfill His part of this agreement with the Israelites, there were certain stipulations:
God’s Promise to Heal the Land (2 Chr. 7:13, 14)
When
Circumstances:
• Drought
• Locusts
• Pestilence
If
Conditions:
• Humility
• Prayer and seeking God’s face
• Turning from wickedness
Then
Promise:
• I will hear.
• I will forgive their sin.
• I will heal their land.
Not long after Solomon’s death, this conditional promise entered its first test. When Solomon’s successor Rehoboam turned from God, the Lord allowed the Egyptians to attack Israel. But as Rehoboam and Israel’s leaders humbled themselves and turned back to God, He heard their prayers and partially delivered them from the Egyptians (2 Chr. 12:1–12).
Unlike ancient Israel, Christians have not been called to serve God as a political entity. God’s promise to heal the land, therefore, cannot be claimed for nations today. However, the principle behind the promise still applies to Christian individuals and groups who bear God’s name. When followers of Jesus approach God with humility, prayer, and repentance, God hears them, forgives them, and brings a measure of healing (James 4:7–10).
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• City and surrounding territory on the Orontes River, located on the main north-south highway between Asia Minor and Canaan.
• Name means “Fortification.”
• Originally a Canaanite city.
• Ruled by King Toi in David’s time, who sent gifts to the Israelites to thank them for defeating his enemies from Zobah, a city to the south (2 Sam. 8:9, 10).
• Site of storage cities built by Solomon (2 Chr. 8:4).
• Later controlled by Jeroboam II of the northern kingdom (2 Kin. 14:28).
• Overrun around 721 B.C. by the Assyrians, who resettled some of its population in Samaria (17:24).
• Site of an Egyptian defeat by Nebuchadnezzar after the Battle of Carchemish, which resulted in Babylon controlling the Middle East for the next century.
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• An important commercial center and military outpost at an oasis in the Syrian Desert about 120 miles northeast of Damascus (1 Kin. 9:18).
• Also known by the Greek name Palmyra (“Palm Tree”).
• Located on the Via Maris, the major east-west trade route between Mesopotamia and Egypt.
• Known for mineral springs, fertile soil, gardens, and palm groves.
• Fortified by Solomon to protect trade routes and exercise control over the region.
• Came under Aramean control after Solomon.
• Enjoyed commercial prosperity under the Romans and was the site of numerous building projects by Hadrian (A.D. 117–138).
• Excavated ruins show an outer wall that encircled the entire city along with a colonnade, marketplace, theater, senate building, and large shrine to Bel, the principal Babylonian deity.
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• Twin cities located at the west end of the Ephraimite mountains about 12 miles northeast of Jerusalem, with the upper city at an elevation of 2,000 feet and the lower city at 1,200 feet.
• Named after Horon, Canaanite god of the underworld.
• Border towns between the territories of Benjamin and Ephraim.
• Designated as Levitical cities (Josh. 21:22; see also “The Levitical Cities” at Josh. 21:1–3).
• Controlled the Aijalon Valley passage through the mountains between the coastal plain and the hill country, a popular route for ancient armies (10:6–15; 1 Sam. 13:18).
• Heavily fortified as a defense for Jerusalem.
• Site of Joshua’s victory over the Amorites and the miracle of the sun standing still (Josh. 10:10).
• Lower Beth Horon was rebuilt by Solomon (1 Kin. 9:17).
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The Queen of Sheba and International Trade
The queen of Sheba came to Jerusalem not only because she had heard of Solomon’s fame but also because she had heard of Solomon’s God (see “Searching for God” at 1 Kin. 10:6–9). She may also have negotiated political and economic agreements during her visit.
Sheba was probably located in the mountainous region of southwest Arabia (modern-day Yemen). Its strategic placement on the Gulf of Aden at the southern end of the Red Sea enabled it to control much of the trade from India and east Africa with the Middle East. Caravan routes along the coast connected Sheba with trading centers to the north such as Tyre, Damascus, and Babylon.
Solomon’s growing shipping industry (see Ezion Geber’s profile at 1 Kin. 9:26) and his ties to the Phoenicians may have brought the kingdoms of Sheba and Israel into direct competition for business. A visit to Jerusalem might have been a timely trade maneuver.
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Although Israel bordered the Mediterranean, the Israelites are not known to have been a maritime people or to have built a navy. Solomon may have needed a seafaring associate to engage in international shipping. In Hiram of Tyre, he found an excellent partner.
Hiram ruled a narrow strip of land northwest of Israel on the Mediterranean (modern-day Lebanon and coastal Syria). During the Old Testament period, the region was sometimes called Canaan (Canaanite means “Merchant”; see also “The Canaanites” at Josh. 3:10; compare Matt. 15:22), or more commonly by the name of its chief city, Tyre (2 Chr. 2:3). Only later was it called Phoenicia (Acts 11:19).
No one knows exactly where the Phoenicians came from, but they may have occupied parts of Canaan until driven out by Israel during Joshua’s conquest. Hemmed in by the ocean and the Lebanon mountains, the Phoenicians took to the sea to survive. They soon became distinguished shipbuilders and seafaring merchants (Ezek. 27:8, 9) and founded numerous colonies along the Mediterranean. Under Hiram and probably aided by his alliance with David and Solomon, the nation’s influence and prosperity peaked around 1050 and 850 B.C.
For short voyages the Phoenicians employed a vessel that resembled a galley, with the ship propelled primarily by oarsmen. The stem and stern were carved into the head and tail of a horse. These “sea horses” may have pulled rafts of logs destined for Solomon’s building projects down the coast to Joppa, Jerusalem’s seaport (2 Chr. 2:16).
For longer voyages on the high seas, the Phoenicians probably used substantially larger vessels propelled by sails. These were the merchant ships that Hiram built and manned for Solomon’s fleet out of Ezion Geber (1 Kin. 9:26).
Israel’s association with the Phoenicians proved invaluable for trade but disastrous for the nation’s spiritual life. The Phoenicians inherited their religion from the Canaanites, including practices such as child sacrifice (see “The Abominations of the Canaanites” at Lev. 18:24–30). Their gods were mainly nature deities, with Baal as the primary god. They were introduced into Israel during the reign of Solomon, who worshiped Ashtoreth, the primary goddess of the Sidonians (1 Kin. 11:5). King Ahab of Israel later sealed an alliance with the Phoenicians by marrying Jezebel, the daughter of Ethbaal, Hiram’s successor. Jezebel actively opposed the worship of the one true God and installed hundreds of Baal’s prophets in influential positions (18:19).
Unlike the Israelites, the Phoenicians largely survived invasions by the Babylonians, Assyrians, and Persians. During the Greek and Roman eras, they prospered once again. The Phoenician cities of Tyre and Sidon appear often in the New Testament (see the cities’ profile at Luke 6:17). Jesus healed a demon-possessed girl in the area (Mark 7:24–30), early Christians took the gospel to Phoenicia after leaving Jerusalem (Acts 11:19), and Paul spent time in the area during his travels (15:3; 21:2, 3).
More: Hiram of Tyre was David and Solomon’s most valuable international ally. See his profile at 1 Kin. 5:1. Learn about Lebanon’s world-renowned timber in “The Cedar Trade” at 1 Kin. 7:2.
