NOTES

Introduction

    1.  Paul Cuff, “Living History: Abel Gance’s Napoléon,” booklet accompanying digital restoration of Napoléon (British Film Institute, BFIV2109, 2016), 4. For extended analysis, also see Cuff’s A Revolution for the Screen: Abel Gance’s Napoléon (Amsterdam: Amsterdam University Press, 2015).

    2.  See Abel Gance, “Le Cinéma, c’est la musique de la lumière,” Cinéa-Ciné pour tous, no. 3 (December 15, 1923): 11; and François Ede, “Un épisode de l’histoire de la couleur au cinéma: le procéde Keller-Dorian et les films lenticulaires,” 1895, Revue d’histoire du cinéma 71 (2013): 192–193. For further details on Gance’s ongoing interest in color in the 1920s, see the correspondence between Gance and various firms such as Versicolor Dufay Films en Couleurs Naturelles des Films Hérault in “Dossier couleur: Abel Gance,” GANCE388-B91, La Bibliothèque du film of La Cinémathèque française.

    3.  Paolo Cherchi Usai, Silent Cinema: An Introduction (London: British Film Institute, 2000), 23.

    4.  Roy Mack, “The Future of Color Photography,” Film Daily 52, no. 49 (May 27, 1930): 4. Mack was a prolific director of musical shorts in the 1930s, some of which were in Technicolor.

    5.  For a general study of the development of film color, see Richard Misek, Chromatic Cinema: A History of Screen Colour (Oxford: Wiley-Blackwell, 2010).

    6.  Daan Hertogs and Nico de Klerk, ed., “Disorderly Order”: Colours in Silent Film: The 1995 Amsterdam Workshop (Amsterdam: Stichting Nederlands Filmmuseum, 1996).

    7.  Giovanna Fossati, Tom Gunning, Jonathan Rosen, and Joshua Yumibe, Fantasia of Color in Early Cinema (Amsterdam: Amsterdam University Press, 2015). For accounts of coloring techniques in early cinema, also see Joshua Yumibe, Moving Color: Early Film, Mass Culture, Modernism (New Brunswick, N.J.: Rutgers University Press, 2012). For an overview of extant sources see Barbara Flueckiger, “Timeline of Historical Film Colors,” Timeline of Historical Film Colors, accessed July 17, 2017, http://zauberklang.ch/filmcolors/.

    8.  Tom Gunning, “Colourful Metaphors: The Attraction of Color in Silent Cinema,” in Il Colore Nel Cinema Muto, ed. Monica Dall’Asta, Guglielmo Pescatore, and Leonardo Quaresima (Udine, Italy: Atti del II Convegno Internazionale di Studi sul Cinema, 1995), 20–31.

    9.  Luke McKernan, Charles Urban: Pioneering the Non-Fiction Film in Britain and America (Exeter, UK: Exeter University Press, 2013); and James Layton and David Pierce, The Dawn of Technicolor, 1915–35 (Rochester, N.Y.: George Eastman House, 2015).

  10.  Scott Higgins, Harnessing the Technicolor Rainbow: Color Design in the 1930s (Austin: University of Texas Press, 2007).

  11.  Kaveh Askari, Making Movies Into Art: Picture Craft from the Magic Lantern to Early Hollywood (London: British Film Institute, 2015); Thomas Elsaesser, Weimar Cinema and After: Germany’s Historical Imaginary (New York: Routledge, 2000); Lucy Fischer, Designing Women: Cinema, Art Deco, and the Female Form (New York: Columbia University Press, 2003); Lucy Fischer, Cinema by Design: Art Nouveau, Modernism, and Film History (New York: Columbia University Press, 2017); Christine Gledhill, Reframing British Cinema, 1918–1928: Between Restraint and Passion (London: British Film Institute, 2003); Lee Grieveson, Cinema and the Wealth of Nations: Media, Capital, and the Liberal World System (Oakland: University of California Press, 2018); Lea Jacobs, The Decline of Sentiment: American Film in the 1920s (Berkeley: University of California Press, 2008); Richard Koszarski, An Evening’s Entertainment: The Age of the Silent Feature Picture, 1915–1928 (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1994).

