1 What Rainbows Are and How They Work
1 Television presents an interesting parallel to this, insofar as only one pixel of a television screen is lit up at any one instant. The ‘picture’ exists only in the mind of the viewer, who in order to perceive a coherent television image must literally ‘connect the dots’ on a screen that is, at all times, more than 99 per cent dark.
2 The Hitchhiker’s Guide to the Galaxy (London, 1979), p. 3. It is also possible that ‘42’ commemorated Adams’s big break in television: acting the part of a surgeon in episode 42 of the BBC’s acclaimed Monty Python’s Flying Circus; by its episode 45, he had been taken on as a writer. Adams explicitly rejected the rainbow and all similar explanations, however, insisting that this ‘completely ordinary’ number simply came into his head as he was typing – though this hardly proves that the rainbow was not involved in his thought process. See also Douglas Adams, The Original Hitchhiker Radio Scripts, ed. Geoffrey Perkins (London, 1985).
3 D. Roberson, I. Davies and J. Davidoff, ‘Color Categories Are Not Universal: Replications and New Evidence from a Stone-age Culture’, Journal of Experimental Psychology: General, LXXIX/3 (2000), pp. 369–98.
4 Ari Ben-Menahem, Historical Encyclopedia of Natural and Mathematical Sciences, Volume 1: Pre-science–1583 CE (Berlin, 2009), p. 1931; see also Raymond L. Lee, Jr and Alistair B. Fraser, The Rainbow Bridge: Rainbows in Art, Myth, and Science (University Park, PA, 2001), p. 236.
5 Specifically, this occurs because ‘large raindrops flatten as they fall but smaller ones do not’: Lee and Fraser, Rainbow Bridge, p. 324.
6 Ben-Menahem, Natural and Mathematical Sciences, p. 1917.
7 Except in the case of light rays that are exactly perpendicular to the water’s surface, which change speed but not direction.
8 Adapted from ‘Snell’s Law’, www.physicsclassroom.com, accessed 15 January 2016.
9 V. Ostdiek and D. Bord, Inquiry into Physics, 7th edn (Boston, MA, 2013), p. 377.
10 Rachel Kaufman, ‘Pictures: First Quadruple Rainbow Ever Caught on Camera’, 8 October 2011, http://news.nationalgeographic.com, accessed 27 April 2017.
11 Harald Edens, ‘Observations of the Quinary Rainbow’, www.weatherscapes.com, accessed 14 January 2016.
12 Les Cowley, ‘Supernumerary Rainbows’, Atmospheric Optics, www.atoptics.co.uk, accessed 22 January 2016.
13 A good explanation of this aspect of Young’s work, and its drawbacks, is provided in Philip Laven, ‘Ray Tracing with Interference (Young’s Method)’, 11 May 2003, www.philiplaven.com, accessed 27 April 2017.
14 That is, ‘0.7mm mean dia. with only an 8% (std. dev.) spread in diameters’: Cowley, ‘Supernumerary Rainbows’. Thomas Young suggested an even smaller size, of 250 to 500 μm, in his A Course of Lectures on Natural Philosophy and the Mechanical Arts (London, 1807), vol. I, p. 470.
15 Les Cowley, ‘Red Rainbows’, Atmospheric Optics, www.atoptics.co.uk, accessed 22 January 2016.
16 Les Cowley, ‘Plate Orientation and Plate Halos’, Atmospheric Optics, www.atoptics.co.uk, accessed 24 January 2016.
17 Lisa Winter, ‘Fire Rainbows and How They Form’, IFL Science, www.iflscience.com, accessed 3 January 2016.
18 Les Cowley, ‘Supralateral and Infralateral Arcs’, Atmospheric Optics, www.atoptics.co.uk, accessed 24 January 2016.
19 BBC Wiltshire, ‘“Rare” Upside Down Rainbow Spotted in Wiltshire’, BBC, www.bbc.com, 19 May 2014.
20 BBC Magazine, ‘Who, What, Why: How Common Are Upside-down Rainbows?’, BBC, www.bbc.co.uk, 18 January 2016.
2 Rainbows in the History of Scientific Enquiry
1 Quoted in M.L.G. Redhead, ‘Review: Wave-particle Duality’, British Journal for the Philosophy of Science, XXVIII/1 (1977), p. 65.
2 See Carl B. Boyer, ‘Robert Grosseteste on the Rainbow’, Osiris, XI (1954), p. 247.
3 Raymond L. Lee, Jr and Alistair B. Fraser, The Rainbow Bridge: Rainbows in Art, Myth, and Science (University Park, PA, 2001), p. 106.
4 Aydin M. Sayili, ‘The Aristotelian Explanation of the Rainbow’, Isis, XXX/1 (1939), p. 65.
5 Gloria Saltz Merker, ‘The Rainbow Mosaic at Pergamon and Aristotelian Color Theory’, American Journal of Archaeology, LXXI/1 (1967), p. 81.
6 Aristotle, De caelo, quoted in Sayili, ‘Aristotelian Explanation’, p. 68.
7 Sayili, ‘Aristotelian Explanation’, p. 71. This fact was temporarily obscured by an early nineteenth-century mistranslation of the word for ‘reflection’ that Aristotle used: ibid.
8 Aristotle, De anima, quoted in Sayili, ‘Aristotelian Explanation’, p. 72. Aristotle also considered, but explicitly rejected, the idea that light travels or has a speed: ibid., pp. 72–3. See also Lee and Fraser, Rainbow Bridge, p. 105.
9 We cannot be sure of this; though both men were alive in the last quarter of the fourth century BCE, Euclid’s life-dates are largely speculative.
10 In fairness, the tertiary and quaternary bows were not caught on camera until 2011: Jason Palmer, ‘“Quadruple Rainbow” Caught on Film for the First Time’, BBC, 6 October 2011, www.bbc.co.uk, accessed 27 April 2017; Rachel Kaufman, ‘Pictures: First Quadruple Rainbow Ever Caught on Camera’, http://news.nationalgeographic.com, accessed 27 April 2017.
11 This argument of course subverts, or is subverted by, the idea that the observer is at the centre of a hemispherical dome and that the rainbow is projected on the dome’s interior wall – which, if true, would place all stripes of the rainbow equidistant from the observer’s eye, despite their varying altitudes vis-à-vis the surface of the Earth.