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The extraordinary wealth that marked Solomon’s reign over Israel was as short-lived as it was plentiful. Within a few years, the Lord allowed these riches to be taken away as a result of the nation’s repeated rebellion against His law. The silver that was said to be “as common in Jerusalem as stones” became tribute and plunder for the kingdom’s enemies (2 Chr. 12:9, 10; 36:18). The cedars that were “as abundant as the sycamores which are in the lowland” (see the map “The Plains of Israel” here) were cut down, never to grow back. See “The Cedar Trade” at 1 Kings 7:2 and “The Ruin of the Land” at Isaiah 10:19.
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1. Solomon ruled from Jerusalem, where thousands of laborers worked on the temple, the palace complex, and other major building projects (1 Kin. 5–7; 2 Chr. 3–4).
2. Solomon built and maintained a shipping fleet on the Red Sea for trade with nations to the south and possibly as far east as India (1 Kin. 9:26–28).
3. Possible extent of the empire’s southern border (1 Kin. 4:21, 24; 2 Chr. 9:26).
4. Hiram of Tyre furnished materials and craftsmen for Solomon’s temple and palace at Jerusalem (1 Kin. 5; 2 Chr. 2).
5. Possible extent of the empire’s northern border (1 Kin. 4:24; 2 Chr. 9:26).
6. Solomon fortified defenses at Tadmor, Hazor, Megiddo, Beth Horon, Gezer, and Baalath (1 Kin. 9:15–19; 2 Chr. 8:4–6), all located on major roads.
More: Solomon’s political, administrative, military, and architectural achievements were impressive, but his God-given wisdom was the chief reason for his fame. See “The Wise King” at 1 Kin. 10:24.
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1. Jerusalem remained the capital of Judah, the southern kingdom.
2. Shechem was initially the capital of Israel, the northern kingdom.
3. Tirzah was the capital of the northern kingdom from the time of Jeroboam I through the early years of Omri.
4. Samaria was built by Omri and became the permanent capital of Israel (see Samaria’s profile at 1 Kin. 16:24).
5. Jeroboam I set up worship centers at Bethel and Dan (1 Kin. 12:29) to keep his subjects from returning to the temple at Jerusalem.
More: For a listing of the kings of Israel, see “The Divided Kingdom: The North” at 1 Kin. 12:19. For the kings of Judah, see “The Divided Kingdom: The South” at 1 Kin. 14:30.
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King Rehoboam continued in the misguided footsteps of his father Solomon and grandfather David by acquiring numerous wives (compare 2 Sam. 3:2–5; 5:13–16; 1 Kin. 11:1–3). Many of these unions probably involved alliances with foreign leaders and governments (see “Political Marriages” at 2 Sam. 3:13, 14), and Rehoboam may have inherited concubines from his father or acquired them through military victories (see “Concubines” at Gen. 30:3–13). The king not only took many wives—a violation of God’s laws for rulers (Deut. 17:14–20; see also “Why Marriage Matters” at 1 Kin. 11:1–3)—but he also sought multiple wives for his sons (2 Chr. 11:23). Rehoboam failed to learn from the errors of his predecessors and destined his successors for trouble before they even came to power.
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Prophet | During the Reign of … |
Shemaiah (2 Chr. 11:2–4; 12:5–7, 15) | Rehoboam (931–913 B.C.) |
Iddo the Seer (2 Chr. 12:15; 13:22) | • Rehoboam (931–913 B.C.) • Abijam (913–911 B.C.) |
Azariah, the son of Oded (2 Chr. 15:1, 8) | Asa (911–870 B.C.) |
Hanani (2 Chr. 16:7–10) | Asa (911–870 B.C.) |
Jehu, the son of Hanani (2 Chr. 19:2, 3) | Jehoshaphat (870–848 B.C.) |
Jahaziel (2 Chr. 20:14–17) | Jehoshaphat (870–848 B.C.) |
Eliezer (2 Chr. 20:37) | Jehoshaphat (870–848 B.C.) |
Obadiah* | Jehoram (Joram; 848–841 B.C.) |
Elijah (2 Chr. 21:12–15) | Jehoram (Joram; 848–841 B.C.) |
Joel* | Joash (Jehoash; 835–796 B.C.) |
Unnamed prophets (2 Chr. 25:7–9, 15, 16) | Amaziah (796–767 B.C.) |
Isaiah* | • Uzziah (767–740 B.C.) • Jotham (740–731 B.C.) • Ahaz (731–715 B.C.) • Hezekiah (715–686 B.C.) |
Zechariah* (2 Chr. 26:5) | Uzziah (767–740 B.C.) |
Micah* | • Jotham (740–731 B.C.) • Ahaz (731–715 B.C.) • Hezekiah (715–686 B.C.) |
Nahum* | Manasseh (686–642 B.C.) |
Unnamed prophets (2 Kin. 21:10; 2 Chr. 33:18) | Manasseh (686–642 B.C.) |
Jeremiah* | • Josiah (640–609 B.C.) • Jehoahaz (609 B.C.) • Jehoiakim (609–598 B.C.) • Jehoiachin (598 B.C.) • Zedekiah (598–587 B.C.) |
Zephaniah* | Josiah (640–609 B.C.) |
Huldah the prophetess (2 Kin. 22:14–20; 2 Chr. 34:22–28) | Josiah (640–609 B.C.) |
Habakkuk* | Jehoiakim (609–598 B.C.) |
Daniel* | • Jehoiakim (609–598 B.C.) • Jehoiachin (598–597 B.C.) • Zedekiah (597–586 B.C.) |
Urijah, the son of Shemaiah (Jer. 26:20) | Jehoiakim (609–598 B.C.) |
Ezekiel* | Zedekiah (597–586 B.C.) |
*Indicates a prophet who wrote Scripture.
More: For a list of prophets who preached to Israel, see “The Prophets of Israel” at 2 Chr. 18:7. See also “The Prophets: A Timeline” at the introduction to Isaiah.
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Prayer Is More Than a Last Resort
Asa knew that prayer is a discipline to be practiced long before disaster strikes. Faced with an army more than three times larger than his own three hundred thousand men, Asa cried for help. He humbly acknowledged that God, not military might, was his defense. The Lord responded by defeating the Ethiopians (2 Chr. 14:12–15), a scene that shows that the key to battles is not the size of an army but of one’s trust in the Lord.
Less than two decades earlier, Solomon’s successor Rehoboam had been defeated by Egyptian and Ethiopian forces. The southern invaders had overrun Judah and captured Jerusalem with far fewer military resources (12:1–12) than the army Asa had crushed.
Asa’s trust in God was not a faith of last resort motivated by fear. He prayed on the battlefield just as he had prayed, worshiped, and honored the Lord for years (14:3–7). His reign had reversed many of the sins initiated by his great-grandfather Solomon.
When the people of God made prayer and obedience their highest goals, God was faithful to take care of them. But when they abandoned the Lord and made anything else their top priority, then God allowed them to fail. The Lord still watches to see whether we respond in faith when circumstances overwhelm us. But He also notes the quality of our faith before tragedy strikes. Either way—in calm or crisis—we need to pray to the Lord in faith (1 John 5:4).
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The Ethiopians who attacked Judah (2 Chr. 12:9, 10) were from an ancient African nation south of Egypt, a region sometimes called Nubia or Cush. This land was famous for its Blue Nile and White Nile (Is. 18:1), papyrus boats (18:2), and precious topaz gems (Job 28:19). The people were known for their smooth, dark skin (Is. 18:2; Jer. 13:23), stately height (Is. 18:2), and ferocity in battle (Jer. 46:9).