  12.  See, for instance, the essays collected in Andrew Higson and Richard Maltby, “Film Europe” and “Film America”: Cinema, Commerce and Cultural Exchange, 1920–1939 (Exeter, UK: University of Exeter Press, 1999).

  13.  Olivier Zunz, Why the American Century? (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 2000).

  14.  For a useful project that takes up Global South circulation in a parallel way, see in particular Nilo Couret’s recent engagement with sound technology in Latin America, Mock Classicism: Latin American Film Comedy, 1930–1960 (Oakland: University of California Press, 2018).

  15.  See Sieglinde Lemke, Primitivist Modernism: Black Culture and the Origins of Transatlantic Modernism (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1998). For an approach to transnational exchange that examines modernist appropriation within the Global South, see Fereshteh Daftari’s discussion of “old-master modernism” in Iran, “Redefining Modernism: Pluralist Art Before the 1979 Revolution,” in Iran Modern, ed. Fereshteh Daftari and Layla Diba (New York: Asia Society Museum, 2013), 27. Also see Kaveh Askari, “Techniques in Circulation: Sovereignty, Imaging Technology, and Art Education in Qajar Iran,” in The Image in Early Cinema: Form and Material, ed. Scott Curtis, Philippe Gauthier, Tom Gunning, and Joshua Yumibe (Bloomington: Indiana University Press, 2018), 164–173.

  16.  James Clifford, “On Ethnographic Surrealism,” Comparative Studies in Society and History 23, no. 4 (1981): 539–564.

  17.  Antonin Artaud, The Theater and Its Double, trans. Mary Caroline Richards (New York: Grove, 1994), 54.

  18.  Janet Ward, Weimar Surfaces: Urban Visual Culture in 1920s Germany (Berkeley: University of California Press, 2001), 2.

  19.  Michael Cowan, Walter Ruttmann and the Cinema of Multiplicity: Avant-Garde Film—Advertising—Modernity (Amsterdam: Amsterdam University Press, 2014).

  20.  Miriam Bratu Hansen, “The Mass Production of the Senses: Classical Cinema as Vernacular Modernism,” Modernism/modernity 6, no. 2 (April 1999): 59–77.

  21.  Walter Benjamin, “One-Way Street,” in Selected Writings, ed. Marcus Bullock and Michael W. Jennings, trans. Edmund Jephcott, 4 vols. (Cambridge, Mass.: Belknap Press, 1996), 1:444–488.

  22.  Regina Lee Blaszczyk, The Color Revolution (Cambridge, Mass.: MIT Press, 2012). For other recent work on the era, see her recent coedited collection, Regina Lee Blaszczyk and Uwe Spiekermann, eds., Bright Modernity: Color, Commerce, and Consumer Culture (Cham, Switzerland: Palgrave Macmillan, 2017).

  23.  André Gaudreault and Philippe Marion, “A Medium Is Always Born Twice,” Early Popular Visual Culture 3, no. 1 (May 2005): 3–15; Gaudreault develops this argument further in Film and Attraction: From Kinematography to Cinema, trans. Tim Barnard (Urbana: University of Illinois Press, 2011); also see our discussion in Sarah Street and Joshua Yumibe, “The Temporalities of Intermediality: Colour in Cinema and the Arts of the 1920s,” Early Popular Visual Culture 11, no. 2 (2013): 140–157.

  24.  Ágnes Pethö, Cinema and Intermediality: The Passion for the In-Between (Newcastle upon Tyne, UK: Cambridge Scholars, 2011), 1.

