Notes

The Bancroft Library reorganized the Panama-Pacific International Exposition Company papers since I began the research for this project. Therefore, my references reflect both organizational systems. Those with a folder name (not number) and carton number are from the old system, while those with a folder number and carton number are from the current system.

Introduction

1. Untitled memo begins “Participants are requested to read,” n.d., folder 20M, Rolph Papers.

2. “People Open the Greatest of Expositions,” San Francisco Chronicle, February 21, 1915.

3. The grounds opened at 7 a.m., with the exhibit palaces opening at 9 a.m., and closed at 11 p.m. Todd, The Story of the Exposition, 3:7.

4. Only one scholarly monograph has been published on the PPIE, and it focuses on the fair from an art history perspective. See Moore, Empire on Display.

5. The foremost proponent of this perspective is Robert Rydell, whose synthesis of Victorian Era fairs is the classic in the field. See his All the World’s a Fair. Other scholars who have followed Rydell’s lead include Mona Domosh and Meg Armstrong. Domosh analyzes “how the discourse of civilization was deployed in the promotion of American cultural empire” at the 1893 Columbian Exposition. See Domosh, “A ‘Civilized’ Commerce,” 181. Meg Armstrong focuses on the meanings of the midway or amusement sections at fairs, arguing that “whereas the ethnological exhibits ‘order’ the chaos of the foreign, the midways exhibit the other in a state prior to the ordering processes of European powers.” See Armstrong, “‘A Jumble of Foreignness,’” 201.

6. Benedict, Anthropology of World’s Fairs, 6.

7. Eleven fairs were held: Chicago (1893), Atlanta (1895), Nashville (1897), Omaha (1898), Buffalo (1901), St. Louis (1904), Portland (1905), Jamestown (1907), Seattle (1909), San Francisco (1915), and San Diego (1915–16). See Rydell, Findling, and Pelle, Fair America, 8–9.

8. For works on other fairs, see Greenhalgh, Ephemeral Vistas. See Rydell, Findling, and Pelle, Fair America, for an excellent short introduction to the historiography of American fairs. See also the bibliographic essay in Rydell and Kroes, Buffalo Bill in Bologna. Other historians have included considerations of such fairs as the 1893 Chicago Columbian Exposition in larger works. William Cronon and Allen Trachtenberg, for instance, have both pointed to Chicago’s White City of 1893 as an expression of the triumph of the city and of the incorporation of late nineteenth-century America: Cronon, Nature’s Metropolis; and Trachtenberg, The Incorporation of America. Scholars of art and architectural history have focused on the sculpture, architecture, and art of the events. See the following collections for examples of such work: Harris et al., Grand Illusions; and Benedict, Anthropology of World’s Fairs. Other works celebrate fairs without scholarly analysis. See Ewald and Clute, San Francisco Invites the World; and McCullough, World’s Fairs Midways.

9. Numerous works have demonstrated that both the production and use of popular culture are sites of struggle. One of the key originators of these ideas is Stuart Hall in his “Notes on Deconstructing ‘The Popular,’” in Samuel, People’s History and Socialist Theory, 239. See also Bederman, Manliness and Civilization; Enstad, Ladies of Labor; Davis, The Circus Age; and Collins and Lutz, Reading “National Geographic.”

10. My understanding of fairs and the various uses to which competing groups put them is informed in part by the works of Hoffenberg, An Empire on Display, 29; Walden, Becoming Modern in Toronto; Gleach, “Pocahontas at the Fair,” 420; Bank, “Telling a Spatial History,” 349–66; Rambon, “Theatres of Contact,” 157–90; Kramer, “Making Concessions,” 77; and Lockyer, “Japan at the Exhibition, 1867–1877,” in Umesao, Lockyer, and Yoshida, Collection and Representations, 17:74.

11. Gilbert, Whose Fair?

12. Alexander Geppert, Fleeting Cities: Imperial Expositions in Fin-de-Siècle Europe (London: Palgrave Macmillan, 2010), 241; and Pieter van Wesemael, Architecture of Instruction and Delight: A Socio-historical Analysis of World Exhibitions as a Didactic Phenomenon, 1798–1851–1970 (Rotterdam: Uitgeverij 010 Publishers, 2001).

13. See Moore, Empire on Display, for an interpretation that foregrounds the masculine aspects of the fair.

14. Berglund, Making San Francisco American, 216.

15. Todd, Story of the Exposition, 1:35–37.

16. “World’s Fair for This City,” San Francisco Chronicle, November 25, 1906.

17. Davies, Saving San Francisco, 2.

18. Davies, Saving San Francisco, 2.

19. Todd, Story of the Exposition, 1:41.

20. “Programme of Festival Decided,” San Francisco Chronicle, October 1, 1909.

21. “Programme of Festival Decided”; and “Portola Colors Seen on Streets,” San Francisco Chronicle, October 6, 1909.

22. “Red Men Will Hold a Pow-Wow and Dance,” San Francisco Chronicle, October 3, 1909; and “Sorosis Club Gives Portola Programme,” San Francisco Chronicle, October 5, 1909.

23. “Makes Low Rates for Portola Week,” San Francisco Chronicle, October 7, 1909.

24. “Our Hotel Accommodations,” San Francisco Chronicle, October 14, 1909; “Finds Many Rooms for Portola Week,” San Francisco Chronicle, October 14, 1909; and “City’s Reputation for Hospitality,” San Francisco Chronicle, October 17, 1909.

25. “Portola Attracting Universal Attention,” San Francisco Chronicle, October 12, 1909.

26. “The Portola Atmosphere,” San Francisco Chronicle, October 21, 1909.

27. “Portola Colors Seen on Streets”; “Chinatown: The Home of the Festivals,” San Francisco Chronicle, October 17, 1909; and “Parade Was Colorful with California Life,” San Francisco Chronicle, October 22, 1909.

28. Todd, Story of the Exposition, 1:42.

29. Buchanan, History of the Panama-Pacific, 30; and Todd, Story of the Exposition, 1:47.

30. Todd, Story of the Exposition, 1:48.

31. Todd, Story of the Exposition, 1:49.

32. Todd, Story of the Exposition, 1:56–57. For a list of the members of the Ways and Means Committee, see Todd, Story of the Exposition, 1:57–59.

33. Buchanan, History of the Panama-Pacific, 30.

34. See discussion of the campaign in Todd, Story of the Exposition, 1:38–99.

35. Todd, Story of the Exposition, 1:63–66. For a recent history of the San Diego exposition, see Bokovoy, San Diego World’s Fairs.

36. For the campaign from New Orleans’s point of view, see The Logical Point, 1 (1910). For the arguments used by San Francisco boosters, see “A Few Arguments for Holding the Pacific Ocean Exposition in 1913,” folder 74, box 8, Hale Papers.

37. Todd, Story of the Exposition, 1:90.

38. Todd, Story of the Exposition, 1:94–95.

39. Todd, Story of the Exposition, 1:96.

40. After San Francisco’s victory became clear, New Orleans withdrew its campaign, and the actual measure in favor of San Francisco passed instead by 259 to 43. Todd, Story of the Exposition, 1:98.

41. On Panama Canal Exposition, House, vol. 46, part 2, 61st Cong., Congressional Record, January 18–February 6, 1911, 1741.

42. On Panama Canal Exposition, Senate Congressional Committee on Industrial Expositions, vol. 46, part 3, 61st Cong., Congressional Record, February 7–20, 1911, 2328.

43. House, Congressional Record, 1739–40.

44. The fair occupied an odd space between the public and private spheres. Officially recognized by the federal government as a federally supported “international exposition,” the event was run by a private company, the Panama-Pacific International Exposition Company, yet funded by both private subscriptions and public bond money. This contradiction would raise a number of issues for the project that will be further explored.

45. Gavin McNab, quoted in Todd, Story of the Exposition, 1:54.

46. Risse, Plague, Fear, and Politics.

47. On the transformation of San Francisco, see Barth, Instant Cities. On the impact of the Gold Rush, see Johnson, Roaring Camp; and Rorbaugh, Days of Gold.

48. For a history of the Barbary Coast, see Asbury, The Barbary Coast. San Francisco had long had a skewed male–female ratio. In 1910, the city had 236,901 men and 180,011 women, demonstrating that although the gap had lessened since the Gold Rush days, a still significant difference contributed to the sense of the city as male territory. U.S. Department of Commerce, Bureau of the Census, Thirteenth Census, 2:174–75.

49. In 1851 and 1856, groups of citizens formed a “Committee of Vigilance” to deal with crime and corruption in the city. Glen Gendzel argues the committee contributed to a political culture of vigilantism in San Francisco. See Gendzel, “Vigilantes and Boosters,” 462. See also Jolly, “Inventing the City.”

50. Christopher Lee Yip argues that outside discrimination forced the Chinese community to build strong internal institutions, which in turn formed “a complex social hierarchy that functioned as a quasi-government for the community.” Yip, “San Francisco’s Chinatown.”

51. For discussions of Chinese immigration and anti-Chinese sentiment in California, see Takaki, Iron Cages; Takaki, Strangers from a Different Shore; Saxton, Indispensable Enemy; Daniels, Asian America; and Chinn, Bridging the Pacific. For a contemporary report on the issue, see McKenzie, Oriental Exclusion.

52. The act was broadened in 1888 to include “all persons of the Chinese race,” with exceptions for Chinese officials, teachers, students, tourists, and merchants. The act was renewed in 1892 and extended indefinitely in 1902. Yet Chinese communities persisted in the West, despite facing extreme prejudice that sometimes erupted into outright violence.

53. For histories of early Japanese immigration and the anti-Japanese movement, see Daniels, The Politics of Prejudice; Ichioka, The Issei; Chuman, The Bamboo People; Ichihashi, Japanese in the United States; Takaki, Iron Cages; Takaki, Strangers from a Different Shore; Daniels and Olin, Racism in California; and Daniels, Asian America.

54. Fradkin, Great Earthquake; Pan, Impact of the 1906 Earthquake; and Yip, “San Francisco’s Chinatown.”

55. Ichihashi, Japanese in the United States, 234–36.

56. See Takaki, Strangers from a Different Shore, chapter 5, for a discussion of the Japanese experience. Also see Ichioka, The Issei, for a nuanced interpretation of the Japanese immigrant experience.

57. Whether Abe Ruef was a “boss” is subject to scholarly debate. Regardless of whether he fit the definition of a boss, he was an opportunist who took advantage of political circumstances to enrich himself and his colleagues. For contrasting interpretations of Ruef, see Bean, Boss Ruef’s San Francisco; James P. Walsh, “Abe Ruef Was No Boss: Machine Politics, Reform and San Francisco,” California Historical Quarterly 51 (1972): 3–16; Fradkin, Great Earthquake; and Gendzel, “Vigilantes and Boosters.”

58. Gendzel, “Vigilantes and Boosters,” 479–80.

59. Issel and Cherny, San Francisco, 58. For a contemporary report on the graft trials, see Hichborn, “The System.”

60. Issel and Cherny, San Francisco, 58.

61. “F. J. Heney Shot in Courtroom,” New York Times, November 14, 1908.

62. Buchanan, History of the Panama-Pacific, 57.

63. Dobkin, “A Twenty-Five-Million-Dollar Mirage,” in Benedict, Anthropology of World’s Fairs, 73–74.

64. For a list and description of the directors and their occupations, see Todd, Story of the Exposition, 1:110–18.

65. Dobkin, “A Twenty-Five-Million-Dollar Mirage,” in Benedict, Anthropology of World’s Fairs, 75.

66. Cordato, “Representing the Expansion.”

67. “List of Women Appointed as Assistants to the Various Departments,” carton 11, file 4, Panama-Pacific International Exposition Company Papers, Bancroft Library (hereafter PPIE-BL)

1. The Spectacle of the Fair

1. “Charm of Hawaii Will Pervade Exposition,” San Francisco Chronicle, June 11, 1915.

2. I use the preferred Hawaiian spelling of Hawai‘i in the text to refer to the territory and the accompanying generally accepted adjectival form of “Hawaiian.” I maintain the original spelling in direct quotations or references to events named in 1915.

3. “Hawaiian Day Observed at Exposition,” San Francisco Chronicle, June 12, 1915.

4. See Rydell, All the World’s a Fair, for the clearest statement of this perspective.

5. Rydell, All the World’s a Fair; Stern, Eugenic Nation; and Kline, Building a Better Race.

6. Post, By Motor to the Golden Gate, 229–30.

7. The acreage of other fairs was Philadelphia, 285; Chicago, 686; Buffalo, 350; St. Louis, 1,240; Jamestown, 350; and Seattle, 255. Todd, Story of the Exposition, 1:164.

8. Panama-Pacific International Exposition Company, Condensed Facts, copy in Pamphlets, Panama-Pacific International Exposition, vertical files (hereafter PPIE-SFPL).

9. Boas, Society of Six, 55.

10. Neuhaus, Art of the Exposition, 51.

11. Mary Austin, “Art Influence in the West,” The Century Magazine, April 1915, 830, quoted in Gray Brechin, “Sailing to Byzantium: The Architecture of the Fair,” in Benedict, Anthropology of World’s Fairs, 100.

12. Lee, Victorious Spirit, 141.

13. Lee, Victorious Spirit, 214.

14. Brinton, Impressions of Art, 43.

15. Brinton, Impressions of Art.

16. Adams, Ansel Adams, 19.

17. Doris Barr Stanislawski, Diary, vol. 6, Barr Stanislawski Papers.

18. Doris Barr Stanislawski, Diary, vol. 6, Barr Stanislawski Papers.

19. Annie Fader Haskell, Diary for 1915, May 21, 1915, vol. 40, box 8, Haskell Family Papers.

20. “Official Daily Program, Panama-Pacific International Exposition” (San Francisco: Wahlgreen, 1915), copies in Mechanics’ Institute Library.

21. A. Sterling Calder, “Sculpture,” California’s Magazine, Cornerstone Number (1915): 321.

22. “San Francisco Proves Her Splendid Confidence,” San Francisco Chronicle, February 21, 1915.