The Ethiopians descended from Noah’s son Ham (Gen. 10:6; 1 Chr. 1:8–10), as did the people of Egypt (called Mizraim). These two nations were closely connected throughout their histories, and Scripture often mentions them together (for example, Is. 20:3–5; Ezek. 30:4, 5). Ethiopia was generally controlled by the Egyptians until after David’s reign (about 1000 B.C.), and the Ethiopians were often mercenaries in the armies of Egypt and other nations (2 Sam. 18:21–32; 2 Chr. 12:3).
The Ethiopians attained their greatest strength during the time of Hezekiah (about 700 B.C.), when Egypt suffered internal disunity and political instability. An Ethiopian dynasty ruled Egypt for sixty years during this period, but an invasion by the Assyrian kings Esarhaddon and Ashurbanipal eventually ended its power (Is. 20:2–6). Later, the prophets Ezekiel (Ezek. 30:4–10) and Jeremiah (Jer. 46:9, 10, 13, 14) predicted that Ethiopia and Egypt would be attacked by the king of Babylon, and Isaiah foretold a Persian conquest of the territory (Esth. 1:1; 8:9; Is. 43:3).
In the midst of these turbulent times, however, the Lord promised that a remnant of His people would one day return to the Holy Land from Ethiopia (and other nations; Is. 11:11). In fact, Ethiopians would be among those who came to Jerusalem to worship the true God (Ps. 68:31; Is. 45:14). The New Testament records one fulfillment of this promise in the story of an Ethiopian eunuch who traveled to Jerusalem and, with the help of Philip, learned to follow Jesus (see “The Message Spreads to Africa” at Acts 8:27–39).
More: Moses, who for many years lived in Egypt, married an Ethiopian woman, bringing him into conflict with his brother and sister. See “Family Crisis, Leadership Crisis” at Num. 12:2, 3.
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King Asa and his people renewed their covenant with God through an oath that professed their fresh commitment. This formal declaration was apparently spoken or shouted in unison, punctuated by horn blasts. Asa’s oath was like other creeds and confessions that God’s people have used down through the ages to publicly proclaim beliefs and commitments:
The Ten Commandments (Exodus 20:1–17; Deuteronomy 5:6–21) | Also known as the “The Ten Words,” the Commandments summarize God’s moral code. |
This instructional psalm about God’s faithfulness and the Israelites’ unfaithfulness may have been either a sung or spoken teaching tool. | |
The Songs of Ascent (Psalms 120–134) | These psalms were sung by Israelites on pilgrimages to Jerusalem or ascents of the temple mount. They focused attention on the Lord and His relationships with Israel. |
Paul labeled this summary of Christ’s death, burial, and resurrection as “the gospel” (1 Cor. 15:1), offering these points as the core truths of the good news of salvation. | |
This affirmation of the church lists seven elements comprising the unity of the body, organized around the three Persons of the Trinity. | |
This text was likely an early song or creed that celebrated Christ’s humility and called Christians to follow His example. | |
Paul declared the “mystery of godliness,” a six-point summary of Christian doctrine. The apostle said that this affirmation was “without controversy.” | |
The early church may have used this “faithful saying” in baptizing new Christians. |
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In an unjust society, it is often the righteous who go to jail. Like Hanani the seer, many of the Bible’s leading followers of God spent time behind bars. Their loyalty to God’s calling, biblical convictions, and authentic faith made them vulnerable to persecution through imprisonment or worse. The accompanying table lists some of these convicts with conviction.
Even Christ, who was without sin, became a prisoner and was executed for our sakes. And for all who have undergone suffering, whether deserved or undeserved, Jesus offers forgiveness, reconciliation, and restoration through the Cross (Luke 4:18; Heb. 13:3). In fact, the Bible instructs us to “count it all joy” when we fall into hardship, for the glory that awaits us in heaven far outweighs the sufferings of this world (James 1:2; Rom. 8:18).
Person | Situation |
Joseph (Gen. 39:7–23; 41:1–45) | Imprisoned on false charges after refusing the advances of his boss’s wife; eventually rose to leadership according to God’s plan. |
Samson (Judg. 16:21–31) | Tricked by Delilah into revealing the secret of his strength; arrested and mocked by the Philistines until God enabled him to take revenge. |
Micaiah (1 Kin. 22:1–38) | Jailed for refusing to join other prophets in falsely assuring King Ahab of success in combat. |
Hanani (2 Chr. 16:7–10) | Imprisoned for prophesying against King Asa for relying on the Syrians. |
Jeremiah (Jer. 37–38) | Locked up for desertion after warning King Zedekiah that Judah would not withstand a siege of the Chaldeans; left in a cistern for speaking up a second time; but after warning the king a third time, allowed to stay in the prison court until the nation fell to Babylon. |
John the Baptist (Matt. 14:1–12) | Imprisoned for opposing the marriage of Herod Antipas to Herodias; later executed as a result of scheming by Herodias. |
Peter and John (Acts 4:1–21) | Imprisoned after miraculously healing a man; released with a warning not to teach about Jesus, a ban they immediately ignored. |
Paul and Silas (Acts 16:16–40) | Slandered, beaten, and jailed after delivering a young woman from demons and her handlers; miraculously released and later vindicated on the basis of their Roman citizenship. |
Paul (Acts 21:30—28:31) | Mobbed by antagonistic Jews, rescued by Roman soldiers, tried by regional rulers, and ultimately taken in chains to Rome as a prisoner of the empire. |
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Prophet | During the Reign of … |
Ahijah the Shilonite (1 Kin. 11:29–39; 14:1–18) | Jeroboam I (931–910 B.C.) |
Man of God from Judah (1 Kin. 13:1–32; 2 Kin. 23:15–18) | Jeroboam I (931–910 B.C.) |
Old prophet at Bethel (1 Kin. 13:11–32; 2 Kin. 23:18) | Jeroboam I (931–910 B.C.) |
Iddo the Seer (2 Chr. 9:29) | Jeroboam I (931–910 B.C.) |
Jehu, the son of Hanani (1 Kin. 16:1–7) | Baasha (909–886 B.C.) |
Elijah (1 Kin. 17–21; 2 Kin. 1–2) | • Ahab (874–853 B.C.) • Ahaziah (853–852 B.C.) |
Elisha (1 Kin. 19:19–21; 2 Kin. 2–13) | • Ahab (874–853 B.C.) • Ahaziah (853–852 B.C.) • Joram (852–841 B.C.) • Jehu (841–814 B.C.) • Jehoahaz (814–798 B.C.) • Jehoash (Joash; 798–782 B.C.) |
Micaiah, the son of Imla (1 Kin. 22:8–28; 2 Chr. 18:7–27) | Ahab (874–853 B.C.) |
Unnamed prophets (1 Kin. 18:4, 13; 20:28, 35–43) | Ahab (874–853 B.C.) |
Jonah* | Jeroboam II (782–753 B.C.) |
Amos* | Jeroboam II (782–753 B.C.) |
Hosea* | • Jeroboam II (782–753 B.C.) • Zechariah (753–752 B.C.) • Shallum (752 B.C.) • Menahem (752–742 B.C.) • Pekahiah (742–740 B.C.) • Pekah (740–732 B.C.) • Hoshea (732–722 B.C.) |
Oded the prophet (2 Chr. 28:9–11) | Pekah (740–732 B.C.) |
*Indicates a prophet who wrote Scripture.
More: For a list of prophets who spoke to Judah, see “The Prophets of Judah” at 2 Chr. 12:15. See also “The Prophets: A Timeline” at the introduction to Isaiah.