12 These ideas are set forth in Aristotle’s Meteorologica: see Sayili, ‘Aristotelian Explanation’, pp. 73–4.
13 Aristotle, Meteorologica, quoted ibid., p. 74.
14 Lee and Fraser, Rainbow Bridge, p. 102.
15 Homer, for instance, called it a sideron ouranon (inverted metal bowl); and Hesiod, several centuries later, referred to the ‘dome of heaven’: N. L. Geisler and W. D. Watkins, Worlds Apart: A Handbook on World Views, 2nd edn (Eugene, OR, 2003), pp. 219–20.
16 Specifically, Posidonius held that the cloud acted as a single continuous reflector rather than a medium for thousands of tiny flat mirrors: I. G. Kidd, Posidonius, vol. II: The Commentary, Testimonia and Fragments 1–149 (Cambridge, 1988), pp. 124–5. See also Boyer, ‘Grosseteste on the Rainbow’, p. 248.
17 G. D. Williams, The Cosmic Viewpoint: A Study of Seneca’s ‘Natural Questions’ (Oxford, 2012), p. 70.
18 Williams, Cosmic Viewpoint, p. 71, italics in original.
19 Quoted in Williams, Cosmic Viewpoint, p. 75, n. 71.
20 Lee and Fraser, Rainbow Bridge, pp. 109, 138–9. Saint Isidore of Seville, for instance, accepted a quasi-Aristotelian explanation for the rainbow, but ascribed it to Pope Clement I: ibid., p. 139.
21 Boyer, ‘Grosseteste on the Rainbow’, p. 248; Lee and Fraser, Rainbow Bridge, pp. 36, 141.
22 R. H. Pierce, ‘The Rainbow Mosaic at Pergamon and Aristotelian Color Theory’, American Journal of Archaeology, LXXII/1 (1968), p. 75.
23 Quoted in Lee and Fraser, Rainbow Bridge, p. 139.
24 Ibid.
25 Ibid., p. 142. It should be noted that Chinese explanations for the rainbow remained fundamentally mythological at this date, relying on the concepts of yin and yang: Sayili, ‘Aristotelian Explanation’, p. 83.
26 Lee and Fraser, Rainbow Bridge, p. 146.
27 Boyer, ‘Grosseteste on the Rainbow’, p. 250.
28 D. C. Lindberg, ‘Roger Bacon’s Theory of the Rainbow: Progress or Regress?’, Isis, LVII/2 (1966), p. 240, n. 15 and 16.
29 Ibid., p. 238.
30 Philip Fisher, Wonder, the Rainbow, and the Aesthetics of Rare Experiences (Cambridge, MA, and London, 1998), p. 16. I would, of course, categorically dispute Fisher’s statement that the nearness he describes ‘was always, whether in mythology or science, understood’: ibid.
31 Boyer, ‘Grosseteste on the Rainbow’, p. 251.
32 ‘His treatise on the rainbow undoubtedly was widely read during the thirteenth and fourteenth centuries, for half a dozen manuscript copies of the work are extant in libraries at Madrid, Oxford, Florence, Groningen, Prague, and the Vatican’: Boyer, ‘Grosseteste on the Rainbow’, p. 251.
33 Ibid., pp. 250–51, 254–6.
34 Lee and Fraser, Rainbow Bridge, p. 160.
35 Boyer, ‘Grosseteste on the Rainbow’, p. 252, n. 15.
36 Ibid., p. 254; for the colours themselves, see Lee and Fraser, Rainbow Bridge, p. 159.
37 Lindberg, ‘Bacon’s Theory’, p. 236.
38 Boyer, ‘Grosseteste on the Rainbow’, p. 254; Lindberg, ‘Bacon’s Theory’, p. 237.
39 J. H. Bridges, ed., The Opus majus of Roger Bacon (London, 1900), vol. II, p. 187.
40 Lindberg, ‘Bacon’s Theory’, p. 242.
41 Ibid., p. 236. ‘A similar idea is found in Avicenna, but never had it been developed to the level found in Bacon’s discussion’: ibid., p. 244.
42 Ibid., p. 246.
43 A. C. Crombie, The History of Science from Augustine to Galileo [1959] (New York, 1995), p. 124; Theodoric quoted in Lee and Fraser, Rainbow Bridge, p. 163.
44 Lee and Fraser, Rainbow Bridge, p. 164, brackets and italics in original.
45 Ibid., p. 162; similarities between the work of Theodoric and Qutb have generally been counted as a ‘curious coincidence’ or the result of a shared intellectual descent from al-Haytham, rather than as a result of direct influence in either direction: Crombie, Augustine to Galileo, p. 124.
46 Lee and Fraser, Rainbow Bridge, p. 166. For a far less positive view of Theodoric’s contributions, see R. C. Dales, The Scientific Achievement of the Middle Ages [1973] (Philadelphia, PA, 1994), pp. 94–5.
47 In Commentari sopra la storia e le teorie dell’ottica (Bologna, 1814), vol. I, pp. 149–80. For the view that Theodoric’s work had been ‘overlooked for hundreds of years’ prior to 1814, see Dales, Scientific Achievement, p. 94.
48 Carl Boyer, ‘Kepler’s Explanation of the Rainbow’, American Journal of Physics, XVIII/6 (1950), p. 360; R. W. Wood, Physical Optics (New York, 1928), p. 342, quoted in Boyer, ‘Kepler’s Explanation’, p. 360.
49 For instance, Leonard Digges (b. 1520) and William Gilbert (1544–1603): see Lee and Fraser, Rainbow Bridge, pp. 170 and 174–6; Boyer, ‘Kepler’s Explanation’, p. 360.
50 Quoted in Lee and Fraser, Rainbow Bridge, p. 171.
51 Crombie, Augustine to Galileo, p. 124; Boyer, ‘Kepler’s Explanation’, p. 360.
52 R. E. Ockenden, ‘Marco Antonio de Dominis and His Explanation of the Rainbow’, Isis, XXVI/1 (1936), p. 45.
53 Pierre Duhem, ‘History of Physics’, in Essays in the History and Philosophy of Science, ed. and trans. Roger Ariew and Peter Barker (Indianapolis, IN, 1996), p. 172.
54 Boyer, ‘Kepler’s Explanation’, p. 366, which also advances the speculation that the Theodorician explanation could have been passed even beyond de Dominis’s lifetime, via a (now lost) treatise written by Willebrord Snellius (1580–1626) in the last decade of his life.