23. Homer S. King, “California’s Exposition Ambitions,” Sunset 25 (1910): 624.

24. King, “California’s Exposition Ambitions,” 624.

25. Calder, “Sculpture,” 321.

26. Todd, Story of the Exposition, 2:296.

27. Todd, Story of the Exposition, 2:296.

28. Neuhaus, Art of the Exposition, 43.

29. Barry, City of Domes, 15.

30. Calder, “Sculpture,” 321.

31. Neuhaus, Art of the Exposition, 29.

32. Calder, “Sculpture,” 323.

33. The End of the Trail has become a ubiquitous image in American popular culture, appearing on buttons, sweatshirts, china patterns, key chains, the tattoos of baseball players, and motel signs in locations as unlikely as Madison, Wisconsin. For a discussion of the later history of the statue and uses of the image, see McGrath, “The Endless Trail,” 8–15.

34. The Blue Book, 50.

35. The Blue Book, 51.

36. Gordon, What We Saw, 44.

37. Gendzel, “Pioneers and Padres,” 55–79.

38. Barry, City of Domes, 45.

39. Booth, “Sculpture,” 487.

40. Elizabeth Armstrong, “Hercules and the Muses: Public Art at the Fair,” in Benedict, Anthropology of World’s Fairs, 123.

41. Panama-Pacific International Exposition Company, Official Guide, 52.

42. Murray, Emancipation and the Freed, 175–78.

43. Frink, “San Francisco’s Pioneer Mother,” 87.

44. Simpson, Problems Women Solved, 146.

45. “Motherhood Monument to Be Dedicated to Pioneer Mothers,” folder 11, box 52, San Francisco Misc/Ephemera Oversize Pamphlets Relating to the Panama-Pacific International Exposition, PPIE-CHS.

46. Editorial, The Northern Crown, July 1913, quoted in Keller, Anna Morrison Reed, 162.

47. The groups involved included the Association of Pioneer Women, the Women’s Auxiliary of the Society of California Pioneers, the Daughters of California Pioneers, Sons and Daughters of the Santa Clara County Pioneer Society, Native Sons of the Golden West, and Native Daughters of the Golden West. For a list of prominent individual contributors, see Simpson, Problems Women Solved, 151–53.

48. Simpson, Problems Women Solved, 156.

49. “The Pioneer Mother’s Monument—What It Should Be,” San Francisco Call, June 26, 1914.

50. Frink, “San Francisco’s Pioneer Mother,” 103–4.

51. Simpson, Problems Women Solved, 150.

52. Frink, “San Francisco’s Pioneer Mother,” 106.

53. Wilder, West from Home, 37.

54. The original Forbidden Garden was an area reserved for the Franciscan fathers at the mission and forbidden to women. Simpson, Problems Women Solved, 85.

55. Panama-Pacific International Exposition Company, The Panama-Pacific International Exposition.

56. Simpson, Problems Women Solved, 30–31, 64.

57. “Outline for County Auxiliaries: Woman’s Board Panama-Pacific International Exposition,” San Francisco–PPIE 1915, carton 10, Hearst Papers.

58. Hercules Pamphlet, copy in Pamphlets: Hercules Pamphlet, PPIE-SFPL.

59. See Jacobson, Whiteness of a Different Color.

60. Although the use of Italy in this context seems contradictory, since Italians were not often considered “white” in the early twentieth century, the emphasis on the Italian Riviera implies that it is likening California to the tourist district, presumably one populated by many Europeans who are not Italian. Moreover, it was most often southern Italians who were constructed as “not white,” while northern Italians were more often perceived as assimilable and white. Thus, I believe it is still possible to see this tactic as one that echoed with racial meaning for potential tourists. See Jacobson, Whiteness of a Different Color, on the construction of “whiteness” in the United States. Moreover, in California, Italians did not face the same kinds of discrimination that they did in other parts of the country owing to the timing of their entry into the labor market and the presence of Chinese and Japanese immigrants who bore the brunt of anti-immigrant sentiment in the state. See di Leonardo, Varieties of Ethnic Experience, chapter 2.

61. “Orange County Holds Notable Celebration,” San Francisco Chronicle, April 20, 1915.

62. “Knox Warm in Praise of Site Chosen for Exposition,” San Francisco Call, May 8, 1912.

63. “Knox Warm in Praise.”

64. “Report of the South American Commission by D.O. Lively,” folder 10, carton 140, PPIE-BL.

65. John Barrett, “Pan-American Commerce and the Panama Canal—What They Mean to San Francisco,” The Star, April 10, 1915, Magazine Articles, PPIE-SFPL.

66. “Salutory,” Las Americas, July 1, 1914.

67. Gonzalez, Designing Pan-America, 64.

68. John Barrett to Theodore Hardee, June 2, 1913, folder 11, carton 88, PPIE-BL.

69. Dominican Site Dedication, folder 30, carton 50, PPIE-BL. The Dominican Republic did not end up coming to the fair, but as a number of other nations did, it dedicated a site in 1913.

70. Prisco, John Barrett, 66–90.

71. “Warm Welcome Given to Republic of Honduras,” San Francisco Chronicle, March 21, 1915.

72. Todd, Story of the Exposition, 3:203.

73. Barrett, “Pan-American Commerce.”

74. Todd, Story of the Exposition, 3:230–34.

75. Todd, Story of the Exposition, 3:285.

76. Bruml, Electric Lights Dazzling.

77. The Argentine Commission, Argentine Republic, 11.

78. The Argentine Commission, Argentine Republic, 16.

79. See Todd, Story of the Exposition, 3:286; and Buchanan, History of the Panama-Pacific, 93.

80. Buchanan, History of the Panama-Pacific, 28.

81. Buchanan, History of the Panama-Pacific, 68.

82. Bruml, Electric Lights Dazzling.

83. Panama-Pacific International Exposition Company, The Panama-Pacific International Exposition Illustrated.

84. Doris Barr Stanislawski, Diary, vol. 6, Barr Stanislawski Papers.

85. Bruml, Electric Lights Dazzling, July 19 entry.

86. Bruml, Electric Lights Dazzling, July 23 entry.

87. Wilder, West from Home, 105.

88. “Daily Official Program, Panama-Pacific International Exposition, Feb. 20–23” (San Francisco: Wahlgreen, 1915), 16, Mechanics Institute Library.

89. “Daily Official Program,” 28.

90. Wilder, West from Home, 39–40.

91. Jane C. Desmond, Staging Tourism: Bodies on Display from Waikiki to Sea World (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1999), 251.

92. “The Fascinating South Seas Villages at the Great San Francisco Fair,” San Francisco Examiner, American Magazine Section, June 13, 1915.

93. “Japan at the Big San Francisco Exposition,” Los Angeles Examiner, American Magazine Section, reprinted in San Francisco Examiner, June 20, 1915.

94. Helen Dare, “Feminine Fashions Seen on (and off) the Zone,” San Francisco Chronicle, April 24, 1915.

95. “Dusky Damsels to Seek Queenly Honors,” San Francisco Chronicle, March 13, 1915.

96. Quoted in Todd, Story of the Exposition, 4:40.

97. Todd, Story of the Exposition, 4:39. In his book, Todd included a photograph of the booth with the caption, “Improving the Human Breed,” in a clear comment on the booth’s eugenic intentions. See page 4 and the plate between pages 46 and 47.

98. Todd, Story of the Exposition, 4:40.

99. For the best contemporary statement of these theories, see Grant, Passing of the Great Race. For historical interpretations of social Darwinism, see Hawkins, Social Darwinism; and Hofstadter, Social Darwinism.

100. On the participation of Hawai‘i in other fairs, see Imada, Aloha America.

101. A. P. Taylor, Hawaii Promotion Committee, to C. C. Moore, August 5, 1915, Complaints—Hawaiian Village, carton 9, PPIE-BL.

102. A. P. Taylor, Hawaii Promotion Committee, to C. C. Moore, August 5, 1915, Complaints—Hawaiian Village, carton 9, PPIE-BL.

103. “Dedication of Hawaiian Building,” Historical Photographs Collection, AAE-0530, San Francisco Public Library.

104. A. P. Taylor, Hawaii Promotion Committee, to C. C. Moore, August 5, 1915, Complaints—Hawaiian Village, carton 9, PPIE-BL.

105. Imada, Aloha America.

106. “Wedding Today in Fair Palace,” San Francisco Examiner, March 1, 1915; “Cupid Invades Big Exposition,” San Francisco Chronicle, March 1, 1915; “Law Stops Wedding of Hawaiian Singer,” San Francisco Examiner, March 2, 1915; and “Exposition Romance Is Shattered by Law,” San Francisco Chronicle, March 2, 1915. No further reports exist, so I do not know if they eventually married.

2. Uniting San Francisco

1. Todd, Story of the Exposition, 1:98.

2. Todd, Story of the Exposition, 1:129.

3. Those sites that appeared to merit serious consideration were the following: Newlands’s waterfront plan, the Bay View site, the Islais Creek site, the Sutro Forest site, the Lake Merced site, the Golden Gate Park site, and Harbor View. “Many Claims Are Made for Sites,” San Francisco Chronicle, April 3, 1911.

4. “Report on Sites for the Exposition,” May 18, 1911, folder 1, box 1, PPIE-CHS.

5. For an example of the publicity issued in favor of the park, see “Seven Reasons Why the PPIE Should Be Placed in Golden Gate Park,” folder 70, box 7, Hale Papers.

6. “Britton Tells Why Parks Site Plan Appeals to Him,” San Francisco Chronicle, July 1, 1911.

7. William Hammond Hall to PPIE, May 1, 1911, folder 70, box 7, Hale Papers.

8. Terence Young provides a history of the city’s park during this period but does not discuss the PPIE debate. Young, Building San Francisco’s Parks, 5.

9. Young, Building San Francisco’s Parks, 6.

10. “Works Board Angry at New Injunction,” San Francisco Chronicle, October 5, 1909.

11. For a pictorial history of the neighborhood (now known as the “Marina”), see Lipsky, San Francisco’s Marina District.

12. Walter De Vecchi, “The Panama-Pacific International Exposition,” North Mission News (1984), folder 16, box 52, San Francisco Misc/Ephemera Oversize Pamphlets Relating to the Panama-Pacific International Exposition, PPIE-CHS.

13. “Must Raze Huts at Harbor View,” San Francisco Chronicle, November 29, 1911.

14. “Must Raze Huts at Harbor View.”

15. “Report on Sites for the Exposition,” May 18, 1911, folder 1, box 1, PPIE-CHS.

16. “Report on Sites for the Exposition,” May 18, 1911, folder 1, box 1, PPIE-CHS.

17. North Beach Promotion Association to PPIE, April 11, 1911, folder 70, box 7, Hale Papers.

18. Park Richmond Improvement Club to R. B. Hale, May 5, 1911, folder 70, box 7, Hale Papers.

19. “Uncertainty Stops Activity in Realty,” San Francisco Chronicle, April 22, 1911; “View Is Optimistic on Immediate Future,” San Francisco Chronicle, April 29, 1911; “Signs of Progress Seen on All Sides,” San Francisco Chronicle, May 27, 1911; and “Various Causes Contributed to Affect City’s Real Estate Market,” San Francisco Chronicle, June 3, 1911.

20. W. S. Oliver to R. B. Hale, April 10, 1911, folder 70, box 7, Hale Papers.

21. A. C. Sylvester to Reuben Brooks Hale, July 19, 1911, folder 70, box 7, Hale Papers.

22. “South of Army Street Improvement Association, in Regular Meeting Assembled, Columbus Hall, July 13, 1911,” folder 70, box 7, Hale Papers.

23. Unsigned letter to the Committee of the World’s Fair Panama Exposition, April 20, 1911, folder 70, box 7, Hale Papers.

24. Scott, The San Francisco Bay Area, 137.

25. E. B. Norton (commissioner of public supplies, city of Berkeley) to Moore, May 31, 1911, folder 18, carton 32, PPIE-BL.

26. “We the Undersigned,” folder 26, carton 32, PPIE-BL; San Francisco Hotel Men’s Association to the PPIE Board of Directors, folder 17, carton 32, PPIE-BL; and Chinese Chamber of Commerce to Executive Committee, PPIE, folder 18, carton 32, PPIE-BL.

27. “To Executive Committee,” April 13, 1911, folder 16, carton 32, PPIE-BL.

28. “To Executive Committee,” April 13, 1911, folder 16, carton 32, PPIE-BL.

29. Virginia Vanderbilt owned fifty-five acres, Theresa Oelrichs eighteen, and Dr. Law thirty-one. A. W. Markwart to Frank Morton Todd, September 4, 1914, folder 6, carton 140, PPIE-BL.

30. William Wadron and Winchester Halet to R. B. Hale, June 26, 1911, folder 70, box 7, Hale Papers.

31. “High Bids Sought for Useless Work,” San Francisco Chronicle, April 25, 1911.

32. “Seek Governor’s Aid for Golden Gate Park,” San Francisco Chronicle, April 27, 1911.

33. “Northern Ideas on Expositions,” San Francisco Chronicle, May 5, 1911.

34. “Cleverest Operators Engage in Big Deals,” San Francisco Chronicle, May 13, 1911.

35. “The Question of the Site,” San Francisco Chronicle, June 30, 1911.

36. “Suggested Design for the Exposition: Offered as an Exhibit in Connection with the Formal Presentation of the Parks Site Made by M. H. de Young,” San Francisco Chronicle, July 23, 1911.

37. “Property Owners Offering Lands between Two Parks for Exposition,” San Francisco Chronicle, July 2, 1911.

38. The proposed plan called for the construction of a large boulevard originating at Telegraph Hill, extending along the waterfront to the Harbor View site, and running along the bay to the Presidio, through the Presidio to Lincoln Park, and on to Golden Gate Park. This permanent boulevard would, they hoped, be a permanent benefit to the city and would assist in locating the fair in two sites. I. W. Hellman, John Barneson, and Andrew M. Davis to the President and Board of Directors of the Panama-Pacific International Exposition, July 25, 1911, folder 71, box 7, Hale Papers. For a discussion of the Burnham plan for San Francisco, see Starr, Americans and the California Dream, 240–45.

39. Starr, Americans and the California Dream, 240–45.

40. “Location Assures Permanent Improvements in Both Parks,” San Francisco Chronicle, July 26, 1911.