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Just as political leaders can bolster their countries’ moral standards through the judges they appoint and policies they enforce, King Jehoshaphat sought to reform Judah by appointing judges and other officials and declaring specific policies to guide them.
• Judges were to take the job seriously (2 Chr. 19:6). Jehoshaphat urged his legal officials again and again to pay attention their duties.
• Judges were accountable to God (19:6). The king was responsible for the legal system (see “David’s Cabinet” at 2 Sam. 8:16–18), but judges derived their authority from God. They needed to serve Him with utter respect (2 Chr. 19:7), “faithfully and with a loyal heart” (19:9).
• Judicial character should mirror God’s character (19:7). Just as God was pure in character, so the judges needed to model purity and equity. They should avoid perverting justice by showing partiality or taking bribes.
• The judge’s role was to educate as well as hear cases (19:10). Jehoshaphat expected judges to use disputes as opportunities to teach people the Law and warn them about violating God’s commandments. Their failure at this task would make them accountable for the people’s sins.
• Judges presided over specific areas of the law (19:11). The judiciary was apparently split into religious and civil divisions. Levites and others were appointed as peace officers to assist the judges.
Jehoshaphat’s reforms probably increased his control of the justice system, and they registered an immediate impact. Some nations decided not to go to war against Israel (17:10), and others were defeated through God’s miraculous help (20:22, 23).
Israel had a special relationship with God that governed its political life. But modern nations—or other governing bodies, such as a church’s board of elders or a business’s executive leadership team—could implement most of Jehoshaphat’s principles as a broad outline of the godly basis on which true justice is founded.
More: Jehoshaphat left in place one of the most important aspects of Israel’s system of justice. See “Cities of Refuge” at Num. 35:11.
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Jehoshaphat’s reign was marked by an unusual spirit of worship and repentance. When an alliance of Moabites and Ammonites attacked without warning, for example, the entire nation gathered to fast and pray. Not only did heads of households seek the Lord but they were also joined by their wives and small children (2 Chr. 20:13). Fasting continues to be a worthwhile spiritual discipline. See “The Value of Fasting” at 1 Chronicles 10:12.
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Victory came to Jehoshaphat and his army as they broke into song, praising God and singing their faith in His protection. This pattern of singing to express trust in God was repeated by other Old Testament figures, as shown in “Songs of Praise and Faith” at 2 Samuel 22:2.
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Ahaziah’s mother Athaliah was a woman of ruthless ambition. After Ahaziah’s death, she usurped the throne by killing off as many royal heirs as she could find (2 Chr. 22:10). To learn more about this wicked queen mother, see her profile at 2 Kings 11:1.
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As long as the godly priest Jehoiada was around to guide young Joash, the king ruled well and brought spiritual renewal to the land (2 Chr. 23:16—24:16). But after Jehoiada died, Joash turned to evil, allowing idolatry to creep back into Judah’s culture and even killing the son of his mentor Jehoiada (24:22). Joash eventually suffered a sound military defeat and was murdered by his own servants (24:23–25), a tragic ending to what began as a good reign. Our own maturity often rises or falls based on the presence or absence of a role model. We need spiritual mentors to stay on course.
More: The Bible offers numerous examples and principles for this essential relationship. See “Old Testament Mentors” at 2 Kin. 2:13 and “Kingdom Mentoring” at Acts 9:26–30.
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Demographers today classify roughly one-seventh of the world’s population as Christian, but church leaders point out that many adherents are nominal, followers of Christ in name only, attending church sporadically and showing little or no spiritual commitment.
Amaziah generally followed the Lord, but never wholeheartedly. Because he kept the Law more out of tradition than out of passionate commitment, it is unsurprising that Amaziah took ethical shortcuts. He spared the lives of Israelite children of murderers, for example, in keeping with the Law (25:3, 4). But he killed ten thousand innocent Edomites (2 Chr. 25:11, 12).
Nominal faith is almost as bad as no faith at all—or may even be worse (Rev. 3:15, 16). An upstanding life does not guarantee a relationship with God, and if the main point of life is to know, love, and serve God, then merely following religious tradition is dangerously self-deceiving.
More: Amaziah’s attack on the Edomites appears to have been unprovoked. Longstanding ethnic rivalry between the Israelites and the Edomites may have led to this vicious campaign. See “‘Inconsistent Obedience” at 2 Kin. 14:7–10.
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Amaziah’s defeat of the Edomites led him to challenge King Joash of Israel to determine which kingdom would dominate the region (2 Chr. 25:11, 12, 17, 19). But defeating unsuspecting and poorly defended Edomites was not the same as taking on Israel’s proven armies (25:18, 19). Yet Amaziah insisted (25:20), likely assuming that he would have the advantage by choosing the site of the battle—Beth Shemesh, a Judean stronghold fifteen miles west of Jerusalem. It was a poor choice. Once the city fell, little stood between Joash’s troops and the capital, Jerusalem (25:22, 23). Find out more in Beth Shemesh’s profile at 1 Samuel 6:12.
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Name means: “The Lord Is My Strength.”
Also known as: Azariah (“The Lord Has Helped”).
Not to be confused with: Azariah the high priest, who confronted Uzziah at the end of his reign (2 Chr. 26:16–23).
Home: Jerusalem.
Family: Son of Amaziah and Jecholiah; father of Jotham.
Occupation: Ninth king of Judah (767–740 B.C.); may have ruled with his father during the first part of his reign (25:23; 26:1) and with his son Jotham during the later part (26:21).
Notable achievements: Rebuilding Israel’s port at Elath (Ezion Geber; 26:2; recapturing Israelite cities from the Philistines (2 Chr. 26:6, 7); strengthening Judah’s defenses (26:9–15).
Best known for: Being struck with leprosy as a punishment for offering incense in the temple, a task reserved for priests (26:16–23).
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God gave success to obedient Uzziah, and the king’s victory over the Philistines was a sure sign of blessing. The Israelites never drove the Philistines entirely out of Palestine, but Israelite leaders who followed God dominated these longtime foes. Find out more in “The Philistines” at Judges 13:1 and “The Philistine Threat” at 1 Samuel 28:4, 5.
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Uzziah’s love for the soil is seen in his vineyards at places such as Carmel (“Garden of God” or “Orchard of God”). The city was situated among broad hills and wide valleys eight miles southeast of Hebron. Find out more about the setting of Uzziah’s country estate in Carmel’s profile at 1 Samuel 25:2.
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A young man when he came to the throne, King Uzziah succeeded by honoring God and heeding the prophet Zechariah (2 Chr. 26:1–5). But after a lifetime of military conquests, he made the mistake of performing temple rites reserved only for the priests. Scripture includes many stories of people whose pride and ambition ultimately led to their downfall. Their outcomes should warn us against thinking too much of ourselves (Rom. 12:3; 1 Cor. 10:6, 11–13).
Pharaoh | Egypt’s ruler resisted the Lord’s command to let Israel go, bringing down plagues on his people and eventually destroying himself and his armies. |
Saul | Israel’s first king repeatedly disobeyed God’s commands, leading to his overthrow and death. |
Nabal | This rich rancher failed to help David, an offense that almost got him killed. Nabal’s wife Abigail intervened, but God soon struck Nabal dead. |
Solomon | At the apex of his reign, Solomon allowed his idolatrous wives to turn his heart from God, who vowed to divide his kingdom. |
Haman | This second-in-command to the Persian king took offense at a lesser official and vowed to destroy the Jews. But Esther’s intervention exposed his plot, and Haman was hanged. |
Lucifer | God’s chief angel was cast from heaven and destined to eternal destruction for trying to raise himself above God. |
Nebuchadnezzar | Babylon’s king lived like an animal for years until he humbled himself. |
Belshazzar (Dan. 5) | This king threw a glittery party using holy implements taken from the temple at Jerusalem. God wrote a warning on a wall that Belshazzar’s kingdom would be taken away that night. |
Herod Agrippa I | When this ruler accepted his subjects’ worship of him as though he were a god, the Lord struck him down. |
More: In the New Testament, Paul recommended that believers develop “lowliness of mind.” For more, see “Humility: The Scandalous Virtue” at Phil. 2:3.