  25.  Pierre Bourdieu, “The Field of Cultural Production, or: The Economic World Reversed [1983],” in The Field of Cultural Production: Essays on Art and Literature, ed. Randal Johnson, trans. Richard Nice (New York: Columbia University Press, 1993), 29–73. For the application of Bourdieu’s theory to media, and its limitations, see David Hesmondhalgh, “Bourdieu, the Media and Cultural Production,” Media, Culture & Society 28, no. 2 (March 1, 2006): 211–231; and the recent collection Guy Austin, ed., New Uses of Bourdieu in Film and Media Studies (New York: Berghahn, 2016), especially Chris Cagle’s contribution, “Bourdieu and Film Studies: Beyond the Taste Agenda,” 35–50.

  26.  Bourdieu, “The Field of Cultural Production,” 32.

  27.  John Spencer Clark, Mary Dana Hicks, and Walter Scott Perry, Teachers’ Manual for the Prang Course in Drawing for Graded Schools (Boston: Prang, 1897), 213.

  28.  “A British Estimate of Louis Prang,” Geyer’s Stationer 29, no. 608 (March 22, 1900): 23.

  29.  Natalie M. Kalmus, “Color Consciousness,” Journal of the Society of Motion Picture Engineers 25, no. 2 (August 1935): 139–147. For other uses of “color consciousness,” see Leonard Troland, “Psychology of Natural Color Motion Pictures,” American Journal of Physiological Optics 7, no. 3 (1926): 382; “The Textile Color Card Association,” Color Trade Journal 10, no. 4 (April 1922): 159–160; and Loyd A. Jones, “Tinted Films for Sound Positives,” Transactions of the Society of Motion Picture Engineers 13, no. 37 (1929): 225.

  30.  Lois Shirley, “All Hollywood Has Now Gone Color Conscious,” Photoplay 42, no. 3 (August 1932): 48–49, 118. For a similar pairing of color consciousness and female stars, see Selena Morrison, “Colorful Women—And You!,” Movie Classic 9, no. 2 (October 1935): 40–41, 70.

  31.  Jonathan Crary, Suspensions of Perception: Attention, Spectacle, and Modern Culture (Cambridge, Mass.: MIT Press, 2001), 4. Also see Jonathan Crary, Techniques of the Observer: On Vision and Modernity in the Nineteenth Century (Cambridge, Mass.: MIT Press, 1992).

  32.  See “The New Age of Color,” Saturday Evening Post, January 21, 1928, 22; and “Color in Industry,” Fortune 1 (February 1930): 85–94.

  33.  Siegfried Kracauer, “Cult of Distraction: On Berlin’s Picture Palaces” (1926), in The Mass Ornament: Weimar Essays, trans., ed., intro., Thomas Y. Levin (Cambridge, Mass.: Harvard University Press, 1995), 324.

  34.  See Adrian Bernard Klein, Colour-Music: The Art of Light (London: Crosby, Lockwood, 1926); and Louis Favre, La Musique des couleurs et le cinéma (Paris: Presses Universitaires de France, 1927).

  35.  H. Baer, “The Color Film [July 1930],” in The Promise of Cinema: German Film Theory, 1907–1933, ed. Anton Kaes, Nicholas Baer, and Michael Cowan, trans. Alex H. Bush (Oakland: University of California Press, 2016), 601.

  36.  Rudolf Arnheim, Film as Art (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1957), 159, 156.

  37.  “Lasky Chiefs Working on Color Process,” Moving Picture World 35 (February 9, 1918): 832.

  38.  Cecil B. DeMille, “Color Problem of Film Production Reduced to an Exact Science,” Reel and Slide Magazine, April 1919, 21.

  39.  Hesmondhalgh, “Bourdieu, the Media and Cultural Production,” 218–223; and Bourdieu, “The Field of Cultural Production,” 53.