41. “Directors Voice Their Approval,” San Francisco Chronicle, July 26, 1911.

42. Executive Architectural Council to Board of Directors, December 6, 1911, folder 3, carton 66, PPIE-BL.

43. Todd, Story of the Exposition, 1:167.

44. “Want Exposition in City’s Park,” San Francisco Chronicle, January 26, 1912.

45. “The Proposed Exposition at Harbor View,” n.d., folder 20, carton 32, PPIE-BL.

46. “The Proposed Exposition at Harbor View,” n.d., folder 20, carton 32, PPIE-BL.

47. Land Department, folder 35, carton 66, PPIE-BL.

48. A. H. Markwart to Todd, September 4, 1914, folder 6, carton 140, PPIE-BL.

49. A. H. Markwart to Todd, September 4, 1914, folder 6, carton 140, PPIE-BL.

50. No title, n.d., list of names, folder 6, carton 156, PPIE-BL.

51. G. H. Umbsen & Co. to PPIE, April 11, 1912, folder 6, carton 156, PPIE-BL.

52. Ida West Hale to Rolph, February 16, 1912, folder 33, carton 61, PPIE-BL.

53. Mary Suters to PPIE Board of Directors, April 17, 1912; and Director of Works to Mary Suters, April 20, 1912—both in folder 32, carton 61, PPIE-BL.

54. Frank Fassio to Moore, March 19, 1912, folder 33, carton 51, PPIE-BL; and Secretary to the President to Fassio, March 21, 1912, folder 33, carton 61, PPIE-BL.

55. R. C. MacLachlan to Frank Brittain, June 30, 1915, folder 15, carton 156, PPIE-BL.

56. R. C. MacLachlan to Todd, November 9, 1914, folder 6, carton 140, PPIE-BL.

57. Ben Macomber, no title, San Francisco Chronicle, March 21, 1915.

58. Macomber, no title.

59. “City Engineer Gives the Lie to Enemies of Street Car Bonds,” San Francisco Examiner, June 1, 1913.

60. Issel and Cherny, San Francisco, 172.

61. Voters had rejected bond issues to fund municipal ownership in 1902, 1903, and earlier in 1909. Issel and Cherny, San Francisco, 173.

62. “Traction Downs Fair Board and Supervisors,” San Francisco Examiner, February 6, 1913.

63. The four lines ran the following routes: one from Stockton and Market, out Stockton, along Columbus to Bay, and along Bay to the exposition grounds; a line along Van Ness to Market and then down Eleventh Street into the Potrero and perhaps the Mission; a line along the Embarcadero; and a spur from the Union Street line. “How to Provide Street Cars for the World’s Fair Crowds,” San Francisco Examiner, February 8, 1913.

64. “Let the City Solve Its Own World’s Fair Transportation,” San Francisco Examiner, February 8, 1913.

65. The following articles ran in the Examiner, February 9, 1913: “S.F. in Great Chorus OK’s World Fair Car Plans”; “Dr. A.S. Musante Indorses ‘Quick, Safe, Convenient’”; “Promotion Leader Says Car Problem Is Solved”; and “Supervisors’ Stand Solidly for Big Car Project.”

66. “S.F. in Great Chorus OK’s World Fair Car Plans,” San Francisco Examiner, February 9, 1913.

67. “Must Have System Say Fair Directors,” San Francisco Examiner, February 9, 1913.

68. For more details on the plan, see San Francisco City Engineer, “Report on Extensions of Municipal Railways to Provide Transportation for the Panama-Pacific Exposition, April 5, 1913,” copy in Bancroft Library.

69. “Fair Directors Are Neutral on Street Bonds,” San Francisco Examiner, May 29, 1913.

70. “Stenographic Report of Meeting of the Board of Directors of Panama-Pacific International Exposition,” May 28, 1913, folder 36, box 4, Hale Papers.

71. “Stenographic Report of Meeting of the Board of Directors of Panama-Pacific International Exposition,” May 28, 1913, folder 36, box 4, Hale Papers.

72. “Fair Directors’ Stand on Bonds Is Deprecated,” San Francisco Examiner, June 3, 1913.

73. “Fair Directors’ Stand.”

74. Thornwell Mullally was a local attorney and assistant to the president of the United Railroads. Todd, Story of the Exposition, 1:116.

75. Ciabattari, “Urban Liberals, Politics,” 522.

76. Ostrander, Prohibition Movement.

77. See Boyer, Urban Masses.

78. Executive Secretary to Police Commissioner, n.d., Complaints, carton 9, PPIE-BL.

79. A. D. Cutler to C. C. Moore, March 26, 1912, correspondence with city clubs, agencies, organizations, carton 21, PPIE-BL. Emphasis in the original.

80. President Moore to Police Commissioner, March 28, 1912, correspondence with city clubs, agencies, organizations, carton 21, PPIE-BL.

81. C. C. Moore to Honorable Board of Police Commissioners, April 4, 1912, correspondence with city clubs, agencies, organizations, carton 21, PPIE-BL.

82. For more examples, see letters contained in correspondence with city clubs, agencies, organizations, carton 21, PPIE-BL.

83. Executive Secretary to Police Commissioner, n.d., Complaints, carton 9, PPIE-BL.

84. Minutes of the Executive Committee, March 3, 1914, vol. 125, PPIE-BL; and F. Brittain to H. D. H. Connick, March 7, 1914, Liquor Licenses, carton 93, PPIE-BL.

85. “The Hotel City,” Hotels, PPIE-SFPL.

86. Report of Director Frank L. Brown to the President, folder 13M, box 31, Rolph Papers.

87. Untitled letter from George Hough Perry, January 30, 1915, Hotel Bureau, carton 15, PPIE-BL.

88. Charles Moore to “Gentlemen,” February 20, 1914, Hotel Situation, carton 23, PPIE-BL.

89. Charles Moore to “Gentlemen,” February 20, 1914, Hotel Situation, carton 23, PPIE-BL.

90. “Association Business Meeting Crowded,” San Francisco Hotel Journal, September 1914, Executive Sub-Committee Inside Inn Files, carton 29, PPIE-BL.

91. Charles Moore to “Gentlemen,” February 20, 1914, Hotel Situation, carton 23, PPIE-BL.

92. George Hough Perry to the president, February 2, 1915, Hotel Bureau, carton 15, PPIE-BL.

93. Untitled letter from George Hough Perry, January 30, 1915, Hotel Bureau, carton 15, PPIE-BL.

94. “Official Exposition Hotel Guide,” Hotels, PPIE-SFPL.

95. Director of Concessions (Frank Burt) to Curtis H. Lindley, June 17, 1915, Executive Sub-Committee Inside Inn Files, carton 29, PPIE-BL.

96. “Final Report of the Advisory Board of the Official Hotel Bureau to the Panama-Pacific International Exposition,” Hotels, PPIE-SFPL.

97. Minutes of Executive Committee, November 24, 1914, Executive Sub Committee Inside Inn Files, carton 29, PPIE-BL.

98. Mrs. C. H. McKenney to James Rolph, folder 20M, box 32, Rolph Papers.

99. Helen Dare, “Beating—and NOT Beating—the Gate at the Exposition,” San Francisco Chronicle, April 4, 1915.

100. An adult admission cost $0.50, and children paid $0.25, except when they came in school groups. As an example of working people’s salaries in San Francisco at the time, the PPIE paid male laborers on the grounds a daily rate of approximately $2.50, carpenters $5.00, and plumbers $6.00; and female stenographers earned $17.30 a week. “Payroll,” folder 10, box 2, PPIE-CHS. According to various calculators, $1.50 in 1915 is comparable to approximately $34.00 in 2012 dollars. See US Inflation Calculator, Coinnews Media Group, http://www.usinflationcalculator.com/.

101. Annie Fader Haskell, Diary for 1915, March 1, 1915, vol. 40, box 8, Haskell Family Papers.

102. Annie Fader Haskell, Diary for 1915, May 9, 1915, vol. 40, box 8, Haskell Family Papers.

103. Annie Fader Haskell, Diary for 1915, May 21, 1915, vol. 40, box 8, Haskell Family Papers.

104. Mary Eugenia Pierce, Diary for 1915–17, March 20, 1915, Pierce Family Papers.

105. Todd, Story of the Exposition, 2:381.

106. Mary Eugenia Pierce, Diary for 1915–17, March 25, 1915, Pierce Family Papers.

107. Charles L. Huyck, “Ten Years Later: A Retrospect of the 1915 Exposition,” Huyck Papers, 2.

108. Clemens Max Richter, “Autobiography and Reminiscences,” Bancroft Library.

109. See letters in Miscellaneous Suggestions and Proposals Regarding Admission Prices, etc., carton 21, PPIE-BL.

110. Minutes of the Executive Committee, Sept. 28, 1915, vol. 126, PPIE-BL.

111. Mrs. C. H. McKenney to Mayor Rolph, March 2, 1915, folder 20M, box 32, series 5M, Rolph Papers.

3. Claiming Their Place

1. Alameda County is located in the East Bay and contains the cities of Oakland and Berkeley, among others.

2. “Chinese Students Day at the Panama-Pacific International Exposition,” Cardinell-Vincent Co., reproduced on the cover of Chinn’s Bridging the Pacific.

3. For this interpretation of fairs see Rydell, All the World’s a Fair. See Holt’s “Marking,” 16, for his argument about minstrel shows for an interpretation of how these shows answered the question of who was an American.

4. “Information for the Exposition History,” to Frank Morton Todd, November 3, 1915; and List of State and Foreign Organizations of the Panama-Pacific International Exposition—both in folder 11, carton 140, PPIE-BL.

5. “Information for the Exposition History,” to Frank Morton Todd, November 3, 1915, folder 11, carton 140, PPIE-BL.

6. F. L. Halse to Frank Morton Todd, November 11, 1915, folder 3, carton 145, PPIE-BL; and James Kaplan, “For the Future: The Swedish Pavilion at the Panama-Pacific International Exposition of 1915,” The Swedish-American Historical Quarterly 57 (2006): 101.

7. Kaplan, “For the Future,” 101.

8. “A Called Meeting of the Welsh Residents,” September 7, 1912, folder 3, carton 18, PPIE-BL.

9. Kaplan, “For the Future,” 107.

10. Edward Delger to Moore, November 18, 1913, folder 1, carton 18, PPIE-BL.

11. F. W. Dohrmann to Moore, November 13, 1912, folder 1, carton 18, PPIE-BL.

12. Edward Delger to Moore, July 6, 1914, folder 1, carton 18, PPIE-BL.

13. “Final Report to Members of the German-American Auxiliary to the Panama-Pacific International Exposition,” folder 3, carton 145, PPIE-BL.

14. “Final Report to Members of the German-American Auxiliary to the Panama-Pacific International Exposition,” folder 3, carton 145, PPIE-BL.

15. “Germans to Hold Big Celebration,” San Francisco Chronicle, July 18, 1915.

16. “Fatherland Cheered by Army of Sturdy Sons: Exposition Is Captured by German-Americans,” San Francisco Chronicle, August 6, 1915.

17. “Germans at Fair in Demonstration,” Decatur (Illinois) Review, August 6, 1915; and “German Day at Exposition,” Los Angeles Times, August 6, 1915.

18. “Fatherland Cheered.”

19. “Hot Letter to Wilson Modified: Local Meeting of German National Alliance in Clash over Message,” San Francisco Chronicle, August 5, 1915.

20. “German-Americans Appeal for Liberal Legislation,” San Francisco Chronicle, August 4, 1915.

21. Walsh, San Francisco Irish, 21.

22. See Burns, “The Immigrant Church,” in Burns, Catholic San Francisco, 189–97, for a brief description of the immigrant origins of the San Francisco Catholic community. For anti-Catholicism, see Massa, Anti-Catholicism in America; and Wallace, Rhetoric of Anti-Catholicism.

23. Sarbaugh, “Exiles of Confidence,” in Meagher, From Paddy to Studs, 165–66.

24. On Italian-Irish relations see Rubin, Signs of Change, 125; and Gumina, The Italians of San Francisco, 52.

25. On nineteenth-century American views of the Chinese, see Choy, Dong, and Hong, Coming Man. Other discussions of the racialization of the Chinese include Shah, Contagious Divides, especially chapter 2; and Moy, Marginal Sights. See Nee and Nee, Longtime Californ’, for evocative firsthand accounts of the treatment that the Chinese experienced in twentieth-century San Francisco.

26. See Ngai, Lucky Ones, for an interesting perspective on the development of the Chinese immigrant community in San Francisco.

27. For the story of this transformation, see Lee, Picturing Chinatown.

28. In 1910, there were approximately 1,642 blacks in San Francisco per the U.S. Department of Commerce, Bureau of Census, Thirteenth Census of the United States, 174–75.

29. In 1910, 70 percent of black women held jobs as domestics and 10 percent worked in manufacturing, while 47.5 percent of men held domestic jobs, 10.9 percent held jobs in manufacturing, and 10.8 percent in transportation. See Broussard, Black San Francisco, 39–41; and Daniels, Pioneer Urbanites, 31.

30. Broussard, Black San Francisco, 58; and Dellums, C.L. Dellums.

31. W. E. B. Du Bois, “Colored California,” The Crisis 6 (1913): 194–95.

32. “The Fifth Annual Report of the NAACP,” reprinted in The Crisis 9 (1915): 301.

33. “‘Clansman’ Is Welcomed by Big Audience,” San Francisco Examiner, April 20, 1915.

34. Daniels notes the presence of racist cartoons in local newspapers in the early twentieth century, such as one found in the San Francisco Chronicle, August 5, 1914, and reproduced in Daniels, Pioneer Urbanites, 84.

35. “Our Responsibility to the Panama Exposition,” Young China, August 1, 1912, with translation by Winifred Chang.

36. “The Panama International Exposition and Entrepreneurs,” Chung Sai Yat Po, February 27, 1915, with translation by Winifred Chang.

37. “Information Regarding the Panama International Fair for My Chinese Countrymen,” Chung Sai Yat Po, January 23, 1915, with translation by Winifred Chang.

38. Minutes of the Executive Committee, January 20, 1914, vol. 124, PPIE-BL.

39. Chinese Consolidated Benevolent Association to Charles Moore, February 18, 1914, Underground Chinatown—protests against Concession, carton 23, PPIE-BL.