55 All quotations in this paragraph are from Boyer, ‘Kepler’s Explanation’, p. 361.
56 Kepler’s Paralipomena (Frankfurt, 1604), cited in Boyer, ‘Kepler’s Explanation’, p. 362.
57 Boyer, ‘Kepler’s Explanation’, p. 363; Lee and Fraser, Rainbow Bridge, p. 355, n. 189.
58 He also believed that the radius of the secondary bow was 56 degrees: Boyer, ‘Kepler’s Explanation’, p. 365.
59 C. B. Boyer, ‘Descartes and the Radius of the Rainbow’, Isis, XLIII/2 (1952), p. 95.
60 Ockenden, ‘Marco Antonio de Dominis’, p. 45. For the commonplace view that Descartes must have seen de Dominis’s work, see for instance Crombie, Augustine to Galileo, p. 124.
61 Boyer, ‘Descartes and the Radius of the Rainbow’, p. 95.
62 Lee and Fraser, Rainbow Bridge, p. 184.
63 Karoly Simonyi, A Cultural History of Physics, trans. David Kramer (Boca Raton, FL, 2012), p. 229.
64 Robert Hooke, An Attempt to Prove the Motion of the Earth from Observations (London, 1674), p. 2.
65 See Lee and Fraser, Rainbow Bridge, p. 186.
66 V. Ostdiek and D. Bord, Inquiry into Physics (7th edn, Boston, MA, 2013), p. 377.
67 Simonyi, Cultural History of Physics, p. 228.
68 Lee and Fraser, Rainbow Bridge, p. 193.
69 Ibid., p. 192.
70 J. L. Epstein and M. L. Greenberg, ‘Decomposing Newton’s Rainbow’, Journal of the History of Ideas, XLV/1 (1984), p. 116.
71 Lee and Fraser, Rainbow Bridge, p. 195.
72 See especially ibid., pp. 198–9.
73 A. E. Shapiro, ed., The Optical Papers of Isaac Newton (Cambridge, 1984), vol. I, p. 51.
74 Lee and Fraser, Rainbow Bridge, pp. 204, 206.
75 Epstein and Greenberg, ‘Decomposing Newton’s Rainbow’, p. 117.
76 ‘Thus Newton failed in his quest to find a general mathematical relationship between color and refraction’: Lee and Fraser, Rainbow Bridge, p. 202.
77 R. H. Stuewer, ‘Was Newton’s “Wave-particle Duality” Consistent with Newton’s Observations?’, Isis, LX/3 (1969), p. 393.
78 Robert Hooke, Micrographia, Or Some Physiological Descriptions of Minute Bodies Made with Magnifying Glasses . . . (London, 1665). Wave theory was further elaborated by Christiaan Huygens (1629–1695) in his Traité de la lumière (Leiden, 1690) and would eventually supplant the particle theory when it was found that the latter could not explain diffraction. However, the ‘corpuscularianism’ of Newton and Descartes was also adhered to by Pierre Gassendi, Thomas Hobbes, John Locke, Robert Boyle and others. None of this stopped Robert Watt from arguing in favour of Aristotelian whole-cloud rainbow production as late as 1819.
79 A. Lande, ‘The Decline and Fall of Quantum Dualism’, Philosophy of Science, XXXVIII/2 (1971), p. 221. The idea that Newton himself arrived at an early version of this ‘wave-particle duality’ theory has also been robustly attacked: see Stuewer, ‘Newton’s “Wave-particle Duality”’, pp. 392, 394, and R. H. Stuewer, ‘A Critical Analysis of Newton’s Work on Diffraction’, Isis, LXI/2 (1970), pp. 188–205.
80 Lee and Fraser, Rainbow Bridge, p. 220.
3 Rainbows and Myth
1 See especially Bernhard Lang, ‘Non-Semitic Deluge Stories and the Book of Genesis: A Bibliographical and Critical Survey’, Anthropos, LXXX (1985), pp. 605–16. On the Gran Chaco tribes mentioned, see Alfred Métraux, Myths of the Toba and Pilagá Indians of the Gran Chaco (Phildaelphia, PA, 1946), p. 29.
2 A. R. Radcliffe-Brown, ‘The Rainbow-serpent Myth of Australia’, Journal of the Royal Anthropological Institute, LVI (1926), p. 25; see also Franz Boas, ‘The Limitations of the Comparative Method of Anthropology’, Science, IV/103 (1896), pp. 901–8.
3 Genesis 9:8–17.
4 W. W. Hallo and W. Kelly Simpson, The Ancient Near East: A History (New York, 1971), pp. 35–6.
5 Matthew 5:5.
6 J. G. Melton and M. Laumann, eds, Religions of the World: A Comprehensive Encyclopedia of Beliefs and Practices, 2nd edn (Santa Barbara, CA, 2010), p. 1412.
7 Madabusi Subramaniam, At the Feet of the Master (New Delhi, 2002), p. 104.
8 Sten Konow, Bashgali Dictionary: An Analysis of Col. J. Davidson’s Notes on the Bashgali Language (New Delhi, 2001), p. 33.
9 For an overview of the concept of ‘proto-Indo-European’ culture, see J. P. Mallory and D. Q. Adams, Oxford Introduction to Proto-Indo-European and the Proto-Indo-European World (London, 2006).
10 R. S. Buswell, Jr and D. S. Lopez, Jr, eds, The Princeton Dictionary of Buddhism (Princeton, NJ, 2013), p. 586.
11 Or at any rate arrows, in the case of Peru, the bow being merely implied. See D. Dauksta, ‘From Post to Pillar: The Development and Persistence of an Arboreal Metaphor’, in New Perspectives on People and Forests, ed. E. Ritter and D. Dauksta (Dordrecht, 2011), p. 108.
12 University of Chicago, ‘Digital Dictionaries of South Asia: Samsad Bengali–English Dictionary’, http://dsal.uchicago.edu/dictionaries/, pp. 138, 508 and 912, accessed 17 July 2014.
13 S. M. Zwerner, The Influence of Animism on Islam: An Account of Popular Superstitions (New York, 1920), p. 158.
14 The rarely used alternatives qaws al-matar (rain-bow), qaws Allah (bow of God) and qaws al-alwan (bow of colours) also imply a bow of the same type; however, the root ‘QZH’ can refer to something high, or to the mixing of colours in order to make something more beautiful: Gilbert Ramsay, University of St Andrews, personal communication.
15 Raymond L. Lee, Jr and Alistair B. Fraser, The Rainbow Bridge: Rainbows in Art, Myth, and Science (University Park, PA, 2001), pp. 9–14.