1. Color Standards and the Industrial Field of Film

    1.  On these various transformations, see Neil Harris, “Color and Media: Some Comparisons and Speculations,” in Cultural Excursions: Marketing Appetites and Cultural Tastes in Modern America (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1990), 318–336; and Joshua Yumibe, “Surfaces colorées et espaces de jeu dans la littérature enfantine, le cinéma des premiers temps et les féeries,” trans. Priska Morrissey, 1895: Revue d’histoire du cinéma 71 (2014): 31–44. On color and fashion of the nineteenth century, see Susan Hiner, Accessories to Modernity: Fashion and the Feminine in Nineteenth-Century France (Philadelphia: University of Pennsylvania Press, 2011).

    2.  See Lucy Fischer, Designing Women: Cinema, Art Deco, and the Female Form (New York: Columbia University Press, 2003); and Lucy Fischer, Cinema by Design: Art Nouveau, Modernism, and Film History (New York: Columbia University Press, 2017).

    3.  Pierre Bourdieu, “The Field of Cultural Production, or: The Economic World Reversed [1983],” in The Field of Cultural Production: Essays on Art and Literature, ed. Randal Johnson, trans. Richard Nice (New York: Columbia University Press, 1993), 29–73.

    4.  Olivier Zunz, Why the American Century? (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 2000), x.

    5.  See, for instance, Luci Marzola’s account of industrial professionalization in “A Society Apart: The Early Years of the Society of Motion Picture Engineers,” Film History 28, no. 4 (2016): 1–28.

    6.  Esther Leslie, Synthetic Worlds: Nature, Art and the Chemical Industry (London: Reaktion Books, 2005), 9–10. Also see Alexander Engel, “Coloring the World: Marketing German Dyestuffs in the Late Nineteenth and Early Twentieth Centuries,” in Bright Modernity: Color, Commerce, and Consumer Culture, ed. Regina Lee Blaszczyk and Uwe Spiekermann (Cham, Switzerland: Palgrave Macmillan, 2017), 37–53.

    7.  On the German industry’s ties to academia, see Jeffrey Allan Johnson, “The Academic-Industrial Symbiosis in German Chemical Research, 1905–1939,” in The German Chemical Industry in the Twentieth Century, ed. John E. Lesch (Dordrecht, Netherlands: Springer Science+Business Media, 2000), 15–56. Also see Zunz, Why the American Century, 4–23; Thomas S. Kuhn, The Essential Tension: Selected Studies in Scientific Tradition and Change (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1977), 143; and David F. Noble, America by Design: Science, Technology, and the Rise of Corporate Capitalism (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1979).

    8.  Quoted in “How Chromos Are Made,” Prang’s Chromo: A Journal of Popular Art 1, no. 1 (January 1868): 1. Reprinted in Katharine Morrison McClinton, The Chromolithographs of Louis Prang (New York: C. N. Potter, 1973), 12. Also see Joshua Yumibe, Moving Color : Early Film, Mass Culture, Modernism (New Brunswick, N.J.: Rutgers University Press, 2012), 29–32.

    9.  Nicholas Gaskill, “Learning to See with Milton Bradley,” in Bright Modernity: Color, Commerce, and Consumer Culture, ed. Regina Lee Blaszczyk and Uwe Spiekermann (Cham, Switzerland: Palgrave Macmillan, 2017), 55–56.

  10.  Ann Temkin, “Color Shift,” in Color Chart: Reinventing Color, 1950 to Today, ed. Emily Hall et al. (New York: Museum of Modern Art, 2008), 21.

  11.  Paul Scheerbart, Glass Architecture [1914], trans. James Palmes, in Glass! Love!! Perpetual Motion!!!: A Paul Scheerbart Reader, ed. Josiah McElheny and Christine Burgin (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 2014), 85.

  12.  Quoted in T. J. Jackson Lears, No Place of Grace: Antimodernism and the Transformation of American Culture: 1880–1920 (New York: Pantheon Books, 1981), 74.

  13.  Max Simon Nordau, Degeneration (New York: Appleton, 1895), 27.

  14.  Edwin Lawrence Godkin, “Chromo-Civilization,” Nation 19, no. 482 (September 24, 1874): 201–202.

  15.  H. Baer, “The Color Film [July 1930],” in The Promise of Cinema: German Film Theory, 1907–1933, ed. Anton Kaes, Nicholas Baer, and Michael Cowan, trans. Alex H. Bush (Oakland: University of California Press, 2016), 600–602.