40. M. J. Brandenstein to Charles Moore, February 14, 1914, Underground Chinatown—protests against Concession, carton 23, PPIE-BL.

41. “Ireland to Have a Big Exhibit in 1915,” Leader, June 7, 1913.

42. This goal is in keeping with Timothy Sarbaugh’s argument that Irish republican nationalism was a powerfully unifying force among the San Francisco Irish that only grew in strength in the post-fair years. See Sarbaugh, “Exiles of Confidence,” in Meagher, From Paddy to Studs, 167–74.

43. “No Travesties Wanted at the 1915 Exhibit,” Leader, May 17, 1913.

44. For a laudatory description of the African American presence at the exposition, see Beasley, The Negro Trail Blazers, 301–4.

45. “Negro Day at PPIE,” Western Outlook (Oakland CA), April 3, 1915.

46. W. E. B. Du Bois to Stewart; and Stewart to Du Bois—both in folder 33, carton 38, PPIE-BL. My thanks to Amanda Cannata for locating these undated letters.

47. S. L. Mash to C. C. Moore, January 14, 1915, Racial Discrimination, Charges of, carton 23, PPIE-BL.

48. Taussig to Mash, February 6, 1915, Racial Discrimination, Charges of, carton 23, PPIE-BL.

49. J. S. Tobin to Moore, January 25, 1915, Racial Discrimination, Charges of, carton 23, PPIE-BL.

50. Untitled editorial, Oakland Sunshine, December 11, 1915.

51. “The Exposition,” Western Outlook (Oakland CA), January 30, 1915.

52. “Mass Meeting, Fifteenth Street Church,” Western Outlook (Oakland CA), February 13, 1915.

53. “Central Bureau of Information for Colored People,” Western Outlook (Oakland CA), March 13, 1915.

54. “Fair Visitors Attention!,” Western Outlook (Oakland CA), March 6, 1915.

55. Chen, Chinese San Francisco, 206–10.

56. Chung Sai Yat Po, February 22, 1915, quoted and translated by Chen in Chinese San Francisco, 206.

57. Chen Chi to Charles C. Moore, March 19, 1915, Underground Chinatown, carton 23, PPIE-BL.

58. On Chinese female prostitutes in the city, see Tong, Unsubmissive Women.

59. On contemporary fears of white slavery and its links to Asians, see Rosen, The Lost Sisterhood, 119–23.

60. Chinese Six Companies to C. C. Moore, March 19, 1915, Underground Chinatown, carton 23, PPIE-BL.

61. Chinese Six Companies to C. C. Moore, March 19, 1915, Underground Chinatown, carton 23, PPIE-BL.

62. Chinese Six Companies to C. C. Moore, March 19, 1915, Underground Chinatown, carton 23, PPIE-BL.

63. J. H. Laughlin et al. to C. C. Moore, March 20, 1915, Underground Chinatown, carton 23, PPIE-BL.

64. Chan Sing Kai et al. to C. C. Moore, March 20, 1915, Underground Chinatown, carton 23, PPIE-BL.

65. Ng Poon Chew et al. to C. C. Moore, n.d., Underground Chinatown, carton 23, PPIE-BL.

66. Chen Chi to C. C. Moore, March 19, 1915, Underground Chinatown, carton 23, PPIE-BL.

67. Minutes of the Committee on Concessions and Admissions, March 26, 1915, vol. 123, PPIE-BL.

68. “New Concession Shows Evils of Drug Habit,” San Francisco Chronicle, June 9, 1915, 145.

69. “On the Zone,” advertisement, San Francisco Call, June 19, 1915.

70. Mumford, Interzones.

71. Minutes of the Committee on Concessions and Admissions, June 24, 1913, vol. 122, PPIE-BL.

72. “The Irish Village,” Leader, September 27, 1913; and “That Irish Exhibit,” Leader, November 1, 1913.

73. “Ireland at the 1915 World’s Fair,” Monitor, March 14,1914.

74. “The ‘Shamrock Isle’ Starts Caricaturing in Advance,” Leader, April 4, 1914; and “Irish Village at the World’s Fair,” Leader, March 6, 1915.

75. Todd, Story of the Exposition, 2:359.

76. “Nations of the West,” Monitor, July 3, 1915.

77. “The Nations of the West,” Monitor, August 7, 1915.

78. Archbishop Patrick Riordan passed away in 1914, and the reins of power in the San Francisco Catholic community passed to then bishop Hanna.

79. Nordstrom, “Danger on the Doorstep.” The publication of the anti-Catholic, Chicago-based Masonic group Guardians of Liberty supports this argument. See “To Promote Patriotism,” “Are Civil Liberties Endangered,” and “Political Medicine in the Public School”—all in the first volume of The Guardian of Liberty, 1913.

80. H. W. Moore to Charles Moore, September 19, 1913, Complaints, carton 9, PPIE-BL.

81. “The Protest against Nathan,” America, June 20, 1914, quoted in D’Agostino, Rome in America, 84.

82. See D’Agostino, Rome in America, 84–93, for a description of the protests that occurred prior to Nathan’s appointment as commissioner general to the PPIE.

83. In addition, D’Agostino argues, the protest revealed the dormant anti-Semitism among some American Catholics. D’Agostino, Rome in America, 3, 85.

84. “We Will Not Have Him,” Monitor, February 28, 1914.

85. John Brasser to Charles Moore, March 30, 1914, Complaints, carton 9, PPIE-BL.

86. “Specific Bigoted Acts of Nathan, Cockney Jew,” Leader, June 27, 1914; and “Which Shall It Be? Nathan’s Recall or Dead Exposition?,” Western Catholic (Springfield IL), May 1, 1914, quoted in D’Agostino, Rome in America, 95.

87. The only mention of the controversy over Nathan’s appointment that appeared in Emanu-El, the journal of the San Francisco Temple Emanu-El, was a reprint of a letter from the Anti-Defamation League of Chicago written in response to the anti-Semitic attack by the Western Catholic. “Catholic Paper Attacks Ernesto Nathan,” Emanu-El, June 12, 1914. Other articles on Nathan included “Distinguished Jewish Representative of Italy Arrives,” Emanu-El, June 5, 1914; and “Ex-Mayor of Rome Visits the Golden Gate,” Emanu-El, June 5, 1915. For a discussion of Jews in San Francisco and a brief mention of their role in shaping the PPIE, see Rosenbaum, Visions of Reform.

88. Rosenbaum, Cosmopolitans; and Cherny, “Patterns of Toleration,” 130–41.

89. W. P. Oliver to Moore, n.d., Complaints, carton 9, PPIE-BL.

90. Lincoln Court, No. 5, Guardians of Liberty, Chicago IL, July 16, 1914, Complaints, carton 9, PPIE-BL.

91. “Refuse to Take Nathan’s Hand,” Monitor, June 6, 1914.

92. “Discredited,” Monitor, June 20, 1914. Also see articles in The Guardian of Liberty, 1 (1914), celebrating Nathan’s arrival.

93. Untitled editorial, Monitor, August 1, 1914.

94. See issues of San Francisco Chronicle and Monitor from February 20, 1915.

95. D’Agostino, Rome in America, 99.

96. Rubin, Signs of Change; and Cinel, From Italy to San Francisco.

97. Minutes of the Executive Committee, August 4, 1914, vol. 125, PPIE-BL.

98. Minutes of the Executive Committee, October 13, 1914, vol. 125, PPIE-BL.

99. Minutes of the Executive Committee, October 20,1914, vol. 125, PPIE-BL.

100. Minutes of the Executive Committee, January 5, 1915, vol. 125, PPIE-BL.

101. “A Catholic Victory,” Monitor, May 29, 1915. It is not clear why the fair officially canceled the convention in January but did not announce the news until May.

102. Whether the exposition officials played any role in this debate is unclear. The evidence is unfortunately spotty. In late 1914, some discussed creating a separate African American exhibit at the fair, but those involved concluded that since the opportunity was coming so late, any such exhibit would “be indicative of self-desired race segregation, which is not to be encouraged by California Negroes.” “Do We Want a Negro Day at the Exposition?,” Oakland Sunshine, May 27, 1915; and “The 1915 Exposition Committee,” Western Outlook (Oakland CA), December 26, 1914.

103. “No Negro Day for Us,” Western Outlook (Oakland CA), April 3, 1915.

104. “Do We Want a Negro Day?”

105. Daniels notes that similar objections were raised to Colored American Day at the 1894 Midwinter International Exposition because some perceived it as “a needless drawing of the color line.” Yet he argues that the day in fact “allowed them to demonstrate appreciation of their historical and cultural tradition through speeches, songs and a dance in the evening.” Daniels, Pioneer Urbanites, 120.

106. “No Negro Day for Us”; and “Do We Want a Negro Day?”

107. “Negro Day at PPIE,” Western Outlook (Oakland CA), April 3, 1915.

108. Wilson, Negro Building.

109. “Jim Crow Day at PPIE,” Western Outlook (Oakland CA), May 15, 1915.

110. “Resolutions that Ring True,” Western Outlook (Oakland CA), April 24, 1915.

111. “Resolution,” Western Outlook (Oakland CA), May 1, 1915.

112. “From Rev. Newman,” Western Outlook (Oakland CA), May 1, 1915.

113. “The Following from . . . ,” Western Outlook (Oakland CA), May 1, 1915.

114. Wilson, Negro Building, 147.

115. Hudson, “‘This Is Our Fair,’” 26–45.

116. See Broussard, Black San Francisco, 76–79, for a description of the community’s successful mobilization against Birth of a Nation.

117. “Prayer Opens World Fair,” Monitor, February 27, 1915.

118. “Padres’ Days Live Again,” Monitor, July 24, 1915.

119. “Mass at Exposition,” Monitor, August 28, 1915.

120. Gendzel, “Pioneers and Padres.”

121. “Notes on the conference had by Dr. Skiff with Dr. H.H. Bell, secretary of the Committee of One Hundred for Religious Work,” July 17, 1914, “Religion,” carton 16, PPIE-BL; Executive Secretary to T. Hardee, July 5, 1915, “Religion,” carton 16, PPIE-BL; Hardee to Moore, June 18, 1915, Executive Sub-Committee, June 3, 1915–June 24, 1915, carton 29, PPIE-BL; and Executive Sub-Committee to Hardee, June 18, 1915, Executive Sub-Committee, June 3, 1915–June 24, 1915, carton 29, PPIE-BL.

122. “Calendar of Special Days and Special Events Scheduled from July 1st to December 4th,” Days: Calendar, PPIE-SFPL.

123. “Chinese Students Day at the Panama-Pacific International Exposition,” Cardinell-Vincent Co., reproduced on the cover of Chinn’s Bridging the Pacific.

124. “Far East Students at Exposition,” San Francisco Chronicle, August 5, 1915.

125. “March 17th to Be Fair’s Great Event,” Leader, March 6, 1915.

126. “Wearers of the Green Loyally Celebrate Saint’s Day,” San Francisco Chronicle, March 18, 1915.

127. “The 17th Was a Big Day,” Leader, March 20, 1915.

128. “Mass Meeting,” Western Outlook (Oakland CA), May 29, 1915; and “Alameda County Day Committee,” Oakland Sunshine, June 5, 1915.

129. “Mass Meeting”; and “Should We Take Part in Alameda County Day at the Exposition,” Oakland Sunshine, May 29, 1915.

130. Editorial, Oakland Sunshine, June 12, 1915.

131. Editorial, Western Outlook (Oakland CA), December 6, 1915.

132. Hudson, “‘This Is Our Fair,’” 41.

133. Todd, Story of the Exposition, 5:100–121.

134. On Chinese women in San Francisco see Yung, Unbound Feet.

135. Marvin Nathan, “Visiting the World’s Columbian Exposition at Chicago in July 1893: A Personal View,” Journal of American Culture 19 (1996): 79–102.

136. Yung, Unbound Voices, 271.

137. Yung, Unbound Voices, 270.

138. Yung, Unbound Voices, 287.

139. T. Tatsumi to Moore, February 25, 1915, Correspondence Re. Complaints, carton 8, PPIE-BL.

140. T. Tatsumi to Moore, July 16, 1915, Correspondence Re. Complaints, carton 8, PPIE-BL.

141. “Refused by Our Own,” Western Outlook (Oakland CA), March 6, 1915. See also “Extracts from the Daily Reports of the Guards, August 1915,” August 19, 1915, carton 83, PPIE-BL.

142. Taussig to Burt, February 25, 1915, Correspondence Re. Complaints, carton 8, PPIE-BL.

143. Photograph captioned “Fair’s Latest Love,” San Francisco Call and Post, September 23, 1915, section 2, 1.

144. For a discussion of the way in which photographs of the San Francisco Chinese were manipulated to construct a sense of “foreignness,” see Moy, Marginal Sights.

4. Economic Partner, Exotic Other

1. Doris Barr Stanislawski, Diary, vol. 6, Barr Stanislawski Papers.

2. Report of the speech made by Dr. Frederick James V. Skiff before the Assembly Judiciary Committee, April 2, 1913, Correspondence—Alien Land Law, carton 61, PPIE-BL.

3. “Panama-Pacific International Exposition, San Francisco 1915,” Exhibits-Info., Advance, PPIE-SFPL.

4. Hunt, Making of a Special Relationship.

5. “Report to accompany HJ Res. 213, Calendar No. 1063, Senate, ‘Panama-Pacific International Exposition,’ Feb. 9, 1911,” submitted by Mr. Jones, copy in Mechanics’ Institute Library.

6. “Will Keep Up Bar against Japanese; Taft Assures Pacific Senators that Treaty Change Will Not Harm Exclusion Policy,” New York Times, January 28, 1911. On the treaty, see Ichihashi, Japanese in the United States, 253–60. Many were concerned that the treaty threatened the exclusionary practices set up in the Gentlemen’s Agreement. See also “Treaty with Japan Angers California; Resolution against It Passed by State Senate Unanimously and without Discussion,” New York Times, February 23, 1911; and “California Not Yet Reassured by Taft; Two Messages Regarding New Japanese Treaty Fail to Prevent Attack in Legislature,” New York Times, February 24, 1911.