16 Ibid., pp. 7, 21.
17 Robert Blust, ‘The Origin of Dragons’, Anthropos, XCV (2000), p. 529.
18 Barbara Ambros, ‘Vengeful Spirits or Loving Spiritual Companions? Changing Views of Animal Spirits in Contemporary Japan’, Asian Ethnology, LXIX/1 (2010), pp. 55–7.
19 R. T. Christiansen, ‘Myth, Metaphor, and Simile’, Journal of American Folklore, LXVIII/270 (1955), pp. 417–27.
20 Jay Crain and Vicki Pearson-Rounds, ‘A Fallen Bat, a Rainbow, and the Missing Head’, Indonesia, 79 (2005), p. 68.
21 Lee and Fraser, Rainbow Bridge, pp. 31–2. This is not intended as an exhaustive list.
22 ‘Fairer-than-a-Fairy’, in Andrew Lang, ed., Yellow Fairy Book (London, 1956), pp. 143–51.
23 Rev. C. M. Chen, ‘On Padmasambhava’s Rainbow Body’, ed. Stanley Lam, 31 October 2000, www.yogichen.org, accessed 17 July 2014.
24 D. C. Ahir, Buddhism in Modern India (New Delhi, 1991), p. 180.
25 Blust, ‘Origin of Dragons’, pp. 527, 532.
26 John Mason, ‘Yorùbá Beadwork in the Americas: Òrìṣà and Bead Color’, African Arts, XXXI/1 (1998), pp. 28–35 and 94.
27 Ibid., p. 29.
28 A. F. Roberts, ‘Chance Encounters, Ironic Collage’, African Arts, XXV/2 (1992), pp. 54–63 and 97–8.
29 Ibid., p. 58.
30 Marta Moreno Vega, ‘The Candomble and Eshu-Eleggua in Brazilian and Cuban Yoruba-based Ritual’, in P. C. Harrison et al., eds, Black Theatre: Ritual Performance in the African Diaspora (Philadelphia, PA, 2002), pp. 153–66.
31 N. L. Norman and K. G. Kelly, ‘Landscape Politics: The Serpent Ditch and the Rainbow in West Africa’, American Anthropologist, new ser., CVI/1 (2004), pp. 98–110.
32 Ibid., pp. 103, 107.
33 John Loewenstein, ‘Rainbow and Serpent’, Anthropos, LVI (1961), pp. 31–40.
34 Blust, ‘Origin of Dragons’, p. 524.
35 P. Schebesta, Die Bambuti-Pygmäen vom Ituri (Brussels, 1950), p. 156, quoted in Loewenstein, ‘Rainbow and Serpent’, p. 35.
36 R. Brumbaugh, ‘The Rainbow Serpent on the Upper Sepik’, Anthropos, LXXXII (1987), pp. 26, 28, 33. See also M. Mead, ‘The Mountain Arapesh ii: Supernaturalism’, Anthropological Papers of the American Museum of Natural History, XXXVII/3 (1940), p. 392; Radcliffe-Brown, ‘Rainbow-serpent Myth’, p. 24.
37 Radcliffe-Brown, ‘Rainbow-serpent Myth’, p. 22.
38 R. H. Barnes, ‘The Rainbow in the Representations of Inhabitants of the Flores Area of Indonesia’, Anthropos, LXVIII (1973), p. 612.
39 Loewenstein, ‘Rainbow and Serpent’, pp. 31–2.
40 Ibid., p. 33.
41 Radcliffe-Brown, ‘Rainbow-serpent Myth’, p. 22.
42 David McKnight, People, Countries, and the Rainbow Serpent: Systems of Classification among the Lardil of Mornington Island (Oxford, 1999), p. 243.
43 Blust cites current beliefs in the Lanzhou area of Gansu Province, China, and among the Muria people of eastern India, as well as ‘the Chinese classics’: ‘Origin of Dragons’, pp. 525, 527; Lee and Fraser, Rainbow Bridge, p. 30.
44 Loewenstein, ‘Rainbow and Serpent’, pp. 32, 33; Radcliffe-Brown, ‘Rainbow-serpent Myth’, pp. 19–20.
45 Radcliffe-Brown, ‘Rainbow-serpent Myth’, p. 20.
46 The Masai are one of the few groups said to have killed their rainbow serpent: Loewenstein, ‘Rainbow and Serpent’, p. 35; Blust, ‘Origin of Dragons’, p. 532.
47 R. H. Heelas, ‘Review of Under the Rainbow: Nature and Supernature among the Panare Indians by Jean-Paul Dumont’, American Anthropologist, new ser., LXXXII/4 (1980), p. 897.
48 Blust, ‘Origin of Dragons’, p. 526; E. H. Spicer, The Yaquis: A Cultural History (Tucson, AZ, 1980), p. 64, quoted in Blust, ‘Origin of Dragons’, p. 527.
49 A view with which Blust concurred: ‘Origin of Dragons’, pp. 525–6; Loewenstein, ‘Rainbow and Serpent’, p. 36.
50 See for instance Radcliffe-Brown, ‘Rainbow-serpent Myth’, p. 24.
51 Lee and Fraser, Rainbow Bridge, pp. 22–31.
52 Claude Lévi-Strauss, From Honey to Ashes: Introduction to a Science of Mythology, trans. John Weightman (New York, 1973), vol. II, p. 80; but see also Douglas Taylor, ‘The Dog, the Opossum and the Rainbow’, International Journal of American Linguistics, XXVII/2 (1961), pp. 171–2. Neither Blust nor Lee and Fraser take any account of rainbow-skunk or rainbow-opossum lore.
53 Loewenstein, ‘Rainbow and Serpent’, pp. 37–8.
54 Ibid., pp. 38–40, but see also Grafton Smith, The Evolution of the Dragon (Manchester, 1919) and Norman and Kelly, ‘Landscape Politics’, p. 105.
55 Based on a remark by Radcliffe-Brown in ‘Rainbow-serpent Myth’, p. 25; Blust, ‘Origin of Dragons’, p. 519.
56 Ibid.
57 Ibid., pp. 522–3, 533–4.
58 Daniel MacCannell, ‘Cultures of Proclamation: The Decline and Fall of the Anglophone News Process, 1460–1642’, PhD dissertation, University of Aberdeen (2009).
59 Lee and Fraser, Rainbow Bridge, p. 25; ‘Bow, n I’, Oxford English Dictionary, www.oed.com, accessed 13 July 2016. An arch or vault was a stán-boga – literally ‘stone-bow’ – while boga, by itself, was apparently not used at all: ibid.