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In the midst of the moral and spiritual corruption that dogged Judah in its later years, God still had His faithful people. One of His trustworthy spokespeople was the prophet Micah, who preached during the reigns of Jotham (2 Chr. 27:1), Ahaz (28:1), and Hezekiah (29:1). See Micah’s profile and “The Three Kings of Micah” at Micah 1:1.
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Name means: “He Has Grasped.”
Home: Jerusalem.
Family: Son of Jotham; father of Hezekiah as well as other children he sacrificed in the Valley of Hinnom.
Occupation: King of Judah (731–715 B.C.).
Best known for: Reinstituting pagan practices in Judah, including child sacrifice, idolatry, and witchcraft (2 Chr. 28:2–4). His political compromises resulted in the death of 120,000 of his people and the deportation of 200,000 others to Israel and Syria (28:5–8). He built an altar fashioned after an idolatrous altar at Damascus (2 Kin. 16:10–16).
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The deep, narrow ravine south of Jerusalem called the Valley of the Son of Hinnom was a site where the pagan ritual of child sacrifice had been practiced when Canaanites controlled the region. King Ahaz revived the abhorrent custom, a choice that would bring profound judgment on Judah’s people. For more on this location and its prominent role in Scripture see “The Valley of Hinnom” at Joshua 18:16.
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King Ahaz of Judah not only turned his back on the Lord but actively promoted idolatry, installing high places in “every single city of Judah.” These pagan worship centers were built on elevated ground. Even though the Lord had commanded His people to remove them since the Canaanite era, they had survived—and increased in number under kings such as Ahaz, until Judah was said to have as many gods as cities (Jer. 2:28). See “The High Places” at Deuteronomy 12:2.
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Name means: “The Lord Is My Strength.”
Not to be confused with: A man whose family returned to Judah from Babylon under Ezra (Neh. 10:17).
Home: Jerusalem.
Family: Son of Ahaz and Abijah; father of Manasseh, his successor and probably coruler as early as 697 B.C.
Occupation: King of Judah (715–686 B.C.).
Notable achievements: Enacting religious and political reforms, including eradicating idolatrous practices and worship sites, restoring temple worship, and resuming nationwide Passover observance (2 Chr. 29–31); surviving a siege by King Sennacherib’s Assyrian army (701 B.C.).
Best known for: Foolishly showing Babylonian emissaries his royal treasures (2 Kin. 20:12–19; 2 Chr. 32:31), a proud act that revisited his successors.
More: When faced with a problem, which is more important—to pray and have faith or to work and use one’s intelligence? Hezekiah’s example suggests an answer to that dilemma. See “Work and Prayer” at 2 Chr. 32:6–9.
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The English word obey comes from a Latin word meaning “to hear.” The old adage is literally true: to hear is to obey. Obeying God begins with listening through Scripture, and the best way to become acquainted with the Lord’s interests and values is through regular Bible reading. For help in developing that habit, utilize the Themes to Study index in the back of this Bible. Start by working through a theme of special interest by reading an article or two each day along with their associated Bible passages. Look for specific ways to apply what God points out in His Word.
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Spiritual revival came about during Hezekiah’s reign in Judah because the Lord gave His people “singleness of heart” to obey His commandments. This newfound unity to obey God and honor the covenant contrasted with the disunity that had marked the Israelites since the days of Rehoboam (2 Chr. 10:1–19). Hezekiah invited the northern kingdom’s survivors to rejoin their brothers and sisters in the south (30:6–9), and a few responded to his call (30:10, 11). The nation was able to follow God unreservedly because their king honored the Lord “with all his heart” (31:21; compare Deut. 6:5; Matt. 22:37, 38).
Revival never occurs without unity among God’s followers. If His people are divided by conflicting beliefs, attitudes, or actions, outsiders have difficulty taking the gospel seriously. Jesus prayed that His followers would behave as one so that the world would understand that He was Savior and Lord (John 17:20, 21). If we desire spiritual revival for our world, the place to begin is in examining ourselves. We must be like Hezekiah and His people, committed to the Lord with undivided hearts.
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Name means: “Sin [a pagan moon-god] Has Compensated Me with Brothers.”
Home: Nineveh in Assyria, where he built what he boasted was a palace without rival, and improved the walls and water system.
Family: Son of Sargon II; married a Semitic wife, Naqi’a-Zakutu; father of Esarhaddon, who succeeded Sennacherib after he was assassinated by two other sons.
Occupation: Military governor of Assyria’s northern frontier until he succeeded his father as king of Assyria (705–681 B.C.).
Best known for: His campaign against Judah (701 B.C.) that sacked Lachish and 45 other cities of Judah, taking some 200,000 Judeans captive before besieging Jerusalem; he boasted that he kept King Hezekiah “like a bird trapped in a cage,” but Sennacherib’s records omit his eventual withdrawal of troops (2 Kin. 18:17–36; 2 Chr. 32:9–22; Is. 36:1–21).
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Hezekiah demonstrated uncompromising faith and commitment by destroying the idolatrous shrines built by his father Ahaz (2 Chr. 28:22–25). Ahaz’s false worship probably grew out of his failure to trust God and his allowing himself to become subject to the Assyrians (28:16–21; compare Is. 2:6–9). By contrast, Ahaz’s son Hezekiah renewed the people’s covenant with the Lord (2 Chr. 29:10). Determined to show that God alone is worthy of worship, he personally destroyed the bronze serpent Moses had crafted in the wilderness (Num. 21:4–9), a relic that the people had turned to idolatrous purposes.
Hezekiah’s faith was as practical as it was intense. He protected Jerusalem’s water supply by digging a tunnel to the Gihon Spring (see “Hezekiah’s Waterworks” at 2 Chr. 32:30); when Sennacherib’s troops besieged the city, they were unable to prevail. But Jerusalem’s survival was ensured by more than Hezekiah’s foresight. Surrounded by assault troops who used propaganda to try to sway the people to surrender (32:9–19), Hezekiah trusted God rather than foreign allies (2 Kin. 19:14–19), doing the opposite of his father. The Lord honored Hezekiah’s faith by miraculously driving away the Assyrians (19:35, 36).
The problems we face cannot be addressed solely by work—or by prayer. They require us to exercise both faith and intelligence. Hezekiah’s example strongly suggests that we accomplish the most by serving God with both prayerful devotion and practical skill.
More: Despite his faith and wisdom, Hezekiah is most remembered today for one proud, foolish act. Learn more at Hezekiah’s profile at 2 Chr. 29:1.
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Hezekiah trusted God more than any other king of Judah (2 Kin. 18:5). As he integrated his faith into his royal responsibilities, he …
• Repented for wrongdoing and made restitution, even letting the offended party—the king of Assyria—establish the amount (18:13–16).
• Restored Israel’s worship by repairing the temple and renewing Levites and priests by consecrating them for God’s service (2 Chr. 29:1–36).