7. Lee, “The Contradictions of Cosmopolitanism,” 279.

8. On anti-Asian sentiment see Takaki, Iron Cages; Takaki, Strangers from a Different Shore; Saxton, Indispensable Enemy; Daniels, Asian America; and Chinn, Bridging the Pacific.

9. Ichihashi, Japanese in the United States, 230. On the relationship between racial formation, health, and the Chinese in San Francisco, see Shah, Contagious Divides; and Risse, Plague, Fear, and Politics.

10. Speakers at the meeting included Mayor James Phelan and Professor Edward Alsworth Ross of Stanford. Report of mass meeting in San Francisco, California, May 8, 1900, quoted in I.C. Reports, 23:167, in Ichihashi, Japanese in the United States, 231.

11. Fradkin, Great Earthquake; and Pan, Impact of the 1906 Earthquake.

12. Ichihashi, Japanese in the United States, 234–36.

13. For the participation of these nations at earlier fairs, see: Christ, “Sole Guardians,” 675–709; Christ, “Japan’s Seven Acres,” 2–15; Vennman, “Dragons, Dummies, and Royals,” 16–31; Edwards, “Imperial East,” 32–41; Clevenger, “Through Western Eyes,” 42–45; Harris, “All the World a Melting Pot?,” in Cultural Excursions, 29–55; and Lockyer, “Japan at the Exhibition,” in Umesao, Lockyer, and Yoshida, Collection and Representation, 17:67–76.

14. “Relations with Orient Helped by Exposition,” San Francisco Chronicle, January 15, 1915.

15. Kyokwai, Japan and Her Exhibits, 3.

16. Lockyer, “Japan at the Exhibition,” 209.

17. Matsuzo Nagai to Charles C. Moore, August 8, 1911, Japan 1911–1913, carton 63, PPIE-BL.

18. “De Young Finds Interest,” International Fair Illustrated 1, no. 4 (1912): 21, copy in Mechanics’ Institute Library.

19. Levy, Chronological History.

20. C. S. Chan to C. C. Moore, January 27, 1912, China, May 1910–October 1913, carton 61, PPIE-BL. See also “An Account of the Work Accomplished by the Chinese Government Commission to the Panama-Pacific International Exposition,” China, May–December 1914, carton 61, PPIE-BL.

21. Robert E. Connolly to C. C. Moore, September 10, 1912, China, May 1910–October 1913, carton 61, PPIE-BL. This series of correspondence includes a series of clippings from two Southern California papers that reported that the Chinese government was considering switching its exhibit from San Francisco to San Diego because of the anti-Chinese activities in San Francisco. “Chinese Plan to Switch Exhibit,” San Diego Union, September 5, 1912; and “May Lose Its Glory,” Pasadena News, September 5, 1912.

22. “Advocating the Pro-Japanese Sentiment,” Japanese American News, September 22, 1912, with translation by Ben Rosenberg.

23. Moore to Secretary of State Philander Knox, October 3, 1912, U.S. Agencies (primarily State Dept.), carton 39, PPIE-BL. I was unable to determine the content of the offensive billboards.

24. Nagai to Moore, September 25, 1912, folder 30, carton 2, PPIE-BL. The sequence of this letter and the one to Knox suggests that they were related, although there is no mention of the billboards in Nagai’s letter.

25. Nagai to Moore, September 25, 1912, folder 30, carton 2, PPIE-BL.

26. Shima to Moore, December 23, 1912, folder 1, carton 139, PPIE-BL.

27. To Shima, n.d., folder 1, carton 139, PPIE-BL.

28. David Starr Jordan to President William H. Taft, January 26, 1912, folder 2, carton 139, PPIE-BL.

29. Ichihashi, Japanese in the United States, 261–82.

30. Olin, California’s Prodigal Sons, 83. The Democratic, Republican, and Socialist Parties all included anti-Asian language in their platforms. Ichihashi, Japanese in the United States, 252.

31. Olin, California’s Prodigal Sons, 84–85.

32. Daniels, “The Progressives Draw the Color Line,” in Daniels and Olin, Racism in California, 120–27.

33. Moore to J. B. Boynton, January 6, 1913, folder 3, carton 139, PPIE-BL.

34. F. C. Tognazzini to C. J. Rector, January 6, 1913, folder 2, carton 139, PPIE-BL.

35. Daniels, “The Progressives Draw the Color Line,” in Daniels and Olin, Racism in California, 127.

36. “Report of the Proceedings of the Deputation from the Panama-Pacific International Exposition which proceeded to Sacramento, 2 April 1913,” California Alien Land Law, carton 61, PPIE-BL.

37. Hichborn, Story of the Session, 227.

38. Hiram Johnson, quoted in Daniels, “Progressives Draw the Color Line,” 129.

39. Ralph Newman, quoted in Daniels, “Progressives Draw the Color Line,” 129.

40. Hichborn, Story of the Session, 229.

41. Hichborn, Story of the Session, 234.

42. Hichborn, Story of the Session, 233.

43. “Exposition Trouble,” Leader, February 8. 1913.

44. Knight, Industrial Relations, 239. Factions within the San Francisco labor community, however, voiced their unhappiness about the fair’s relationship with Asia. See H. F. McMahon to SFLC [San Francisco Labor Council], Anti-Jap Laundry League, carton 2, San Francisco Labor Council Papers.

45. “Save the Tea-Garden!,” Sacramento Union, January 8, 1913, copy in Japan-California Papers, carton 63, PPIE-BL.

46. B. P. Schmidt to C. C. Moore, April 28, 1913, PPIE Papers, Complaints, carton 9, PPIE-BL.

47. Japanese Association of America to Moore, December 19, 1912, folder 1, carton 139, PPIE-BL.

48. Moore to George Shima, January 14, 1913, folder 1, carton 139, PPIE-BL.

49. For the Japanese diplomatic response to the laws, see Ichihashi, Japanese in the United States, 271–76.

50. Ira Bennett to Charles Moore, February 12, 1915, folder 2, carton 139, PPIE-BL.

51. Memo, heading reads “Vancouver BC, March 19, 1913,” California Alien Land Law, carton 61, PPIE-BL.

52. Charles C. Moore to Chester H. Rowell, April 12, 1913, California Alien Land Law, carton 61, PPIE-BL.

53. “California Scheme Angers Japanese,” New York Herald, April 9, 1913; and “Irritation in Japan,” New York Herald, April 10, 1913—both found in California Alien Land Law, carton 61, PPIE-BL.

54. Olin, California’s Prodigal Sons, 85.

55. Y. Numano to Moore, September 10, 1913, Moore Personal Correspondence N-R, carton 11, PPIE-BL.

56. Charles Moore to Ira E. Bennett, May 7, 1913, Correspondence, May 1913—Alien Land Law, carton 61, PPIE-BL.

57. Ira E. Bennet to Charles Moore, May 9, 1913, Correspondence, May 1913—Alien Land Law, carton 61, PPIE-BL.

58. Moore to K. S. Inui, May 13, 1913, folder 4, carton 139, PPIE-BL.

59. “Urge Japanese to Send Exhibit,” Japan 1911–13, carton 63, PPIE-BL.

60. George W. Guthrie to Secretary of State, December 10, 1913, Japan 1914, carton 63, PPIE-BL.

61. Moore to Shima, January 26, 1914, folder 3, carton 139, PPIE-BL.

62. President’s Daily Letter, January 3, 1914, folder 27, carton 17, PPIE-BL.

63. Minutes of the Executive Committee, June 16, 1914, vol. 125, PPIE-BL.

64. Sue Bradford Edwards argues that such events for visiting Chinese delegations affected the way that the Chinese were perceived in St. Louis in 1902. Edwards, “Imperial East,” 37–41.

65. Paul S. Reinsch to William Jennings Bryan, December 15, 1913, China, November 1913–April 1914, carton 61, PPIE-BL. See also Chen, Chinese San Francisco, 152; and Edwards, “Imperial East,” 39.

66. Edwards, “Imperial East,” 39.

67. Edwards, “Imperial East,” 39; and Ngai, Lucky Ones.

68. Paul S. Reinsch to William Jennings Bryan, December 2, 1913, China, May 1910–October 1913, carton 51, PPIE-BL.

69. “Regulation Governing the Admission and Return of Chinese Participating in the Panama-Pacific International Exposition,” Hale, Reuben B., carton 16, PPIE-BL; and General Attorney to Director-in-Chief, July 16, 1914, folder 13, carton 169, PPIE-BL.

70. C. I. Sagara to C. C. Moore, May 20, 1914, Foreign Immigration, carton 39, PPIE-BL.

71. To F. Skiff, July 6, 1914, folder 24, carton 169, PPIE-BL.

72. Executive Secretary to Vice President Hale, February 16, 1914, Japan 1914, carton 63, PPIE-BL.

73. Samuel W. Backus to T. G. Smallsmith, June 27, 1914, China, May–December 1914, PPIE-BL.

74. “The Forbidden City at the Exposition,” San Francisco Chronicle, May 2, 1915, Sunday Magazine.

75. “Japan’s Exhibit Is True to Life,” San Francisco Chronicle, February 21, 1915. See also Jiro Harada, “Japan at the Panama-Pacific International Exposition,” San Francisco Chronicle, February 21,1915.

76. Rast, “Cultural Politics of Tourism,” 29–60.

77. Elbert Hubbard, “The Cheerful Loser Is a Winner,” International Fair Illustrated 1 (December 1911): 14.

78. See Lee, Picturing Chinatown, 149–200, for a discussion of the changing nature of Chinatown and its relationship to tourists and the city.

79. San Francisco Standard Guide.

80. Look Tin Eli, “Our New Oriental City—Veritable Fairy Palaces Filled with the Choicest Treasures of the Orient,” in San Francisco: The Metropolis of the West (San Francisco: Western Press Association, 1910), n.p.

81. On images of Chinatown, see Lee, Picturing Chinatown; and Rast, “Cultural Politics of Tourism.”

82. This approach stands in direct contrast to the situation Lee identifies in Seattle. She argues that the rhetoric surrounding the fair deliberately denied any chance that the Japanese could become citizens. Lee, “Contradictions of Cosmopolitanism,” 290.

83. San Francisco Standard Guide.

84. “Breathing Vitality into Sterile Soil,” San Francisco Chronicle, January 16, 1915.

85. Vennman, “Dragons, Dummies, and Royals,” 18.

86. Todd, Story of the Exposition, 3:291–92, 289–90.

87. Todd, Story of the Exposition, 3:291–92.

88. “Modern Transportation and Communications in the Republic of China,” Report presented by Mr. C. T. Hsia, special commissioner to the Ministry of Communications of Peking, China, to the Panama-Pacific International Exposition, Palace of Transportation, n.d. Copy in Mechanics’ Institute Library.

89. For discussions of Japanese participation at earlier fairs, see Christ, “Sole Guardians”; Christ, “Japan’s Seven Acres”; Clevenger, “Through Western Eyes”; and Harris, “All the World a Melting Pot?”

90. Panama-Pacific International Exposition Company, Official Guide, 85. Like China, Japan also showcased its modern forms of transportation at the exposition, as a pamphlet on its railways reveals. See “Japan: Imperial Government Railways,” Japan, PPIE-SFPL.

91. Kyokwai, Japan and Her Exhibits, 161–67.

92. “Oriental Has Parable for Occidentals,” San Francisco Examiner, March 7, 1915.

93. “Japanese Celebrate on Their New Year’s Day,” San Francisco Chronicle, February 12, 1915; “To Observe Old Japanese Holiday,” San Francisco Chronicle, March 2, 1915; and “Japan to Celebrate Festival of Iris,” San Francisco Chronicle, May 2, 1915.

94. “Japan’s Ideal as Seen at Exposition,” San Francisco Chronicle, April 9, 1915.

95. “Republic’s Hymn Rings over Fair,” San Francisco Examiner, March 10, 1915.

96. “Republic’s Hymn”; and “Chinese Dedicate Building Today: Boys and Girls of Flowery Kingdom Will Sing in English,” San Francisco Chronicle, March 9, 1915.

97. “No Orientalism for Chinese Programme,” San Francisco Chronicle, September 23, 1915.

98. “Friendship of China for U.S. Is Emphasized,” San Francisco Chronicle, September 24, 1915.

99. “Far East Students at the Exposition,” San Francisco Chronicle, August 5, 1915.

100. Special Events to L. Cassassa, September 25, 1915, folder 20, carton 143, PPIE-BL; and Mr. Levy to Mr. Kingsley, August 28, 1915, folder 20, carton 143, PPIE-BL.

101. “Exposition Honors Japan: Great Celebration Planned,” San Francisco Chronicle, February 12, 1915.

102. “Unique Features for Japan’s Day,” San Francisco Chronicle, February 23, 1915.

103. Ambassador Kato, quoted in Lockyer, “Japan at the Exhibition,” 137–38.

104. Photograph, no title, San Francisco Examiner, May 6, 1915.

105. “Japanese Celebrate on Their New Year’s Day,” San Francisco Chronicle, February 12, 1915. See also “Society Women Guests at Japanese Doll Fete,” San Francisco Examiner, March 4, 1915.

106. Cherubim A. Quizon and Patricia O. Afable, “Rethinking Display of Filipinos at St. Louis: Embracing Heartbreak and Irony,” Philippine Studies 52 (2004): 439–44.

107. “Panama-Pacific International Exposition 1915,” Exhibits: Info, Advance, PPIE-SFPL.

108. Herbert P. Woodin to Moore, February 17, 1913, Liquor and Red-Light Abatement, carton 23, PPIE-BL.

109. San Francisco Standard Guide.

110. Panama-Pacific International Exposition, Facts for Boosters, “Population” section, Bancroft Library.

111. Potter and Gray, Lure of San Francisco, 62.

112. That the book had an ulterior motive is made clear in the preface, which reads in part: “May this little book aid in the general awakening of the dormant love of every Californian for his possessions and be a suggestion to the casual visitor that we are entitled to the dignity of age.” Potter and Gray, Lure of San Francisco, n.p.

113. “Greetings to Our Chinese Guests,” San Francisco Examiner, May 6, 1915, editorial page; and “Elaine Is Liberated by Her Chinese Captors,” San Francisco Examiner, May 3, 1915.