60 Blust, ‘Origin of Dragons’, p. 530.
61 A study proposed, but not executed, in Christiansen, ‘Myth, Metaphor, and Simile’, p. 422, and in Michael Haldane, ‘The Translation of the Unseen Self: Fortunatus, Mercury and the Wishing-hat’, Folklore, CXVII/2 (2006), p. 179.
62 M. H. Mullin, ‘People of the Rainbow: A Nomadic Utopia by Michael I. Niman [review]’, American Ethnologist, XXVI/2 (1999), p. 509.
63 Ibid., p. 510.
64 Ibid.
65 Christiansen, ‘Myth, Metaphor, and Simile’, p. 417.
66 F. J. Cheshire, ‘Rainbow Magic’, Folklore, XII/4 (1901), pp. 479–80; Lee and Fraser, Rainbow Bridge, especially pp. 27–9.
67 T. Bane, Encyclopedia of Fairies in World Folklore and Mythology (Jefferson, NC, 2013), p. 213.
68 Lee and Fraser, Rainbow Bridge, p. 28.
69 Ibid., p. 27.
70 Isidore of Seville (d. 636), the Venerable Bede (d. 735) and Rabanus Maurus (d. 856), cited in Lee and Fraser, Rainbow Bridge, pp. 36–7.
4 Rainbows in Literature, Poetry and Music
1 Thomas Campbell, ‘To the Rainbow’ (1819), in Malcolm D. McLean, ‘Poems to the Rainbow by Campbell and Heredia’, Hispanic Review, XVIII/3 (1950), pp. 261, 262.
2 ‘Epic of Gilgamesh, Tablet XI, Column IV’, MythHome, www.mythome.org, accessed 22 September 2014.
3 M. Haldane, ‘The Translation of the Unseen Self: Fortunatus, Mercury and the Wishing-hat’, Folklore, CXVII/2 (2006), p. 179.
4 E. B. Gilman, ‘“All Eyes”: Prospero’s Inverted Masque’, Renaissance Quarterly, XXXIII/2 (1980), p. 226.
5 N. Frye, A Natural Perspective (New York and London, 1965), pp. 157–8.
6 I am thinking especially of William Drummond’s Sonnet v, 11. 9–14: ‘How sun posts heaven about, how night’s pale queen / With borrowed beams looks on this hanging round, / What cause fair Iris hath, and monsters seen / In air’s large fields of light, and seas profound, / Did hold my wand’ring thoughts, when thy sweet eye / Bade me leave all, and only think on thee.’ Fleetwood Mac’s 1987 single ‘Seven Wonders’ treads essentially the same ground.
7 John Milton, Comus: A Mask Presented at Ludlow Castle, in Milton, Poems upon Several Occasions, ed. Thomas Warton (London, 1791), poem at pp. 137–263, quotation at pp. 177–8.
8 Henry Vaughan, The Rain-bow, in Vaughan, The Works in Verse and Prose Complete, vol. I, ed. Alexander B. Grosart (n.p., 1871), poem at pp. 234–6, quotation at p. 234.
9 George P. Landow, ‘Rainbows: Problematic Images of Problematic Nature’, The Victorian Web, www.victorianweb.org, accessed 21 January 2016.
10 Quotation at Percy Bysshe Shelley, ‘To a Lady with a Guitar’, l. 73, in The Poetical Works of Percy Bysshe Shelley, Edited by Mrs Shelley (London, 1874), p. 304. A date of April 1822 is tentatively assigned to the poem by the Bodleian Library, which knows it under the alternative title ‘With a Guitar, to Jane [Williams]’: ‘Shelley’s Ghost: Reshaping the Image of a Literary Family’, Bodleian Libraries, http://shelleysghost.bodleian.ox.ac.uk, accessed 24 October 2014.
11 Percy Bysshe Shelley, ‘The Cloud’, part V, ll. 5–14, ibid., p. 259.
12 Percy Bysshe Shelley, Queen Mab, part VII, ll. 229–31 and 234, ibid., poem at pp. 1–19, quotation at p. 15,. part 7, ll. 229–31 and 234.
13 Jerome McGann, ‘Byron, George Gordon Noel, sixth Baron Byron (1788–1824)’, Oxford Dictionary of National Biography, www.oxforddnb.com, accessed 23 October 2014.
14 The Bride of Abydos, canto II, part XX, ll. 34–9, in The Poetical Works of Lord Byron Complete in One Volume (New York, 1867), p. 96.
15 The Complete Poetical Works of William Wordsworth, ed. Henry Reed (Philadelphia, PA, 1837), p. 27.
16 Quoted in Geoffrey Durant, William Wordsworth (Cambridge, 1969), p. 108. Cf. also Shelley’s ‘When the cloud is scattered / The rainbow’s glory is shed’, ll. 3–4 in ‘When the Lamp Is Shattered’.
17 ‘Hymn before Sunrise, in the Vale of Chamouny’, ll. 82–3, in Select Works of the British Poets, in a Chronological Series from Falconer to Sir Walter Scott (Philadelphia, PA, 1848), poem at pp. 536–7, quotation at p. 537.
18 The Two Founts, or Addressed to a Lady on Her Recovery from a Severe Attack of Pain, ll. 17–24, in Quarterly Review, XXXVII (1828), poem at pp. 90–91, quotation at p. 91.
19 A notion critiqued by Robert Browning (1812–1889) in his poem ‘Caliban upon Setebos’ (1864); this quotation is from Browning’s editor F.E.L. Priestley. See Marc R. Plamondon, ed. Representative Poetry Online, http://rpo.library.utoronto.ca, accessed 25 October 2014; see Coleridge, ‘Granville Penn and the Deluge – Rainbow’ (1824) in H. N. Coleridge, ed., Specimens of the Table Talk of the Late Samuel Taylor Coleridge (London, 1835), vol. I, p. 51.
20 Lamia, part II, 11. 229–38, in Select Works of the British Poets, in a Chronological Series from Southey to Croly (Philadelphia, PA, 1845), poem at pp. 562–7, quotation at p. 567.
21 Quoted in Eric L. Haralson, ed., Encyclopedia of American Poetry: The Nineteenth Century (New York and London, 1998), p. 342. Claims in this direction have been made on behalf of Poe, Nathaniel Hawthorne, Washington Irving and even James Fenimore Cooper, but including these authors might tend to stretch the definition of ‘Romanticism’ to breaking point.