• Revived the Passover, inviting survivors from the former northern kingdom to participate (30:1–12).
• Modeled devotion by offering an intercessory prayer and contributing animals for the people to sacrifice (30:13–27).
• Strengthened Jerusalem’s defenses by securing an underground water supply (32:30).
Hezekiah enjoyed extraordinary privilege, authority, and material resources, yet these assets did not draw his heart from God toward evil or selfish ends. His son Manasseh took over the kingdom but did not inherit his godly habits. The Bible says that Manasseh …
• Committed the same evils as the Canaanites (33:1, 2).
• Undid many of the reforms his father enacted (33:3–9).
• Refused to listen when the Lord spoke to him and his people (33:10).
• Repented of his evil way of life only after he was captured by the Assyrians and tortured in Babylon (33:11–13).
One lesson of these contrasting kings is that wealth and power test character. Another is that moral and spiritual character is not automatically inherited. Hezekiah honored God with his life, but his son did not, at least not until he met a crisis.
Each generation must decide for itself whether it will follow the ways of the Lord. Some of Judah’s worst kings were followed by some of the most God-fearing, and vice versa. No matter our background, we always have a choice to turn toward or away from God.
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In an effort to fortify Jerusalem against Sennacherib and the Assyrians, King Hezekiah ordered a tunnel be dug to bring water from the Gihon Spring to inside Jerusalem’s walls. The tunnel was excavated sixty feet underground through solid rock for a distance of almost six hundred yards. Workers started at opposite ends and dug with hand tools until they met in the middle. Hezekiah’s completed tunnel emerged at a spot later known as the Pool of Siloam.
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Name means: “Making Forgetful.”
Not to be confused with: The older son of Joseph (Gen. 41:51) or the Israelite tribe of Manasseh descended from him.
Home: Jerusalem.
Family: Son of Hezekiah and Hephzibah; father of Amon, who succeeded him as king.
Occupation: King of Judah (686–642 B.C.); probably ruled with his father during the first ten years of his reign.
Of special interest: Ruled for 55 years, longer than any other king of Judah.
Best known as: One of Judah’s most evil kings, a notoriety earned by his mixing true faith with idolatry, bringing heathen altars and images into the temple, and sacrificing his sons as burnt offerings to a pagan god (2 Chr. 33:2–9). Tradition holds that he had Isaiah the prophet sawn in two (compare Heb. 11:37).
More: God judged Manasseh for his sin yet heeded his repentant prayer, which led to spiritual reform in Judah that unfortunately had little lasting effect. See “Too Little, Too Late” at 2 Chr. 33:14–17.
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The books of Kings and Chronicles summarize the lives of most kings of Israel and Judah with one phrase: “he did evil in the sight of the LORD.” Scripture usually measures the evil they did against one of several prototypes of wickedness.
Evil Standard: Father
Background: Used to assess a king whose father was famous for doing evil.
Examples: Abijam (1 Kin. 15:3); Jehoram (2 Kin. 3:2)
Evil Standard: Jeroboam the son of Nebat
Background: Led ten tribes to rebel against Rehoboam and establish the northern kingdom; soon did evil by introducing his own system of worship and idolatry (1 Kin. 12, 14).
Examples: Baasha (1 Kin. 15:34); Jehoram (2 Kin. 3:3)
Evil Standard: Ahab
Background: Took the nation’s level of wickedness to new heights (1 Kin. 16:30, 33).
Examples: Ahaziah (2 Kin. 8:27; 2 Chr. 22:3)
Evil Standard: Israel’s kings
Background: Notorious for idolatry; ruled a kingdom that began with rebellion and ended in exile (722 B.C.; 2 Kin. 17:5–23); used to gauge the kings of Judah.
Examples: Jehoram (2 Chr. 21:6); Ahaz (28:2)
Evil Standard: The nations
Background: The Canaanites, Amorites, and other tribes that God promised to drive from the Promised Land (Lev. 18:24–30).
Examples: Manasseh (2 Chr. 33:2)
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King Manasseh left a dark legacy through his obstinate involvement in occult practices such as astrology, child sacrifice, witchcraft, séances, and other means of contacting spirits. Scripture explicitly condemned these rites, yet Manasseh pursued them without shame. See “The Seduction of Spirits” at Deuteronomy 18:9–14.
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It took invasion, capture, humiliation, and a long march to Assyria to bring King Manasseh to his knees. Like countless other sinners, the wayward king broke down before God, crying to Him for help when he had nowhere else to turn. God heard his prayer and delivered him, and Manasseh tried to correct the wrongs he had done, with only partial success (2 Chr. 33:14–17). Discover how we can humble ourselves and admit our sins in “Confessions That Bring Healing” at 1 Samuel 15:24.
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Models for Prayer in the Bible
Prayer can be intimidating and baffling. But there is no right or wrong way to pray. If evil King Manasseh could cry to God and be heard, we can learn to communicate with God, especially when we use Scripture as our model.
Need for Prayer | What to Do |
You feel guilty for sins that damaged your own or someone else’s life. | See David’s prayer after he committed adultery and murder (Ps. 51). |
You feel overwhelmed with responsibilities beyond your skills. | |
You feel frustrated as you read about local, national, and international problems, wondering why God seems unconcerned. | Study the Book of Habakkuk. |
You have a hostile relationship with a family member. | Watch Jacob count on God for safety from his brother Esau (Gen. 32:9–12; ch. 33). |
You feel threatened by a superior. | Listen as David voices his grievances to God while fleeing Saul (Ps. 57, 142). |
You have experienced prejudice against your religious convictions. | Look at the early Christians’ prayer for boldness after their leaders were jailed (Acts 4:13–31). |
You feel powerless to help a suffering child. | Consider the Syro-Phoenician woman’s appeal to Jesus for mercy (Matt. 15:21–28). |
You have not experienced healing for a chronic physical malady. | Read about Paul’s appeals to God to remove his ailment (2 Cor. 12:7–10). |
There is no one method for expressing ourselves to God. The Lord is available to our arguments, pleas, and tears, and He smiles when He hears our joys, praises, and friendly chatter. Open your heart to God, then wait patiently for His response.
More: For more on learning to pray, see “Nehemiah’s Prayer” at Neh. 1:4–11.
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For most of Manasseh’s reign, Judah paid tribute to Assyria as a vassal state, a fact that may have contributed to Manasseh’s fascination with idolatry (2 Chr. 33:2–9), as it had in the era of his grandfather Ahaz. Having resisted repeated warnings from God (33:10), Manasseh was eventually captured and shamed by the Assyrians and deported to Babylon.
When Manasseh recognized his errors and repented, the Lord, true to His promises, delivered him (33:13; Lev. 26:40–45). This dramatic reversal shows how far God will go to retrieve a person from sin. It also shows that no matter how evil or outrageous human sin might be, God gladly forgives when He sees genuine repentance.
Manasseh returned to Jerusalem and immediately began to campaign for spiritual reform (2 Chr. 33:15–17). But it was too little, too late. He had spent his life demolishing his father Hezekiah’s positive accomplishments. Now Manasseh was too old to reclaim that lost ground, and he could do little to reverse the generations of evil that both preceded and followed him. God’s judgment of Judah was coming. It was only a matter of time (2 Kin. 20:16–18).
Manasseh’s life left behind a mixed legacy. He had enough time to repent but not enough to reform. It is never too soon to come back to God and start living according to His commands.
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Name means: “The Lord Heals.”