114. “Chinese Tong War Brought to an End,” San Francisco Chronicle, April 27, 1915; and “Tongs Peace May Be Only Short-Lived,” San Francisco Chronicle, April 28, 1915.

115. See Lee, Orientals, 83–105, for a discussion of the ways in which white Americans perceived Asians as a sexual threat.

116. “Japan’s Plans to Invade and Conquer the United States Revealed by Its Own ‘Bernhardi,’” San Francisco Examiner, American Magazine section, October 3 and October 10, 1915. My thanks to Robert Chase for pointing me to these articles.

117. “Japan Artistic and Japan Beautiful at the Panama-Pacific Int. Exp,” Japan, PPIE-SFPL.

118. My thanks to Constance Chen for this formulation of Western images of a “Japan that did not exist.”

119. Rydell, All the World’s a Fair, 228.

120. See Lockyer, “Japan at the Exhibition,” in Umesao, Lockyer, and Yoshida, Collection and Representations, for a clear articulation of this dilemma for Japan.

5. Sex and Other Vices at the Fair

1. Harry Thiederman to Moore, n.d., Protests against Certain Concessions, carton 23, PPIE-BL.

2. On concerns about morality and the city during the Progressive Era, see Boyer, Urban Masses.

3. Boyer, Urban Masses. On female moral reformers see Pascoe, Relations of Rescue; Scott, Natural Allies; and Frankel and Dye, Gender, Class.

4. Frederick P. Church to Moore, February 18, 1913, Liquor and Red-Light Abatement, carton 23, PPIE-BL.

5. “Warning, the Women of San Francisco,” Panama-Pacific International Exposition Pamphlets, Bancroft Library.

6. See Simpson, Problems Women Solved, for the discussion of this issue and the story of one of these “lost” women, 62–66.

7. See Boyd, Wide-Open Town, for an excellent overview of the evolution of San Francisco’s vice district and the city’s reputation as a “wide-open town.”

8. “‘Barbary Coast’ Menaced,” New York Times, September 15, 1913.

9. Captain Meagher quoted in San Francisco Argonaut 71 (December 14, 1912): 389.

10. Gendzel, “Vigilantes and Boosters,” 282.

11. John D. Barry column, San Francisco Bulletin, March 22, 1912.

12. Woods, “A Penchant for Probity,” in Deverell and Sitton, California Progressivism Revisited, 102.

13. For the history of Chinese prostitutes in San Francisco, see Tong, Unsubmissive Women.

14. For a brief discussion of the Woman’s Christian Temperance Union’s crusade against midway shows, see Parker, Purifying America, 129–32.

15. Panama-Pacific International Exposition Company, California Invites the World.

16. For a discussion of this phenomenon in the Bay Area (Oakland) in the 1910s and 1920s, see Odem, Delinquent Daughters, especially chapter 2.

17. Sharon Ullman demonstrates that young working-class women did engage in sex for pay in Northern California in ways that challenged middle-class norms and the traditional images of “the prostitute.” Ullman, Sex Seen, 103–36. For discussions of working-class attitudes toward sexuality in a broader context, see Meyerowitz, Women Adrift; Stansell, City of Women; Peiss, Cheap Amusements; and Hunter, To ’Joy My Freedom. Mary Odem, however, reminds us not to overemphasize the difference between working- and middle-class sexual mores. Many working-class parents, for instance, valued female chastity just as highly as did middle-class parents. Moreover, such attitudes were contingent on religious and ethnic background. Odem, Delinquent Daughters, 38–47.

18. D’Emilio and Freedman, Intimate Matters, 196–97. See also Mumford, Interzones.

19. Ullman, Sex Seen, 136.

20. At least one nonwhite male worker did behave in a way that was deemed inappropriate toward white women, and he was fired. See Frank Burt to Cumming, September 3, 1915, Correspondence Re. Complaints, carton 8, PPIE-BL.

21. Rosen, Lost Sisterhood, 113; and Connolly, Response to Prostitution, 118.

22. For discussions of women’s organizations during the Progressive Era, see Scott, Natural Allies. For an excellent discussion of “female moral authority” in the American West, including San Francisco, see Pascoe, Relations of Rescue.

23. Luker, “Sex, Social Hygiene,” 611. For more on female reformers’ work with young women in particular, see Odem, Delinquent Daughters.

24. See Gullett, “City Mothers,” in Harris and McNamara, Women and the Structure of Society, for a discussion of women’s political organizations in the city immediately following suffrage.

25. The Record of the Young Women’s Christian Association of San Francisco 2 (1913): 2, copy in San Francisco and Marin YWCA Archives. See also “Befriending Young Girls,” Monitor, March 20, 1915; “The Society for Befriending Girls,” Monitor, November 6, 1915; “Society for Befriending Girls Really Does That,” San Francisco Chronicle, April 6, 1915; and “Society for Befriending Girls,” Working Girls—Restrooms and Quarters, carton 23, PPIE-BL.

26. Moore to Rev. Charles N. Lathrop, January 15, 1915, Complaints—immorality, moral standards, carton 9, PPIE-BL.

27. See History of the San Francisco Young Women’s Christian Association, San Francisco and Marin YWCA Archives, for more information on earlier Traveler’s Aid work.

28. “Survey of Traveler’s Aid Work,” Traveler’s Aid Society of California, carton 10, Hearst Papers.

29. The Catholic Society for Befriending Girls also established a presence on the fairgrounds, staffing a rest room in the Palace of Horticulture in an attempt to provide amusement and resources for working women and for visitors.

30. Panama-Pacific International Exposition Company, Condensed Facts, copy in Pamphlets, PPIE-SFPL.

31. Phoebe Hearst biographer Alexandra Nickliss paints the relationship in glowing terms, glossing over the conflicts that erupted between the two groups. One reason may be that she ignores the conflicts that arose over the Joy Zone, and they were the clearest indication that the PPIE board was not interested in supporting the social goals of the Woman’s Board. See Nickliss, “Phoebe Apperson Hearst.” See also Ethington, The Public City, 368.

32. “The Board of Lady Managers may be made . . . ,” folder 48, box 5, Hale Papers.

33. Gavin McNab to PPIE Board of Directors, October 24, 1911, “Women’s Affairs,” carton 71, PPIE-BL.

34. Curtis H. Lindley to John A. Britton, October 27, 1911, “Women’s Affairs,” carton 71, PPIE-BL.

35. Executive Secretary Cummings reported to Moore in relation to the episode: “Mrs. Lewandowski submitted an agreement to us in connection with the ‘Woman’s Affairs,’ and it was submitted to Mr. McNab and Mr. Metson. Both of them, without the knowledge of the other, fell on the agreement and smote it, hip and thigh. Then for good measure, jumped on it some more. They are both opposed to the whole proposition and claim it is very dangerous to delegate any powers to any outside corporation.” J. M. Cumming to Moore, October 27, 1911, J. M. Cumming correspondence with Charles C. Moore, carton 39, PPIE-BL.

36. Helen P. Sanborn to Committee on Women’s Affairs, November 15, 1911, folder 48, box 5, Hale Papers.

37. Chairman, Committee on Women’s Affairs, to Board of Directors, December 12, 1911, San Francisco—PPIE 1915, carton 10, Hearst Papers.

38. Helen P. Sanborn to Hale, March 6, 1915, folder 48, box 5, Hale Papers.

39. Helen P. Sanborn to R. B. Hale, September 27, 1914, Women’s Affairs, carton 71, PPIE-BL.

40. Helen P. Sanborn to R. B. Hale, October 4, 1914, Women’s Affairs, carton 71, PPIE-BL.

41. Helen P. Sanborn to My dear Muttchen [Phoebe Hearst], undated, box 46, Hearst Papers, cited in Nickliss, “Phoebe Apperson Hearst,” 335. Emphasis in the original.

42. Cassie Hitchcock to Cumming, December 29, 1914, Correspondence with City Clubs and Organizations, carton 22, PPIE-BL.

43. Executive Secretary, Exposition Committee of YWCA, to H. D. H. Connick, December 19, 1913, YWCA (#4), carton 10, Hearst Papers.

44. Minutes of Director’s Meeting of the Traveler’s Aid Society of California, March 26, 1915, Traveler’s Aid Society of California, carton 10, Hearst Papers.

45. Anna Pratt Simpson to Rueben Brooks Hale, March 29, 1915, Women’s Affairs, carton 71, PPIE-BL.

46. President’s Weekly Letter to Directors, March 28, 1913, folder 11M, box 30, Rolph Papers.

47. Helen Bary, “Bills before California’s Legislature,” Woman’s Bulletin, April 1913; and “Items of California’s Legislative Session, 1912–13,” Woman’s Bulletin, June 1913.

48. Hichborn, Story of the Session, 290.

49. B. H. Winsland to Moore, February 17, 1913, Liquor and Red-Light Abatement, carton 23, PPIE-BL.

50. According to Franklin Hichborn, Progressive press correspondent, one of the names of the Woman’s Board members that he read as an example of support of the measure was that of Annie Bidwell, who later informed the Senate that she had no knowledge of the resolutions and would not have supported them had she known of them. See Hichborn, Story of the Session, 290–91n280.

51. Hichborn, Story of the Session, 292. By February 1913, Moore’s office had received ninety-one letters from eighteen states, as well as a few from Canada. President’s Weekly Letter to Directors, February 25, 1913, folder 11M, box 30, Rolph Papers.

52. The groups included the California Federation of Women’s Clubs, the California Civic League, the California Mother’s Congress, the Women’s Parliament, the Alameda County Welfare League, the Social Workers of Central California, the Juvenile Protective Association of San Francisco, and the Council of Women, as well as numerous churches. “Objections Answered, Leaflet No. 8,” Red-Light Injunction, carton 9, Hearst Papers.

53. Teresa Hurley and Jarrod Harrison, “Awed by the Women’s Clubs: Women Voters and Moral Reform, 1913–1914,” in Cherny, Irwin, and Wilson, California Women and Politics, 242.

54. Shumsky, “Tacit Acceptance,” 665–79.

55. Hichborn, Story of the Session, 322.

56. “The Red Light Injunction and Abatement Law, Leaflet No. 5,” Red-Light Abatement, carton 9, Hearst Papers.

57. George S. Wheeler to Moore, February 17, 1913, Liquor and Red-Light Abatement, carton 23, PPIE-BL.

58. Edward S. Lee to Moore, February 15, 1913, Liquor and Red-Light Abatement, carton 23, PPIE-BL. See other letters in this folder for other examples from across the nation.

59. Hichborn, Story of the Session, 338.

60. “Redlight Is Given Curb by Senate,” San Francisco Examiner, March 29, 1913.

61. See Rydell and Kroes, Buffalo Bill in Bologna, 68.

62. Panama-Pacific International Exposition Company, California Invites the World.

63. See Moore to Rev. Charles N. Lathrop, January 25, 1915, Complaints—immorality, moral standards, carton 9, PPIE-BL.

64. The committee rejected the first proposal for the ’49 Camp because of “objectionable features” and only approved the project after they were removed. The members also approved a public dance hall pending a guarantee of “absolutely genteel” conduct. Minutes of Committee on Concessions and Admissions, December 2, 1912, and March 23, 1914, vol. 122, PPIE-BL.

65. “Warnings to Girls from San Francisco,” Survey 34 (1915): 39; “The Y.W.C.A. at Work in the Joy Zone,” Survey 34 (1915): 389; and “Facts on Vice in San Francisco,” Survey 34 (1915).

66. “Immorality at Panama Exposition,” Manitoba Free Press, March 25, 1915, copy in Protests against Certain Concessions, carton 23, PPIE-BL.

67. Johnson, “Moral Conditions,” 589–609.

68. Helen Dare, “Misrepresenting San Francisco,” San Francisco Chronicle, April 11, 1915.

69. Dare, “Misrepresenting San Francisco.”

70. Helen Dare, “Strained Relations between the Clubman and the Lady,” San Francisco Chronicle, September 8, 1915.

71. Dare, “Strained Relations.”

72. See Gullett, “City Mothers,” in Harris and McNamara, Women and the Structure of Society, 150–51, for a discussion of women’s political organizations in the city immediately following suffrage.

73. Gullett, “City Mothers,” in Harris and McNamara, Women and the Structure of Society.

74. “Fair Question Fairly Answered,” San Francisco Examiner, April 1, 1915.

75. “Coast Lid Floats on Heavy Sea of Liquor,” San Francisco Examiner, April 11, 1915.

76. “Demand Is Made that Low Dives Be Closed,” San Francisco Examiner, April 10, 1915.

77. “Barbary Coast under Scrutiny,” San Francisco Chronicle, June 12, 1915; and “Coast Dives Condemned in Report,” San Francisco Examiner, June 9, 1915.

78. “Divekeepers Defeated in Evading Law,” San Francisco Examiner, June 15, 1915.

79. “Now It’s Up to the Police Board,” San Francisco Examiner, June 13, 1915.

80. “Says Dance Halls Need Regulation,” San Francisco Chronicle, March 20, 1915; and “Penny Dance Will Be Opened Next Month,” San Francisco Chronicle, March 29, 1915.

81. “A Stockholder” to C. C. Moore, September 22, 1915, Complaints, carton 9, PPIE-BL.

82. “Girl Shows Closed by the Purity Censors,” San Francisco Chronicle, October 8, 1915.

83. “The Morals of San Francisco,” Sunset 34 (1915): 853–56.

84. Editorial, Monitor, March 20, 1915; and “Talking over San Francisco,” Monitor, May 22, 1915.

85. “A friend of long standing” to Moore, June 16, 1915, Protests against Certain Concessions, carton 23, PPIE-BL.

86. Frances G. Gilmore to Moore, July 18, 1915, Protests against Certain Concessions, carton 23, PPIE-BL.

87. See Julia George to Moore, July 16, 1915, Protests against Certain Concessions, carton 23, PPIE-BL, for report on the situation at Streets of Cairo specifically.

88. Albert W. Palmer to C. C. Moore, October 6, 1915, Protests against Certain Concessions, carton 23, PPIE-BL.

89. Untitled report, begins “After this talk the crowd,” Protests against Certain Concessions, carton 23, PPIE-BL.

90. See Ullman, Sex Seen, for a discussion of this conflict.

91. “’49 Camp’s Sad, Lid on Gambling,” San Francisco Examiner, April 13, 1915.