22 Mark Twain, A Tramp Abroad [1879] (New York, 1921), p. 170.
23 Henry David Thoreau, Walden and Other Writings [1854] (New York, 1937), p. 195.
24 For a useful overview see Walter Blair, ‘Color, Light, and Shadow in Hawthorne’s Fiction’, New England Quarterly, XV/1 (1942), pp. 74–94, especially p. 91.
25 Nathaniel Hawthorne, Twice-told Tales (Philadelphia, PA, 1889), pp. 49–62. All quotations from this story are taken from this edition.
26 Nathaniel Hawthorne, The Scarlet Letter: A Romance [1850] (Leipzig, 1852), p. 103.
27 Nathaniel Hawthorne, The House of the Seven Gables [1851] (Rockville, MD, 2008), p. 79.
28 M. Nimetz, ‘Shadows on the Rainbow: Machado’s “Iris de la Noche”’, Hispania, LIX/1 (1976), p. 54. The full text of the poem is reproduced on p. 50.
29 Robert Browning, The Poems of Browning, vol. III: 1847–1861, ed. John Woolford, Daniel Karlin and Joseph Phelan (Harlow, 2007), p. 65.
30 Grenville Kleiser, Dictionary of Proverbs (New Delhi, 2005), p. 155.
31 E. M. Forster, Howard’s End, ed. Douglas Mao [1910] (New York, 2010), p. 150.
32 D. H. Lawrence, The Rainbow, ed. Mark Kinkead-Weekes (Cambridge, 1989), p. 181.
33 Ibid., p. 459.
34 Review by Arthur Ramírez, Hispania, LXXIII/3 (1990), p. 671; see Chapter Six.
35 George Barlow, ‘Awushioo: Henry Dumas at the Rainbow Sign’, Black American Literature Forum, XXII/2 (1988), p. 168.
36 Shange was born Paulette Williams in New Jersey, the daughter of a surgeon in the U.S. Air Force; perhaps coincidentally, London’s first mainstream stage play with an all-black cast was Errol John’s Moon on a Rainbow Shawl (1958): Kate Dorney, ‘Banbury, (Frederick Harold) Frith (1912–2008)’, Oxford Dictionary of National Biography, www.oxforddnb.com, accessed 10 September 2014.
37 Quoted in Jill Cox-Cordoba, ‘Shange’s “For Colored Girls” has Lasting Power’, CNN online, 21 July 2009, http://edition.cnn.com, accessed 27 April 2017.
38 Paulette S. Johnson, ‘When Every Cloud is Drained of Sorrow and Anger’, Callaloo, II (1978), p. 139.
39 Jonathan Enright, ‘The Rainbow’, Books Ireland, 229 (2000), pp. 75–6.
40 George MacDonald, The Golden Key and Other Stories (Grand Rapids, MI, and Cambridge, 2000), p. 2.
41 Ibid., p. 35.
42 Clifford Mills, Where the Rainbow Ends, a Fairy Story by Clifford Mills based on the Fairy Play of the same name by Clifford Mills and John Ramsey (London, n.d. [after 1910]), pp. 18–19.
43 Ibid., p. 15.
44 Ibid., pp. 246–7.
45 ‘Where the Rainbow Ends’, Wikipedia, https://en.wikipedia.org, accessed 26 January 2016.
46 ‘Jacob ter Veldhuis Program Notes’, Peermusic Classical, www.peermusicclassical.com, accessed 26 January 2016.
47 Quoted in Inge van Rij, The Other Worlds of Hector Berlioz: Travels with the Orchestra (Cambridge, 2015), p. 146.
48 Mark DeVoto, ‘The Debussy Sound: Colour, Texture, Gesture’, in The Cambridge Companion to Debussy, ed. Simon Trezise (Cambridge, 2003), pp. 179–96.
49 Scott Floman, ‘Ritchie Blackmore’s Rainbow (Polydor ’75)’, Scott’s Rock and Soul Album Reviews, http://sfloman.com, accessed 26 January 2016.
5 Rainbows in Art and Film
1 Sir Walter Scott, ‘Marmion’, canto VI, part V, ll. 20–23, in The Poetical Works of Walter Scott, Esq. (Edinburgh, 1820), vol. IV, p. 155.
2 Raymond L. Lee, Jr and Alistair B. Fraser, The Rainbow Bridge: Rainbows in Art, Myth, and Science (University Park, PA, 2001), pp. 22–3.
3 John Gage, Color and Culture: Practice and Meaning from Antiquity to Abstraction (Berkeley and Los Angeles, CA, 1993), p. 31.
4 Ibid., pp. 31, 108.
5 British Library MS Royal 18 D ii, fo. 161V.
6 Titian, in the sixteenth century, did occasionally produce ‘bows of great complexity, sometimes with upwards of six colours’, but this was quite exceptional: Gage, Color and Culture, p. 95.
7 Slobodan Curcic, ‘Divine Light: Constructing the Immaterial in Byzantine Art and Architecture’, in B. G. Wescoat and R. G. Ousterhout, eds, Architecture of the Sacred: Space, Ritual and Experience from Classical Greece to Byzantium (Cambridge, 2012), p. 313.
8 Gage, Color and Culture, p. 95; J. Fairbairn, Fairbairn’s Crests of the Families of Great Britain and Ireland, ed. Laurence Butters (Poole, 1986), plate 126d.
9 Though the flaws in question affect nearly everything in the picture of c. 1636, the rainbow itself has been criticized as seeming ‘to swoop out of the distance on the left and then arc over the foreground trees on the right’; in other words, Rubens ‘treats the bow as a solid object that is oblique to the picture plane’: Lee and Fraser, Rainbow Bridge, p. 124. A discussion of Rubens’s various failings in this regard is provided in Gage, Color and Culture, pp. 95–6.
10 J. D. LaFountain, ‘Colorizing New England’s Burying Grounds’, in A. Feeser et al., eds, The Materiality of Color: The Production, Circulation, and Application of Dyes and Pigments, 1400–1800 (Farnham, 2012), pp. 13, 17, 19, 20.
11 ‘Preface’, in Alexander Pope, ed., The Works of Shakespear (London, 1728), p. 2.
12 Pope to Edward Blount, 1725, quoted in ‘Alexander Pope’s Grotto: A Source of Inspiration and Contentment, 1720–1742’, The Twickenham Museum, www.twickenham-museum.org.uk, accessed 17 January 2016.