  16.  See Regina Lee Blaszczyk, The Color Revolution (Cambridge, Mass.: MIT Press, 2012), 30–33.

  17.  Temkin, “Color Shift,” 16.

  18.  Color Standardization (New York: Textile Color Card Association of the United States, 1921), 7, 15.

  19.  See John Gage, Color and Meaning: Art, Science, and Symbolism (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1999); Michel Pastoureau, Blue: The History of a Color, trans. Markus Cruse (Princeton, N.J.: Princeton University Press, 2001); and Charles A. Riley, Color Codes: Modern Theories of Color in Philosophy, Painting and Architecture, Literature, Music, and Psychology (Hanover, N.H.: University Press of New England, 1995).

  20.  Jonathan Crary, Techniques of the Observer: On Vision and Modernity in the Nineteenth Century (Cambridge, Mass.: MIT Press, 1992), especially 67–96.

  21.  See Yumibe, Moving Color, 1.

  22.  See Blaszczyk, The Color Revolution, 45–70.

  23.  Marie Ann Frank, Denman Ross and American Design Theory (Hanover, N.H.: University Press of New England, 2011), 122.

  24.  R. Steven Turner, “The Origins of Colorimetry: What Did Helmholtz and Maxwell Learn from Grassmann?,” in Hermann Günther Graßmann (1809–1877): Visionary Mathematician, Scientist and Neohumanist Scholar, ed. Gert Schubring (Dordrecht/ Boston: Springer, 1996), 71–86.

  25.  Sean F. Johnston, “The Construction of Colorimetry by Committee,” Science in Context 9, no. 4 (1996): 394.

  26.  See Mira Wilkins, “German Chemical Firms in the United States from the Late Nineteenth Century to Post–World War II,” in The German Chemical Industry in the Twentieth Century, ed. John E. Lesch (Dordrecht, Netherlands: Springer Science+Business Media, 2000), 297.

  27.  “The Cargo of the Submarine Deutschland,” Journal of the Society of Chemical Industry 35, no. 23 (December 15, 1916): 1205.

  28.  Wilkins, “German Chemical Firms in the United States,” 298.

  29.  “Editorial: Not Guaranteed,” Price’s Carpet and Rug News 5, no. 3 (September 1918): 10.

  30.  See Blaszczyk, The Color Revolution, 71–93.

  31.  Miriam Bratu Hansen, “The Mass Production of the Senses: Classical Cinema as Vernacular Modernism,” Modernism/modernity 6, no. 2 (1999): 69.

  32.  Tinting and Toning of Eastman Positive Motion Picture Film, 4th ed. rev. (Rochester, N.Y.: Eastman Kodak, 1927).

  33.  Cecil B. DeMille, “The Chances of Color Photography in Moving Pictures,” American Photoplay 17 (January 1923): 15.

  34.  “The Evolution of Film,” Cinematographic Annual 1 (1930): 38.

  35.  “Film Tints to Suit Film Subjects,” Motion Picture Projectionist 5, no. 11 (September 1932): 16.

  36.  See Loyd A. Jones, “Tinted Films for Sound Positives,” Transactions of the Society of Motion Picture Engineers 13, no. 37 (May 6, 1929): 199–226; and Lewis M. Townsend and Loyd A. Jones, “The Use of Color for the Embellishment of the Motion Picture Program,” Transactions of the Society of Motion Picture Engineers 21 (August 1925): 41–42.