92. Albert W. Palmer to C. C. Moore, October 6, 1915, Protests against Certain Concessions, carton 23, PPIE-BL.

93. “Cairo Streets Closed by Woman’s Board,” San Francisco Examiner, August 1, 1915; and “Biff! Goes the Lid on this Oriental Joy Zone Concession,” San Francisco Chronicle, August 20, 1915.

94. Minutes of Committee on Concessions and Admissions, June 14, 1915, and June 21, 1915, vol. 123, PPIE-BL.

95. Mary S. Merrill to Moore, July 23, 1915, Protests against Certain Concessions, carton 23, PPIE-BL.

96. Waitresses were forbidden from soliciting customers in front of the cafe, drinking with customers, or smoking in public. They also were forbidden from conversing with customers, except to take orders and deliver food, and the café was to close at midnight exactly. Minutes of the Committee on Concessions and Admissions, August 9, 1915, and August 30, 1915, vol. 123, PPIE-BL.

97. Minutes of the Committee on Concessions and Admissions, August 9, 1915, and August 30, 1915, vol. 123, PPIE-BL.

98. Elizabeth Wilson, “By the Fountain of Energy,” Association Monthly 9 (1915): 428.

99. Gullett argues that after San Francisco women forced the closure of city dance halls in 1913, one report indicated that “dance hall girls rejected the offers of assistance because they valued the independence of their work.” Their stance put them in opposition to female reformers, who viewed their activities as dangerous and immoral. Gullett, “City Mothers,” in Harris and McNamara, Women and the Structure of Society, 158.

100. See Pascoe, Relations of Rescue, for a discussion of the invention of “female moral authority.”

101. Although in many urban centers elite men united to oppose obscenity, this phenomenon did not occur in San Francisco. Nicola Beisel explores a similar phenomenon in Philadelphia in her “Class, Culture, and Campaigns,” 44–62. Gerald Woods argues that it was San Francisco’s immigrant, working-class culture that in fact kept alive a tolerance for vice. Woods, “A Penchant for Probity,” in Deverell and Sitton, California Progressivism Revisited, 96–116.

102. Leigh Ann Wheeler examines debates over vice in Minneapolis in the 1920s after the enfranchisement of women and argues that male opposition to female anti-obscenity reform was motivated by the desire to defeat female political power. Wheeler, “Battling over Burlesque,” 149.

103. The commission comprised Matt I. Sullivan, Marshall Stimson, Chester H. Rowell, and Arthur Arlett, all Progressive Party members appointed by Governor Johnson. See California Blue Book, 1913–1915 (Sacramento: California State Printing Office, 1915), 486–87, for biographical sketches of each man. The State Commission was the body appointed to oversee the spending of the funds raised through the state bond issue, which passed in November of 1910, for an amount that totaled $5 million. The commission was charged with ensuring that the money was expended to “establish, maintain, operate and support the Exposition.” The Exposition Company thus applied to the commission for funds, and the commission had to approve all expenditures of the money. Todd notes that the relationship between the two bodies was harmonious, but this particular episode suggests otherwise. Todd, Story of the Exposition, 1:119–21.

104. Matt Sullivan to Board of Directors, September 21, 1915, Protests against Certain Concessions, carton 23, PPIE-BL.

105. “Says that ’49 Camp Lid Will Stay Down,” San Francisco Examiner, September 25, 1915.

106. “State’s Protest Ends ’49 Gaming,” San Francisco Examiner, September 24, 1915; and “Committee Rules Gaming Tables out of ’49 Camp,” San Francisco Chronicle, September 24, 1915.

107. “Gaming Ended, Fair ’49 Camp Shuts Its Gates,” San Francisco Examiner, October 3, 1915.

108. “Fair Curtain to Drop on ‘Girl Shows,’” San Francisco Examiner, October 7, 1915.

109. “Girl Shows Closed by the Purity Censors,” San Francisco Chronicle, October 8, 1915.

110. Rowell continued, “We are told there is gambling in the Japan Beautiful, but do not know for certain. I believe it is alleged that theer [sic] is a gambling club of Zone employees. We will take any necessary steps to close any infringements of the law of which we are told if we find upon investigation that we are correctly informed.” “Zone Is Minus Its Girl Shows,” San Francisco Examiner, October 8, 1915.

6. Performing Work

1. “Adoption of White Babe Is Questioned,” San Francisco Chronicle, April 14, 1915.

2. “Adoption of White Babe.”

3. Princess Wenona’s given name was Lillian Frances Smith, and she was a world-famous performer who had performed for Queen Victoria in 1887. Born in 1871, she was a bitter rival of Annie Oakley’s and was touted as a Sioux Indian princess, but the reality of her heritage is unknown. Historian Michael Wallis asserts that she was Indian, since in the 1880 census she was labeled with an I for Indian. Record of her tribal affiliation, however, has not survived. It is unlikely that she was in fact Sioux, given that she was born in California. For more information on Smith, see Wallis, The Real Wild West, 309–16. See also WGBH, “Biography: Lillian Smith,” American Experience, 2006, http://www.pbs.org/wgbh/americanexperience/features/biography/oakley-smith/.

4. “Fulfilling an Old Friendship Vow, Squaw Adopts Child of White Girl,” April 29, 1915, The Rockford Register Gazette. Thank you to Julia Bricklin for pointing me to this article.

5. Dobkin, “A Twenty-Five-Million-Dollar Mirage,” in Benedict, Anthropology of World’s Fairs.

6. See Quizon and Afable, “Rethinking Display of Filipinos”; Parezo and Fowler, Anthropology Goes to the Fair; and Gilbert, Whose Fair?

7. The work of James Scott, Robin D. G. Kelly, Mona Domosh, and Tim Cresswell all inform my thinking here. Each offers ways to analyze an individual’s behavior as a political act. See Kelley, “We Are Not What We Seem,” 75–112; Domosh, “Those ‘Gorgeous Incongruities,’” 209–26; and Cresswell, In Place/Out of Place, 9.

8. Kazin, Barons of Labor; and Issel and Cherny, San Francisco.

9. Dan P. Regan to John O’Connell, March 19, 1915, Labor Organizations and Trade Associations, carton 93, PPIE-BL.

10. Knight, Industrial Relations, 98–99. Philip Foner notes that “unskilled workers [in San Francisco] gained improvements in working conditions ordinarily enjoyed only by skilled craftsmen.” See his History of the Labor Movement, 3:293.

11. Knight, Industrial Relations, 97.

12. Cobble, Dishing It Out, 61.

13. Baker, “A Corner in Labor.”

14. Todd, Story of the Exposition, 1:325–30.

15. Moore responded to the agreement with the following statement: “Of course, you realized fully that being a public institution, we cannot, any more than can a Department of the Government, a State of the Union, or a municipality, make any agreements involving restrictive conditions, but your earnest and conscientious efforts to aid a work that is designed to be an expression of national sentiment and for public welfare, is most pleasing and causes us to feel encouraged in the belief that the difficulties encountered in previous Expositions will be eliminated and that the work can proceed along the lines of national credit and local pride and offer a guarantee of industrial satisfaction.” Moore to Labor Council and Building Trades Council, September 7, 1912, Labor Conditions—Correspondence Re., carton 36, PPIE-BL.

16. C. W. Post to member of National Association of Manufacturers, September 30, 1912, Labor Conditions—Correspondence Re., carton 36, PPIE-BL.

17. Memorandum, undated attached to W. Francis to Moore, October 14, 1912, Correspondence with Clubs, Agencies, and Organizations, carton 22, PPIE-BL.

18. Panama-Pacific International Exposition Company, Good Business Judgment, copy in Bancroft Library.

19. Kazin, Barons of Labor, 229–30.

20. W. A. Jenkins to Connick, October 16, 1914, folder 20, carton 61, PPIE-BL.

21. Knight, Industrial Relations, 237.

22. See Miller, “Stockton Open Shop War”; Vaught, Cultivating California; and Daniel, Bitter Harvest.

23. Labor Clarion, January 15, 1915.

24. Dan P. Regan to John O’Connell, March 19, 1915, Labor Organizations and Trade Associations, carton 93, PPIE-BL.

25. Dan P. Regan to John O’Connell, March 19, 1915, Labor Organizations and Trade Associations, carton 93, PPIE-BL. See also “List of Steady Waitresses Who Were Employed at Vienna Café as Steady Waitresses,” March 23, 1915; SFLC to H. D. H. Connick, March 14, 1915; and SFLC to Connick, March 26, 1915—all in San Francisco-PPIE, carton 16, San Francisco Labor Council Papers.

26. John A. O’Connell to H. D. H. Connick, March 31, 1915, Labor Organizations and Trade Associations, carton 93, PPIE-BL. The establishments he listed were Old Faithful Inn, Why Café, Waffle Kitchen, Marine Café, Nurenberg Café, Muller’s Luxus Café, and the Inside Inn.

27. San Francisco Labor Council to H. D. H. Connick, March 29, 1915, San Francisco-PPIE, carton 16, San Francisco Labor Council Papers.

28. H. D. H. Connick to John O’Connell, March 31, 1915, San Francisco-PPIE, carton 16, San Francisco Labor Council Papers.

29. “Synopsis of Minutes of Regular Meeting Held April 9, 1915, SFLC,” Labor Clarion, April 16, 1915.

30. “Synopsis of Minutes of Regular Meeting,” Labor Clarion, April 23, 1915.

31. Laura Molleda to John O’Connell, April 29, 1915, Labor Organizations and Trade Associations, carton 93, PPIE-BL.

32. P. H. McCarthy to H. D. H. Connick, May 3, 1915, Labor Associations and Trade Associations, carton 93, PPIE-BL.

33. “Minutes of SFLC,” Labor Clarion, May 21, 1915.

34. Knight, Industrial Relations, 270–71.

35. Little has been written about culinary workers in the city. The exception is Dorothy Sue Cobble’s excellent work on waitresses, Dishing It Out, but she does not discuss relations between waitress locals and male trade union locals in the 1910s.

36. Knight, Industrial Relations, 291.

37. Koster, Law and Order, 5. See Gutman, Work, Culture, and Society; and Montgomery, Fall of the House of Labor, for introductions to this conflict between skilled and unskilled workers.

38. “Regulations for the Guidance of the Exposition Guards of the Panama-Pacific International Exposition,” PPIE-CHS.

39. S. L. Mash to C. C. Moore, January 14, 1915, Racial Discrimination, Charges of, carton 23, PPIE-BL; and J. S. Tobin to Moore, January 25, 1915, Racial Discrimination, Charges of, carton 23, PPIE-BL.

40. Eugene Shelby to Hardee, January 6, 1915, folder 22, carton 89, PPIE-BL.

41. Todd, Story of the Exposition, 2:279.

42. Todd, Story of the Exposition, 2:279.

43. Bulletin to cashiers, March 14, 1915, in Extracts of Daily Reports of the Guards, March–April 1915, carton 83, PPIE-BL.

44. On changing public sexuality, see D’Emilio and Freedman, Intimate Matters; and Ullman, Sex Seen.

45. Meyerowitz, Women Adrift; Peiss, Cheap Amusements; and Hunter, To ’Joy My Freedom.

46. “‘Let Us Look Pretty!’ Cry Girls at Fair,” San Francisco Examiner, June 12, 1915.

47. See Enstad, Ladies of Labor; Clark-Lewis, “‘This Work Had a End,’” in Groneman and Norton, “To Toil the Livelong Day,” 202–3; Hunter, To ’Joy My Freedom; and Green, Canal Builders.

48. “Extracts from Daily Reports of the Guards for August 4, 1915,” and “Extracts from Daily Reports of the Guards for August 20, 1915,” in Extracts from Daily Reports of the Guards, August 1915, carton 83, PPIE-BL.

49. Benson, Counter Cultures, 135.

50. “Says Dance Halls Need Regulation,” San Francisco Chronicle, March 20, 1915.

51. For a history of the work of working-girls’ clubs such as that done by YWCA-sponsored one at the fair, see Murolo, Common Ground.

52. “Welfare Work at the Panama-Pacific International Exposition,” Social Service, PPIE-SFPL.

53. “Report of Work: YWCA Building, Exposition Grounds, March 8, 1915,” YWCA (#2), carton 10, Hearst Papers.

54. “Report of Work: YWCA Building, Exposition Grounds, March 8, 1915,” YWCA (#2), carton 10, Hearst Papers.

55. Mix and Server, February 1920, 30, quoted in Cobble, Dishing It Out, 76.

56. Gullett, “City Mothers,” in Harris and McNamara, Women and the Structure of Society, 158.

57. See Mumford, Interzones, for an excellent discussion of how anxieties about interracial sex permeated the Progressive Era (and after).

58. Bederman, Manliness and Civilization, 4. See pages 1–5 for a discussion of the ways in which prizefighter Jack Johnson’s relationships with white women and his defeat of white fighter Jack Jeffries polarized the nation. The Johnson-Jeffries fight had been scheduled for San Francisco, but Governor Gillett refused to authorize it out of fear that it might jeopardize the chance to gain the PPIE. See Farr, Black Champion, 69–71.

59. See Lee, Orientals.

60. The report read, “Cpl. Stewart reports that he was informed by Mr. Wales that a colored janitor employed in the International Harvester Co. booth, made insulting remarks to Miss Andrews, Telephone Operator. After being identified by Miss Andrews, man was sent to Desk Sergeant.” “Extracts of Daily Reports of the Guards, March 31, 1915,” Extracts of Daily Reports of the Guards, March–April 1915, carton 83, PPIE-BL.

61. Frank Burt to Cumming, September 3, 1915, Correspondence Re. Complaints, carton 8, PPIE-BL.

62. The report describes Castro as “colored,” a term that could mean African American. Given that her surname was a Spanish one, it is also possible that she was of Hispanic descent. Nonetheless, it remains clear that she was perceived as “colored,” and thus “nonwhite,” as were the other attendants whose actions are described in this section. Extracts from Daily Reports of the Guards, July 25, 1915, Extracts from Daily Reports of the Guards, July 1915, carton 83, PPIE-BL.