Not to be confused with: A man said to be the son of Zephaniah and who lived after the Exile in the days of Zechariah (Zech. 6:10).
Home: Jerusalem.
Family: Son of Amon and Jedidah; apparently married to at least two women, Hamutal and Zebudah; father of Jehoahaz, who ruled in 609 B.C., Eliakim (renamed Jehoiakim), who ruled 609–598 B.C., and Mattaniah (renamed Zedekiah), who ruled 598–587 B.C.
Occupation: King of Judah (640–609 B.C.).
Notable achievements: Enacting long-term religious reforms such as repairing the temple, renewing the covenant, and celebrating a nationwide Passover that drew Israelites from the former northern kingdom; rediscovered the Book of the Law (2 Chr. 34–35).
Best known as: A boy king and the last of Judah’s God-fearing rulers before Jerusalem fell to the Babylonians.
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Reform and Restoration
Scripture gives no record of what young Josiah (c. 640–609 B.C.) had on his mind when he became Judah’s nineteenth king at the age of eight. Of his thoughts and feelings we can only speculate. Was he scared? Overjoyed? Confused? We cannot know for sure. But one thing is certain: Josiah faced a monumental moment in history as he made the choice either to lead his nation back to God or to let the Lord’s people wander even further away.
Josiah was born to a line of kings who had fluctuated in their devotion to God. His great-great-grandfather Ahaz (see Ahaz’s profile at 2 Chr. 28:1) had led the nation into pagan practices including idolatry, witchcraft, and child sacrifice (28:2–4). His faithlessness resulted in deportation or death for hundreds of thousands of his subjects (28:5–8). Josiah’s great-grandfather Hezekiah (see Hezekiah’s profile at 2 Chr. 29:1), on the other hand, came on the scene as one of Judah’s leading reformers, reopening the temple that Ahaz had closed and cleansing the land of high places, which were centers of idolatry (see “The High Places” at Deut. 12:2). Josiah’s grandfather Manasseh (see Manasseh’s profile at 2 Chr. 33:1) reversed course; with a name that means “Making Forgetful,” Manasseh led Judah in forgetting, or abandoning, their God. Manasseh became infamous as a thoroughly wicked ruler, although in the end he attempted to correct his past wrongs (33:14–17). The reign of Josiah’s father Amon lasted only two years. He brought back all of the idols Manasseh had worshiped (33:21–25), and it was Amon’s assassination by his own servants that set Josiah on the throne.
Young Josiah may have independently come to the conclusion that he should depart from the evil ways of so many of his royal predecessors. His advisers may have played a significant role in pointing him to God. For whatever reason, at age sixteen Josiah “began to seek the God of his father David” (34:3). At age twenty, he began a systematic program to remove altars to Baal and Asherah and other false gods throughout Jerusalem, Judah, and what was left of Israel after the Assyrian conquest of 722 B.C. Josiah personally oversaw reforms that exceeded even the great Hezekiah’s (34:3–7; 2 Kings 23:1–25).
Josiah was twenty-six when he commanded that the temple at Jerusalem, the center of Judah’s religious life, be repaired. As the decaying building was undergoing reconstruction, the high priest Hilkiah discovered a lost “Book of the Law” (2 Chr. 34:14, 15), possibly the entire first five books of the Bible (known as the Pentateuch or the Torah) or all or part of the Book of Deuteronomy. A scribe read the book to Josiah, who tore his clothing in grief as he listened, horrified that the nation had wandered so far from the ways of the Lord. He wondered if God would ever accept his wicked people back into His fold.
Judah’s sin was the reason why God seemed distant and the nation had suffered disaster. But the king vowed afresh to obey the Lord, and he commanded every citizen to do the same (34:29–33). Their shared repentance postponed Judah’s destruction. Josiah also reinstated the Passover, which had been lost since the era of the judges (35:1–19; 2 Kings 23:21–23), leading the nation once again in proper worship.
Josiah reigned for thirty-one years. In the end he made the mistake of attacking the forces of King Necho of Egypt. His military was easily outmaneuvered, and Josiah died in battle (see “Josiah’s Military Blunder” at 2 Chr. 35:22). But he was widely lamented, and Josiah is still revered as one of Judah’s greatest kings.
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Name means: “Weasel” or “Mole.”
Home: The Second Quarter of Jerusalem, possibly the western portion of the city.
Family: Wife of Shallum, an official of either the royal court or the temple.
Occupation: Prophetess.
Best known for: Being sought by King Josiah’s messengers, who reported the rediscovered Book of the Law; prophesying that Judah and Jerusalem would be judged following Josiah’s death.
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The Power of God’s Word
When a studied English clergyman declared that it would be better to go without God’s laws than to go without those promulgated by the pope, William Tyndale (c. 1494–1536) retorted, “If God spares my life, ere many years, I will cause the boy that driveth the plow to know more of the Scriptures than thou dost!” Tyndale indeed brought the Bible to the common people of the English-speaking world, but he did so at the cost of his life.
In that early-Reformation era, making the Bible available in the vernacular language of ordinary people was seen as a direct threat to Roman Catholic authority and the secular laws that undergirded church edicts. Anyone unschooled in Greek, Hebrew, or Latin had little choice but to accept the interpretations of religious leaders regardless of whether those interpretations were flawed, fueled by self-serving motivations, or even blindly borrowed from other sources if one’s own local clergyman did not himself know the ancient languages of Scripture.
As a priest who had studied at Oxford and Cambridge, could speak seven languages, and was proficient in ancient Hebrew and Greek, Tyndale possessed enormous potential for advancement in the established church. But while reading his mentor Erasmus’s Greek edition of the New Testament, the young cleric came across a doctrine that radically altered the trajectory of his life and filled his heart with one abiding passion—to teach men and women the good news of justification by faith—in their native English tongue.
When his request in 1523 for permission to translate the Bible into English was denied, Tyndale exiled himself to Germany, where the Protestant Reformation had begun to take hold since the mass distribution of Martin Luther’s Ninety-Five Theses in 1518 (see here for an article on the life of Martin Luther). By 1525 Tyndale had completed the first draft of his New Testament, and the next year he managed to get it printed. Copies were smuggled into England, where they were met with a furious reaction from King Henry VIII, Cardinal Wolsey, and Sir Thomas More, among other authorities. According to More, it was “not worthy to be called Christ’s testament, but either Tyndale’s own testament or the testament of his master Antichrist.” Copies of this English New Testament were bought up in order to be publicly burned (ironically, financing Tyndale’s further work). Over the next few years, Tyndale translated major portions of the Old Testament.
Apart from its spiritual impact, Tyndale’s translation played a major role in the transition from Middle English to early modern English. His work inspired not only Shakespeare but every great English translation of the Bible that followed, including the revered 1611 King James Version. When the translators of the King James Version debated over how to render the original languages in English, they concluded eight out of ten times that Tyndale had done it best the first time. It was Tyndale who gave us words such as Jehovah, Passover, and scapegoat. His fresh turn of phrase brought us “let there be light” (Gen. 1:3), “the salt of the earth” (Matt. 5:13), “lead us not into temptation but deliver us from evil” (6:13 KJV), “judge not, that you not be judged” (7:1), and “the spirit is willing … but the flesh is weak” (26:41).
Church leaders feared their own loss of power if the masses could read the Bible, and Tyndale was declared a heretic in 1529. He was betrayed, captured, and imprisoned in 1535. Late the next year he was lashed to a stake and strangled, and his dead body was burned over a pyre of wood laced with gunpowder. His last words were a cry for the spread of the Bible, a cause for which he lived and died: “Lord! Open the King of England’s eyes.”