  37.  Tinting and Toning of Eastman Positive Motion Picture Film, 2nd ed. rev. (Rochester, N.Y. : The Company, 1918) 3.

  38.  Kathryn Steen, “German Chemicals and American Politics, 1919–1922,” in The German Chemical Industry in the Twentieth Century, ed. John E. Lesch (Dordrecht, Netherlands: Springer Science+Business Media, 2000), 325. For the history of German colorant innovation and global circulation, we also draw in this section from Wilkins, “German Chemical Firms in the United States,” 285–381. Also see Johann Peter Murmann’s industrial analysis, Knowledge and Competitive Advantage: The Coevolution of Firms, Technology, and National Institutions (New York: Cambridge University Press, 2003).

  39.  Akira Kudo, “Dominance Through Cooperation: I.G. Farben’s Japan Strategy,” in Lesch, The German Chemical Industry, 243–283; Ulrich Marsch, “Transferring Strategy and Structure: The German Chemical Industry as an Exemplar for Great Britain,” in Lesch, The German Chemical Industry, 217–241.

  40.  Wilkins, “German Chemical Firms in the United States,” 303.

  41.  For more on the history of DuPont and film stock, see Luci Marzola, “Better Pictures Through Chemistry: DuPont and the Fight for the Hollywood Film Stock Market,” Velvet Light Trap 76, no. 1 (August 30, 2015): 3–18.

  42.  Marzola, “Better Pictures Through Chemistry,” 295.

  43.  See Luke McKernan, Charles Urban: Pioneering the Non-Fiction Film in Britain and America, 1897–1925 (Exeter, UK: University of Exeter Press, 2013).

  44.  With further space, the DuPont corporation would make for another useful, comparative study. Fortunately, excellent work is already underway by Luci Marzola (see her article “Better Pictures Through Chemistry”) and Kirsten Moana Thompson as part of her work on “Color, American Animation and Visual Culture.”

  45.  C. E. Kenneth Mees, “The Kodak Research Laboratories,” Proceedings of the Royal Society of London: Series A, Mathematical and Physical Sciences 192, no. 1031 (1948): 465; and Marzola, “Better Pictures Through Chemistry,” 6. General Electric was the prime innovator of industrial research in the United States at the time, particularly through the work of Dr. Willis Whitney who helped found the GE Research Laboratory in 1900, which was influential not only on the Kodak Research Laboratories but also on the Technicolor Corporation. Whitney was also a professor at MIT and was the undergraduate adviser there of both Herbert Kalmus and Daniel Comstock. See James Layton and David Pierce, The Dawn of Technicolor: 1915–1935, ed. Paolo Cherchi Usai and Catherine A. Surowiec (Rochester, N.Y.: George Eastman House, 2015), 24, 27. For more on Mees, also see Frank Gray, “Kinemacolor and Kodak: The Enterprise of Colour,” in The Colour Fantastic: Chromatic Worlds of Silent Cinema, ed. Giovanna Fossati et al. (Amsterdam: Amsterdam University Press, 2018), 145–159.

On the broader professionalizing shifts in research and development laboratories in the United States in the early twentieth century, see, for example, David C. Mowery and Nathan Rosenberg, Paths of Innovation: Technological Change in Twentieth-Century America (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1999); and Jeffrey L. Furman and Megan J. MacGarvie, “Academic Science and the Birth of Industrial Research Laboratories in the U.S. Pharmaceutical Industry,” Journal of Economic Behavior & Organization 63 (2007): 756–776. Specifically on Kodak’s Research Laboratories, also see Marzola, “Better Pictures Through Chemistry,” 3–18.

  46.  See John Hannavy, “Frederick Charles Luther Wratten (1840–1926),” in Encyclopedia of Nineteenth Century Photography, ed. John Hannavy (London: Routledge, 2013), 1513–1514.

  47.  C. E. Kenneth Mees, The Photography of Coloured Objects (London: Croydon, Wratten & Wainwright, 1909).

  48.  See, for instance, Mees’s “The Organization of Industrial Scientific Research,” Science 43, no. 1118 (June 2, 1916): 763–773; “The Production of Scientific Knowledge,” Science 46, no. 1196 (November 30, 1917): 519–528; and “A Photographic Research Laboratory,” Scientific Monthly 5, no. 6 (December 1917): 481–496.