63. A system of free and pay restrooms existed on the grounds, with quite a few more pay than free toilets available, causing confusion for visitors as to whether they should pay for using the facilities.

64. Extracts from Daily Reports of the Guards, July 25, 1915, Extracts from Daily Reports of the Guards, July 1915, carton 83, PPIE-BL.

65. It is worth noting that the position of washroom attendant was one of the few jobs available to blacks on the grounds, and these reports suggest that a large number of these attendants were African American. The same was true at the 1893 Columbian Exposition. See Reed, “All the World Is Here!,” 76.

66. Extracts from Daily Reports of the Guards, July 18, 1915, Extracts from Daily Reports of the Guards, July 1915, carton 83, PPIE-BL.

67. See Extracts from Daily Reports of the Guards, carton 83, PPIE-BL.

68. Bill Smith to C. C. Moore, 5 October 1915, Correspondence Re. Complaints, carton 9, PPIE-BL.

69. Bill Smith to C. C. Moore, 5 October 1915, Correspondence Re. Complaints, carton 9, PPIE-BL.

70. See Kelley, “We Are Not What We Seem,” for a discussion of the ways in which African Americans in the Jim Crow South asserted their identities through these kinds of interactions.

71. “Somali Natives at Fair ‘Broke,’” San Francisco Examiner, May 14, 1915. My thanks to Jamaica Hutchins for reminding me of this incident at a crucial juncture in my writing.

72. Todd, Story of the Exposition, 2:375.

73. “Somali Natives in U.S. Charge,” San Francisco Examiner, May 15, 1915.

74. Todd, Story of the Exposition, 2:375.

7. Women Take the Political Stage

1. “‘Pageant of Peace’ at Exposition Today,” San Francisco Chronicle, June 5, 1915.

2. “Programme Special Day, I.C.W.W.P.P.P., Friday, June 4, 1915,” Women Workers to Promote Permanent Peace, PPIE-SFPL.

3. Attendees at the International Conference of Women Workers to Promote Permanent Peace sang a hymn that Gilman composed titled “Peace to the World,” which I assume is the same song that this reporter titled the “Hymn of Peace.” Sewall, Women and Permanent Peace, 78.

4. “1915 Panama-Pacific International Exposition Bulletin of Information Concerning the International Conference of Women Workers to Promote Permanent Peace,” Women Workers to Promote Permanent Peace, PPIE-SFPL.

5. For a complete list of congresses and conventions held at the fair, see Todd, Story of the Exposition, 5:100–121.

6. Although the United States hosted dozens of world’s fairs after 1893, scholars of women and world’s fairs continue to return to Chicago’s 1893 Columbian Exposition, with its active Board of Lady Managers, impressive Woman’s Building, and Congress of Representative Women, as the highlight of women’s organizing. After Chicago, most scholars argue that women’s exhibits became integrated into the larger fair, and the activities of organized women ceased to be politically motivated. For examples of this argument, see Cordato, “Representing the Expansion”; Darney, “Women and World’s Fairs”; Gullett, “‘Our Great Opportunity’”; and Scott, Natural Allies, 128–34. Despite repeated attempts to participate in the Chicago fair, African American women’s organizations were repeatedly excluded. See F. L. Barnett, “The Reason Why,” in Ida B. Wells, The Reason Why: The Colored American Is Not in the World’s Columbian Exposition (Chicago: author, 1893), 79, quoted in Carby, Reconstructing Womanhood, 5; Bederman, Manliness and Civilization; and Boisseau, “White Queens,” 33–81.

7. See the essays in Boisseau and Markwyn, Gendering the Fair.

8. Mary Ann Irwin, “Going About and Doing Good: The Lady Managers of San Francisco, 1850–1880,” in Cherny, Irwin, and Wilson, California Women and Politics, 27–57.

9. See Ann Marie Wilson, “Neutral Territory: The Politics of Settlement Work in San Francisco, 1894–1920,” 97–122; Joshua Paddison, “‘Woman Is Everywhere the Purifier’: The Politics of Temperance, 1878–1919,” 59–76; and Susan Englander, “We Want the Ballot for Very Different Reasons: Clubwomen, Union Women, and the Internal Politics of the Suffrage Movement, 1896–1913,” 209–36—all in Cherny, Irwin, and Wilson, California Women and Politics.

10. Englander, “We Want the Ballot,” 215.

11. Englander, “We Want the Ballot,” 217–19.

12. Gullett, Becoming Citizens; and Gullett, “City Mothers,” in Harris and McNamara, Women and the Structure of Society, 149–59.

13. Sewell, Women and the Everyday City; Gullett, Becoming Citizens; Finnegan, Selling Suffrage; and Mead, How the Vote Was Won.

14. For an excellent discussion of the Twentieth-Century Club, see Sandra L. Henderson, “The Civitas of Women’s Political Culture: The Twentieth Century Club of Berkeley, 1904–1929,” in Cherny, Irwin, and Wilson, California Women and Politics, 175–208.

15. During the fair The Suffragist faithfully reported on activities at the suffrage booth and included the names of women who joined the Congressional Union for Woman Suffrage during the fair. It included many prominent women, including members of the Woman’s Board and wives of the Board of Directors. See the Suffragist issues from March to December 1915.

16. Panama-Pacific International Exposition Company, Education and Social Economy, 18–20.

17. Field, Sara Bard Field, 294; and Ewald and Clute, San Francisco Invites the World, 72.

18. Field, Sara Bard Field, 294.

19. “Four Notable Women at Suffrage Meeting,” San Francisco Chronicle, April 4, 1915.

20. “Mrs. Alice Park to Speak at Woman Suffrage Booth,” San Francisco Chronicle, April 17, 1915.

21. Anne Wilde, “Clubs Are Working for Suffrage,” San Francisco Chronicle, June 6, 1915. These women included Mrs. Michael H. De Young, Mrs. William Kent, Mrs. Helen Sanborn, and Mrs. Phoebe Hearst.

22. “Civic Center,” Oakland Sunshine, June 5, 1915.

23. See the September 18, 1915, issue of the San Francisco Bulletin.

24. “‘Women Don’t Vote,’ the Old Cry,” San Francisco Bulletin, September 18, 1915.

25. See “Mrs. Belmont Urges Activism,” San Francisco Bulletin, September 18, 1915.

26. See San Francisco Bulletin, September 18, 1915.

27. For discussions of racial formation during the Progressive Era, see Bederman, Manliness and Civilization; and Jacobson, Barbarian Virtues. Aileen Kraditor argues that woman suffragists drew on race-based arguments to build national support for the movement in Ideas of the Woman Suffrage Movement. See also Newman, White Women’s Rights.

28. “California Convention of the Congressional Union,” Suffragist, June 12, 1915.

29. “California Convention of the Congressional Union.”

30. “Suffrage at the Panama-Pacific Exposition,” Suffragist, April 10, 1915. The cartoon appeared on the cover of the Suffragist on September 15, 1914, in an issue that contained a number of articles deriding the U.S. government’s decision to enfranchise Filipino men (in the Philippines) but not white women at home, a situation to which white suffragists vehemently objected.

31. For a discussion of the national anxieties attached to the relationship of the United States to the Philippines, see Jacobson, Barbarian Virtues.

32. The cover of the Suffragist, September 15, 1914.

33. “The Federal Amendment and the Race Problem,” Suffragist, February 6, 1915.

34. “Women Gaining from Iceland to China,” San Francisco Chronicle, June 3, 1915.

35. Newman, White Women’s Rights, 8.

36. Hazel Carby argues that the presence of six black women at the World’s Congress of Representative Women during the 1893 Chicago Fair was not a sign of racial solidarity or of concern for African Americans. Rather, it was “part of a discourse of exoticism that pervaded the fair.” Carby, Reconstructing Womanhood, 5.

37. See “Pageants as a Means of Suffrage Propaganda,” Suffragist, November 28, 1914, for an indication of this very calculated approach to publicity.

38. “Fair Boosters in Fantastic Garb,” San Francisco Chronicle, August 20, 1915.

39. “Messengers Speed on to Washington,” San Francisco Bulletin, September 18, 1915.

40. Belmont’s comment echoed the Congressional Union’s controversial political strategy of actively campaigning against the party in power (in this case the Democrats) for refusing to support women’s suffrage. “First Ever Political Campaign of Women Opened at Exposition,” San Francisco Bulletin, September 14, 1915.

41. See McGerr, “Political Style and Woman’s Power,” 864–85, for a discussion of the evolution of women’s political style in the early twentieth century. He argues that rituals and pageants, such as the suffragists staged, “gave participants a sense of pride, solidarity, and power.”

42. Field, Sara Bard Field, 300.

43. Wilson, “By the Fountain of Energy,” 424–29.

44. “Women’s Club Interests Center on the Exposition Activities [sic] Young Women’s Christian Association Commands Attention,” San Francisco Chronicle, February 14, 1915.

45. “Welfare Work at the Panama-Pacific International Exposition,” Social Service, PPIE-SFPL.

46. “Y.W.C.A. Will Exhibit Results at Exposition,” San Francisco Chronicle, January 15, 1915.

47. The Detroit and Akron YWCAs won the respective titles for these contests. “Social Service at the Panama-Pacific International Exposition,” Social Service, PPIE-SFPL.

48. “Y.W.C.A. Will Exhibit Results.”

49. Adrienne Lash Jones notes that although the YWCA served black women, for instance, they were in separate branches, and the National Board had no black representation. She argues that despite the organizations’ multiracial membership, its practices perpetuated segregation. Adrienne Lash Jones, “Struggle among Saints: African American Women and the YWCA, 1870–1920,” in Mjagkij and Spratt, Men and Women Adrift, 160–87. In San Francisco, separate branches served both the Chinese and Japanese populations of the city. In Oakland, the YWCA served Native American women but only through separate clubs.

50. See “Little Stories from the Exposition,” Association Monthly 9 (1915): 465, for an expression of this attitude.

51. On the YWCA’s work with working women during this era, see Sarah Heath, “Negotiating White Womanhood: The Cincinnati YWCA and White Wage-Earning Women, 1918–1929,” in Mjagkij and Spratt, Men and Women Adrift, 86–110.

52. Wilson, “By the Fountain of Energy,” 424.

53. Wilson, “By the Fountain of Energy,” 425, 429, 428.

54. Wilson, “By the Fountain of Energy,” 428.

55. “Welfare Work at the Panama-Pacific International Exposition,” Social Service, PPIE-SFPL.

56. Newman, White Women’s Rights, 8.

57. “Report of Work: YWCA Building, Exposition Grounds, March 8, 1915,” YWCA (#2), carton 10, Hearst Papers.

58. “Report of Work: YWCA Building, Exposition Grounds, March 8, 1915,” YWCA (#2), carton 10, Hearst Papers.

59. “Social Service at the Panama-Pacific International Exposition,” Social Service, PPIE-SFPL.

60. For discussions of the YWCA’s racial policies, see Jones, “Struggle among Saints,” in Mjagkij and Spratt, Men and Women Adrift.

61. “Carry Call to Whole World,” Oakland Tribune, June 7, 1915; and Mrs. George W. Coleman, “The Women’s Congress of Missions,” Missionary Review of the World 28 (1915): 586.

62. “Questions Ability of Lobbying: But Suffrage Blooms Anyway,” Oakland Tribune, June 6, 1915. I have found no other examples of African American women playing such a prominent role in an integrated congress at the PPIE.

63. “The Woman’s Congress of Missions of the Panama-Pacific International Exposition, June 6–14, 1915,” folder 1, carton 142, PPIE-BL.

64. Todd, Story of the Exposition, 5:12.

65. Coleman, “Women’s Congress of Missions,” 586.

66. Sewall, Women, World War, xi.

67. Sewall, Women, World War, 28.

68. Sewall, Women, World War, 152.

69. Sewall, Women, World War, 38.

70. Shepard’s background is not clear from this talk. She speaks of being harassed as an “American” by Colombians, but she also says she was born in Bogotá. My assumption is that she was born in Colombia as the child of American parents. Further research did not reveal her family background.

71. Sewall, Women, World War, 53, 55, 58, 62.

72. Rupp, Worlds of Women.

73. Sewall, Women, World War, 58.

74. “The Second Pan-American Scientific Congress,” Bulletin of the Pan-American Union, 41 (1915), 777.

75. Ann Towns, “The Inter-American Commission of Women and Women’s Suffrage, 1920–1945,” Journal of Latin American Studies 42 (2010): 788.

76. Sewall, Women, World War, 45.

77. Sewall, Women, World War, 46.

78. Sewall, Women, World War, 151.

79. Sewall, Women, World War, 153, 152.

Epilogue

1. “Exit the Fair,” Monitor, December 11, 1915.

2. Mary Eugenia Pierce, Diary for 1915–1917, December 5, 1915, Pierce Family Papers.

3. De Vecchi, “The Panama-Pacific International Exposition,” copy in folder 16, box 52, San Francisco Misc/Ephemera Oversize Pamphlets Relating to the Panama-Pacific International Exposition, PPIE-CHS.

4. “Our Post Exposition Period,” San Francisco Chronicle, April 12, 1916.

5. William F. Benedict, “Nineteen-Fifteen: A Year of Contrasts,” San Francisco Chronicle, January 12, 1916.

6. “California Counties’ Development during Exposition Year,” San Francisco Chronicle, January 12, 1916.

7. Issel and Cherny, San Francisco, 177.

8. Issel and Cherny, San Francisco. 177–79. Although Governor William Stephens eventually reduced Thomas Mooney’s sentence to life in prison, the suspects’ struggle for freedom stretched into the 1930s.

9. Issel and Cherny, San Francisco, 181.

10. See Dobkin, “A Twenty-Five-Million-Dollar Mirage,” in Benedict, Anthropology of World’s Fairs, 93n47.

11. “No Individual Has a Right to Say He Gave Auditorium to City of San Francisco,” San Francisco Chronicle, August 27, 1922.

12. Ruth Newhall, San Francisco’s Enchanted Palace (San Francisco: Howell-North Books, 1967), 59.

13. Newhall, San Francisco’s Enchanted Palace, 60.

14. Newhall, San Francisco’s Enchanted Palace, 62–76.

15. Newhall, San Francisco’s Enchanted Palace, 78.