13 Chris Koenig, ‘Garden Display Was a Marvel of the Age’, Oxford Times (27 October 2010), www.oxfordtimes.co.uk, 28 April 2017; see also J. D. Hunt, Garden and Grove: The Italian Renaissance Garden in the English Imagination, 1600–1750 (Philadelphia, PA, 1986), p. 138.
14 M. D. Garber, ‘Chymical Wonders of Light: J. Marcus Marci’s Seventeenth-century Bohemian Optics’, Early Science and Medicine, X/4 (2005), p. 478.
15 P. D. Schweizer, ‘John Constable, Rainbow Science, and English Color Theory’, Art Bulletin, LXIV/3 (1982), pp. 425–7. At the time he painted his first rainbow picture, in 1812, Constable seems to have been unaware that the secondary bow was thicker than the primary or that its colours were reversed.
16 ‘One is . . . somewhat jarred to discover that Grimshaw has chosen to call his work The Seal of the Covenant, thereby claiming a religious significance for the scene before us which it does not seem to warrant’: George P. Landow, ‘Rainbows: Problematic Images of Problematic Nature’, The Victorian Web, www.victorianweb.org, accessed 21 January 2016.
17 Schweizer, ‘John Constable, Rainbow Science, and English Color Theory’, p. 431.
18 With William Holman Hunt and Dante Gabriel Rossetti.
19 Schweizer, ‘John Constable, Rainbow Science, and English Color Theory’, pp. 433, 435–7.
20 That she is extracting colour from a real rainbow, rather than painting a rainbow into the sky (as some have claimed), seems clear from the fact that the only colour on her palette is brown.
21 I am thinking especially of Hopkins’s description of the seven-hued rainbow as ‘Ending in sweet uncertainty ’twixt real hue and phantasy’, in Il Mystico (1862), ll. 121–2; World Heritage Encyclopedia, ‘Flag of Venezuela’, www.gutenberg.us (n.d., 2014 or later), accessed 22 January 2016.
22 J. W. von Goethe, ‘ Scientific Studies’, in D. Miller, ed., Goethe: The Collected Works (Princeton, NJ, 1995), vol. XII, p. 57.
23 Rainbow Man, ‘Fourth of July Memorial Rainbow Man Celebration, Oxford, Georgia’, CNN iReport, 3 July 2009, http://ireport.cnn.com, accessed 28 April 2017.
24 Landow, ‘Rainbows: Problematic Images’.
25 ‘Overview: Michael Jones McKean, The Rainbow’, The Rainbow, www.therainbow.org, accessed 2 December 2015.
26 ‘Olafur Eliasson, Take Your Time’, MOMA, www.moma.org, accessed 27 January 2016.
27 Intentional lens flare was a major visual characteristic of J. J. Abrams’s feature film version of Star Trek (2009) for example.
28 Ernie Harburg and Harold Meyerson, Who Put the Rainbow in The Wizard of Oz? (Ann Arbor, MI, 1993).
29 Denise Oliver Velez, ‘Blacklisting the Rainbow’, Daily Kos, 1 June 2014, www.dailykos.com, acessed 28 April 2017.
30 Based on Kubrick’s customary methods, none of this could be accidental. The director ‘would obsess over every visual element that would appear in a given frame, from props and furniture to the color of walls and other objects’: ‘Cinematographer Larry Smith Helps Stanley Kubrick Craft a Unique Look for Eyes Wide Shut, a Dreamlike Coda to the Director’s Brilliant Career’, The American Society of Cinematographers, www.theasc.com, accessed 28 January 2016.
6 Rainbows in Politics and Popular Culture
1 The Book of Questions, trans. William O’Daly (Port Townsend, WA, 2001), p. viii.
2 ‘Monumentalbild’, Panorama Museum, www.panorama-museum.de, accessed 25 August 2014.
3 Paraphrased in Abraham Friesen, ‘Philipp Melanchthon (1497–1560), Wilhelm Zimmermann (1807–1878) and the Dilemma of Müntzer Historiography’, Church History, XLIII/2 (1974), p. 176. The flags were probably designed by Philipp Goetzgerodt of Mühlhausen: Douglas Miller, Armies of the German Peasants’ War, 1524–26 (Oxford, 2003), p. 45.
4 See https://ebooks.adelaide.edu.au. I am grateful to Prof. Philip Schwyzer for this reference.
5 Friesen, ‘Dilemma of Müntzer Historiography’, p. 180.
6 Ibid., p. 178.
7 It appears in at least one work of the 1970s by V. G. Sevastianov, but not in any overtly political context.
8 C. H. Sherrill, ‘The Five Stripes of China’s Flag’, North American Review, CCXI/773 (1920), p. 517. ‘Among the Chinese and Japanese these five hues are considered to comprise all the colors of the rainbow, for in the one which the Chinese call “ching” is included blue, green, purple, and all their shades.’
9 Ibid., p. 517.
10 D. Demetriou, ‘Kim Jong-Il: Double Rainbows, Fear of Flying and Godzilla – 10 Things You Might not Know’, The Telegraph (19 December 2011), www.telegraph.co.uk, accessed 28 April 2017.
11 See Chapter Three. The Ceylonese rainbow flag of 1886, with five broad vertical stripes and five wide horizontal ones in the same colours, was adopted as the flag of world Buddhism in 1950. The second, third and fourth stripes are always yellow, red and white, with the other two varying by country and sect.
12 R. Graziani, ‘The “Rainbow Portrait” of Queen Elizabeth I and Its Religious Symbolism’, Journal of the Warburg and Courtauld Institutes, XXXV (1972), pp. 247–59.
13 B. Cobo, History of the Inca Empire, ed. and trans. Roland Hamilton (Austin, TX, 1979), p. 246.
14 J. Dunkerly, ‘Evo Morales, the “Two Bolivias” and the Third Bolivian Revolution’, Journal of Latin American Studies, XXXIX/1 (2007), p. 136: under Article 6 of the Bolivian Constitution of 2008.
15 Col. J. Child, ‘From “Color” to “Rainbow”: U.S. Strategic Planning for Latin America, 1919–1945’, Journal of Interamerican Studies and World Affairs, XXI/2 (1979), pp. 237, 246–50, 254.
16 The phrase seems to have been coined by the anonymous author of The Origin of Duty and Right in Man, Considered (London, 1796), but see also H. H. Quint, ‘Gaylord Wilshire and Socialism’s First Congressional Campaign’, Pacific Historical Review, XXVI/4 (1957), pp. 327, 336, and M. Kenneally, ‘Autobiographical Revelation in O’Casey’s “I Knock at the Door”’, Canadian Journal of Irish Studies, VII/2 (1981), p. 35. The phrase is also used in political contexts in modern India.