  49.  See C. E. Kenneth Mees, “John George Capstaff,” Journal of the Society of Motion Picture Engineers 44, no. 1 (January 1945): 10–17; and Glenn E. Matthews, “Obituary: Dr. Loyd A. Jones,” Journal of the SMPTE 63, no. 1 (July 1954): 30–36.

  50.  “Dr. C. E. Kenneth Mees [Obituary],” Image: The Bulletin of the George Eastman House 10, no. 1 (January 1961): 2.

  51.  Mees, “A Photographic Research Laboratory,” 483.

  52.  See “Fifty-Year History of the Optical Society of America,” Journal of the Optical Society of America 56, no. 3 (1966): 274–339.

  53.  See “Constitution and By-Laws,” Transactions of the Society of Motion Picture Engineers 1, no. 1 (1916): 3; and Janet Staiger, “Standardization and Independence: The Founding Objectives of the SMPTE,” SMPTE Motion Imaging Journal 96, no. 6 (June 1, 1987): 532–537.

  54.  Sean F. Johnston, A History of Light and Colour Measurement: Science in the Shadows (Bristol, UK: Institute of Physics Publishing, 2001), 159.

  55.  G. Quaink, “The Industrial Laboratory,” Monthly Abstract Bulletin from the Kodak Research Laboratories 5, no. 4 (April 1919): 75–76.

  56.  On the Troland article, the journal explains, “The author reviews the three most important theories of color vision, stating the good and bad points of each, these three theories being the Young-Helmholtz, the Hering, and the Ladd-Franklin. He seems to favor the last named theory as explaining most satisfactorily the observed facts, although even this fails to explain completely all such observations. The paper gives a very good idea of the present status of color theory, especially form the standpoint of a psychologist,” in Leonard Troland, “The Enigma of Color Vision,” Monthly Abstract Bulletin from the Kodak Research Laboratories 7, no. 4 (January 1921): 14.

  57.  C. E. Kenneth Mees, “The Kodachrome Process of Color Portraiture,” Abridged Scientific Publications from the Research Laboratory of the Eastman Kodak Company 2 (1915–1916): 14–16.

  58.  Loyd A. Jones, “Color Analyses of Two Component Mixtures,” Abridged Scientific Publications from the Research Laboratory of the Eastman Kodak Company 1 (1913): 31–35; Loyd A. Jones, “The Low Visibility Phase of Protective Coloration,” Abridged Scientific Publications from the Research Laboratory of the Eastman Kodak Company 4 (1919): 42–62; and Lewis M. Townsend and Loyd A. Jones, “The Use of Color for the Embellishment of the Motion Picture Program,” Abridged Scientific Publications from the Research Laboratory of the Eastman Kodak Company 9 (1925): 134–144.

  59.  Jones, “Color Analyses of Two Component Mixtures”; Townsend and Jones, “The Use of Color,” 135.

  60.  Jones, “Color Analyses of Two Component Mixtures,” 31.

  61.  The German article was actually written by a Kodak researcher, Perley G. Nutting, who had earlier studied in Germany before taking his Ph.D. from Cornell, but published in Zeitschrift für Instrumentenkunde in 1913. The material by Hilger is also referenced in “W. E. Forsythe: The Rotation of Prisms of Constant Deviation,” Monthly Abstract Bulletin from the Kodak Research Laboratories 3, no. 6 (August 1917): 119.

  62.  Quoted in “Dr. C. E. Kenneth Mees [Obituary],” 2.

  63.  Marzola, “Better Pictures Through Chemistry,” 9. As Marzola points out, this was a very different approach from the much more secretive labs of DuPont.