Like King Josiah of Judah (see here for an article on his life), Tyndale discovered that there is little that is more essential than making God’s Word accessible to the world. Perhaps in answer to his dying prayer, three years after Tyndale’s death, King Henry VIII published the Great Bible, the first English translation authorized for use in public worship.
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Josiah’s attack on Pharaoh Necho’s forces in the Valley of Megiddo is difficult to comprehend. Josiah apparently ignored his knowledge of the terrain and needlessly lost his life (2 Chr. 35:23, 24).
Necho marched north in 609 B.C. to assist the Assyrians, who were desperately trying to fend off the Babylonians at Haran. Necho’s route along the Way of the Sea (see “Travel in the Ancient World” at Acts 13:3, 4) took him through the Megiddo pass to the Valley of Jezreel (see Jezreel’s profile at 2 Kin. 9:37).
Josiah apparently opened battle with Necho’s forces in the valley, a perilous mistake. Josiah should have attacked when the chariots were crowded in the narrow pass. But the broad valley was ideally suited for Egyptian chariots, offering plenty of room to maneuver. The Bible implies that Josiah’s death happened by divine appointment (2 Chr. 34:28; 35:22). His passing marked the beginning of the end of Judah, but the Lord used Josiah’s mistake to accomplish His purposes.
More: By delaying Necho, Josiah’s attack sealed Assyria’s fate. After defeating Josiah, Necho journeyed north and seized Carchemish, but the Babylonians drove him from the city after a fierce battle that established Babylonian supremacy for the next century. See “The Battle of Carchemish” at Jer. 46:2.
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When Nebuchadnezzar’s troops captured Jerusalem, Babylonia was at its strongest, overrunning Judah at its weakest and dragging away its young king in chains. This attack (c. 599–597 B.C.) was one of three major invasions by the Babylonians (see “The Three Campaigns of the Babylonians” at Jer. 52:4–7).
Sargon and Hammurabi
The early empire of Babylonia controlled the land between the Tigris and Euphrates Rivers in southern Mesopotamia. Babylon, its capital city, was reportedly founded by Nimrod, son of Cush and grandson of Ham (see “Nimrod’s Legacy” at Gen. 10:8–12; “The Cities of Nimrod” at Gen. 10:10–12; and Babel’s profile at Gen. 11:9). Some identify Nimrod as King Sargon the Great, who united the region around 2300 B.C. in an empire that stretched from the Mediterranean coast and Asia Minor to Persia.
A king named Hammurabi emerged around 2000 B.C. His most significant achievement was a written system of laws known now as the Code of Hammurabi. About this time, Abraham’s family left Ur, a city in lower Babylon, and moved to Haran, a city in northwestern Mesopotamia (see Ur’s profile at Gen. 11:28 and Haran’s profile at Gen. 11:31). From Haran the patriarch later migrated to Canaan at God’s command (Gen. 12:4, 5).
Babylonia was long and narrow, only forty miles across at its widest point but covering eight thousand square miles. It was bordered on the north by Assyria, on the east by Elam, on the south and west by the Arabian Desert, and on the southeast by the Persian Gulf.
From Assyria to Babylonia
Assyria’s development was closely connected to Babylonia’s history. In about 1270 B.C., the Assyrians overpowered their southern neighbors, and for the next seven hundred years, the Assyrians dominated the ancient world.
But around 626 B.C., the Babylonian leader Nabopolassar finally won his nation’s independence from Assyria. Babylonia again began to become a great empire. The Babylonians finally overthrew their rivals in 612 B.C. by capturing the Assyrian capital of Nineveh (see the city’s profile at Jon. 1:2). This opened the way for Nabopolassar’s son Nebuchadnezzar to make Babylon into the world’s next dominant empire, and its capital city Babylon into one of the world’s leading cities.
Nebuchadnezzar ordered Jerusalem’s destruction in 587 B.C. and carried away Judah’s most prominent citizens. During this period of captivity, the Persians emerged as a world power, and the Babylonian empire passed from the scene.
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Young Jehoiachin ruled for only one hundred days before Nebuchadnezzar replaced him with his uncle Zedekiah. Jehoiachin himself had been appointed as a replacement for his father Jehoiakim, who had rebelled against Nebuchadnezzar’s authority. Even after his removal, Jehoiachin was probably regarded as Judah’s king in exile, while Zedekiah was essentially a governor at Jerusalem. For more on these events, see “A Promise of Permanent Exile” at Jeremiah 22:24–27 and “A Long Layover” at Ezekiel 1:2.
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The Stiff-Necked King of a Stiff-Necked People
Zedekiah was stubborn and rebellious, both against the Lord and Nebuchadnezzar. The last of Judah’s kings before the Exile, he ruled Jerusalem as a vassal of the Babylonians. The nation’s best and brightest had already been deported (2 Kin. 24:14–16), so Zedekiah was left with subjects who had little ability or character. To learn more about Zedekiah and his doomed reign, see his profile at 2 Kings 24:18.
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The Captivities of the Israelites
1. The Assyrians capture the northern kingdom of Israel in three campaigns beginning in 734 B.C. and ending in 701 B.C.
2. Israelites are relocated to regions of the upper Euphrates and Media, and Israel is repopulated with foreigners from Assyria.
3. The Babylonians conquer Assyria with the capture of Nineveh in 612 B.C. and Carchemish in 605 B.C.
4. Nebuchadnezzar of Babylon campaigns against Judah beginning in 605 B.C., finally capturing Jerusalem in 587 B.C. and taking most of its survivors to “the land of Shinar” (Babylonia; Dan. 1:2).
5. Shushan (Susa), one of the cities where the prophet Daniel probably lived and worked, where Esther was named queen by Xerxes (Ahasuerus) and saved the Jews from genocide, and where Nehemiah served Artaxerxes before returning to Jerusalem.
6. Cyrus of Persia conquered Babylon in 539 B.C. and began allowing Jews to return to Palestine.
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For seventy years (c. 606–536 B.C.) the land of Judah lay “desolate,” with agricultural and commercial life halted. The Lord enforced a Sabbath rest on the land while the bulk of Judah’s people lived in exile in Babylon.
The basis for this discipline was the failure of God’s people to honor the law of the Sabbath year, letting the land lie fallow every seventh year (see “The Sabbath Year” at Lev. 25:2–8). Little evidence indicates that they ever followed this practice, and by rejecting this command they acted as if neither they nor the land belonged to God.
The Lord expects us to take His commandments seriously. He used the Babylonians to purge the land of offenders until the deficit of Sabbath years had been restored. When some of the Jews later returned to Jerusalem, they renewed the covenant and made the observation of Sabbath years a serious part of their commitment (Neh. 10:31).
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Name means: “Sun” or “Throne.”
Also known as: Cyrus the Great.
Not to be confused with: Cyrus I, his grandfather; or Cyrus the Younger (died 401 B.C.).
Home: Shushan (Susa), the Persian capital.
Family: Maternal grandson of Astyages, king of the Medes, whom he conquered to found the Persian empire; father of Cambyses II, his successor.
Occupation: King of Persia (559–530 B.C.).
Best known as: The Persian king who allowed the Jews to return to their homeland and rebuild the temple at Jerusalem (2 Chr. 36:23; Ezra 6:3).
More: Cyrus shows that God can use virtually any means to accomplish His intentions. See “Cyrus’s Decree” at Ezra 1:1.
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