17 Alan Roper, ‘Dryden, Sunderland, and the Metamorphoses of a Trimmer’, Huntington Library Quarterly, LIV/1 (1991), pp. 61, 64.
18 E. Grist, ‘Rainbow Coffee House Group (act. 1702–1730)’, Oxford Dictionary of National Biography, www.oxforddnb.com, accessed 21 November 2013. The Rainbow coffee-house itself existed from 1702 to 1755.
19 J. Robertson, ‘Hume, David (1711–1776)’, Oxford Dictionary of National Biography, www.oxforddnb.com, accessed 23 October 2014.
20 S. Wright, ‘Speed, Samuel (bap. 1633, d. 1679?)’, Oxford Dictionary of National Biography, www.oxforddnb.com, accessed 10 September 2014. Samuel Speed was the grandson of John Speed, the notable cartographer and historian.
21 M. Freeden, ‘Rainbow Circle (act. 1894–1931)’, Oxford Dictionary of National Biography, www.oxforddnb.com, accessed 21 November 2013.
22 J. Grant, ‘“The Dreams that You Dare to Dream”: Rainbows and Utopia’, http://paintingrainbows.net (12 December 2013), accessed 5 September 2014.
23 Thomas Paine, ‘Maritime Compact, Article 8’, found within Thomas Paine, ‘XXXIII. [Seventh Letter] To the People of the United States’, in The Writings of Thomas Paine, Vol. 3: 1791–1804, ed. M. D. Conway (New York and London, 1895).
24 Quoted in B. Kershaw, ‘Ecoactivist Performance: The Environment as Partner in Protest?’, Drama Review, XLVI/1 (2002), p. 122.
25 D. Carter, Stonewall: The Riots that Sparked the Gay Revolution (New York, 2004), especially p. 260.
26 G. L. Davis, ‘“Somewhere over the Rainbow . . .”: Judy Garland in Neverland’, Journal of American Folklore, CIX/432 (1996), p. 127.
27 Jason MacCannell, Special Assistant for Research to Gov. Edmund G. Brown, Jr. of California, personal communication via Facebook message, 11 September 2014.
28 Nathaniel Hawthorne, ‘The May-pole of Merry Mount’, in Twice-told Tales (Philadelphia, PA, 1889), p. 49.
29 Via occasional TV specials, beginning in 1983. The product line was launched in 1981.
30 Unlike several other My Little Pony films, this was released in North American cinemas, on 27 September 2014.
31 Tracie Egan Morrissey, ‘Inside the Rainbow Gulag: The Technicolor Rise and Fall of Lisa Frank’, Jezebel, http://jezebel.com (12 December 2013), accessed 28 April 2017. I am very grateful to Jessica Wheelis for this reference.
32 The final five seconds of the one-minute video consisted of the titular horse’s disembodied head surrounded by a pulsating rainbow mandorla; it is available at www.youtube.com.
33 See for instance L. Borders, ‘R. Crumb’s The Book of Genesis Illustrated: Biblical Narrative and the Impact of Illustration’, B.A. thesis, Liberty University (2014), pp. 20–21. I am grateful to Prof. Dean MacCannell for having made me aware of Crumb’s original publication and the above-mentioned oddity of its rainbow content.
34 Jesse Jackson, ‘The Rainbow Coalition’, speech to the Democratic National Convention, San Francisco, California, 18 July 1984.
35 G. Loewenstein and L. T. Sanders, ‘Bloc Voting, Rainbow Coalitions, and the Jackson Presidential Candidacy: A View from Southeast Texas’, Journal of Black Studies, XVIII/1 (1987), p. 95.
36 R. Wilson, ‘Rainbow Undimmed’, Fortnight, 312 (1992), p. 5.
37 The saying’s adoption as the European Union’s motto in 2000 was decidedly less controversial.
38 Cape Times, ‘Editorial: Nelson Mandela’, IOL, www.iol.co.za (10 December 2013).
39 A. A. Martins, ‘Radio Drama for Development: ARDA and the “Rainbow City” Experience’, Journal of African Cultural Studies, XVI/1 (2003), pp. 96, 97 and 99.
40 N. Valji, ‘Creating the Nation: The Rise of Violent Xenophobia in the New South Africa’, unpublished master’s thesis, York University (2003), p. 26; J. Van Der Riet, ‘Triumph of the Rainbow Warriors: Gender, Nationalism and the Rugby World Cup’, Agenda: Empowering Women for Gender Equity, 27 (1995), p. 101. See also A. Habib, ‘South Africa: The Rainbow Nation and Prospects for Consolidating Democracy’, African Journal of Political Science/Revue Africaine de Science Politique, II/2 (1997), pp. 15–37.
41 The original, fifteenth-century sense of the adjective ‘diffuse’ was ‘[c]onfused, distracted, perplexed; indistinct, vague, obscure, doubtful, uncertain’: ‘Diffuse, adj’, Oxford English Dictionary, www.oed.com, accessed 13 July 2016.
42 P. Chippindale, ‘Sutch, David Edward (1940–1999)’, Oxford Dictionary of National Biography, www.oxforddnb.com, accessed 23 October 2014.
43 M. Byrne, ‘Over the Rainbow’, Fortnight, 396 (2001), p. 8.
44 H. Kozlowska, ‘Rainbow Becomes a Prism to View Gay Rights’, New York Times (21 March 2013), www.nytimes.com.
45 Michael Dembinski, ‘Two Rainbows’, W-WA Jeziorki (8 May 2014), http://jeziorki.blogspot.co.uk.
46 Hrafnkell Haraldsson, ‘Christofascist Organization Lays Claim to “Gay” Rainbow’, Politicususa’s Archives, http://archives.politicususa.com (16 December 2010), accessed 27 May 2017.
47 Michael Wilkinson, ‘Don’t Fly Gay Pride Flag, Philip Hammond Tells British Embassies’, The Telegraph (16 June 2015), www.telegraph.co.uk; Rosa Prince and Colin Freeman, ‘Irish Gay Marriage Referendum Ends in Overwhelming Victory for Yes Campaign’, The Telegraph (23 May 2015), www.telegraph.co.uk.
48 ‘Rainbow City, Alabama to Change Town Name to Something Less Faggy’, Landover Baptist Church (9 September 2013), www.landoverbaptist.net.