  64.  Zunz, Why the American Century, 5–6.

  65.  The cahiers des ingénieurs Pathé Frères have been preserved at the Fondation Jérôme Seydoux-Pathé, and we are grateful to Stéphanie Salmon and the foundation for access to them. See Joshua Yumibe, “Industrial Research Into Color at Pathé During the 1910s and 1920s,” in Recherches et innovations dans l’industrie du cinéma: Les cahiers des ingénieurs Pathé (1906–1927), ed. Jacques Malthête and Stéphanie Salmon (Paris: Fondation Jérôme Seydoux-Pathé, 2017), 197–208.

  66.  See Stéphanie Salmon, Pathé: A la conquête du cinéma, 1896–1929 (Paris: Editions Tallandier, 2014), 505–526.

  67.  Elizabeth Brayer, George Eastman: A Biography, reprint edition (Rochester, N.Y.: University of Rochester Press, 2015), 115–116.

  68.  See Dubois, “Rapport de M. Dubois: émulsion Eastman” (CECIL et Fondation Jérôme Seydoux-Pathé, June 10, 1908), Cahier no. 33333; Dubois, “Essais de pellicule négative Lumière” (CECIL et Fondation Jérôme Seydoux-Pathé, October 10, 1908), Cahier no. 33333; and Dubois, “Examen de la pellicule de sûreté AGFA” (CECIL et Fondation Jérôme Seydoux-Pathé, December 19, 1908), Cahier no. 33333.

  69.  See Dubois, “Virages organiques” (CECIL et Fondation Jérôme Seydoux-Pathé, September 25, 1908), Cahier no. 33333. Also for a discussion of the notebooks and Dubois’s work on color at Pathé, see Céline Ruivo, “Le Livre de Fabrication de La Compagnie Générale Des Phonographes Cinématographes et Appareils de Précision: The Pathé Frères Laboratory Logbook of Joinville-Le-Pont (1906–8),” The Moving Image: The Journal of the Association of Moving Image Archivists 15, no. 1 (2015): 85–92.

  70.  Alan Milward and S. B. Saul, The Development of the Economies of Continental Europe 1850–1914 (New York: Routledge, 2012), 93.

  71.  See Vacher, “Rapport de M. Vacher” (CECIL et Fondation Jérôme Seydoux-Pathé, December 3, 1923), Cahier no. 33926.

  72.  Pinel, “Virage des films par teinture sur mordançage” (CECIL et Fondation Jérôme Seydoux-Pathé, August 18, 1924), Cahier no. 33691.

  73.  Vacher, “Teinture en grande vitesse” (CECIL et Fondation Jérôme Seydoux-Pathé, October 17, 1923), Cahier no. 33926.

  74.  Vacher, “Examen de brevets” (CECIL et Fondation Jérôme Seydoux-Pathé, October 31, 1923), Cahier no. 33926.

  75.  Barbier, “Rapport de M. Barbier sur la convention de la ‘Society of Motion Picture Engineers’” (CECIL et Fondation Jérôme Seydoux-Pathé, May 19–22, 1924), Cahier 33111.

  76.  Barbier, “Rapport de M. Barbier sur la convention de la ‘Society of Motion Picture Engineers.’” (CECIL et Fondation Jérôme Seydoux-Pathé, October 1, 1923), Cahier 33111.

  77.  Also see Nicolas Le Guern, “Des recherches de Rodolphe Berthon chez Pathé en 1913–1914 au procédé lenticulaire Kodacolor,” in Malthête and Salmon, Recherches et innovations dans l’industrie du cinéma, 225–241.

  78.  Brayer, George Eastman, 222–223.

  79.  Brayer, George Eastman, 223.

  80.  François Ede, “Un épisode de l’histoire de la couleur au cinéma: le procéde Keller-Dorian et les films lenticulaires,” 1895: Revue d’histoire du cinéma 71 (2013): 187–202.

  81.  C. E. Kenneth Mees, “Amateur Cinematography and Kodacolor Process,” in Abridged Scientific Publications from the Kodak Research Laboratories (London: Eastman Kodak Company, 1929), 129.

  82.  See the material collected in Cahier no. 33125 (CECIL et Fondation Jérôme Seydoux-Pathé, 1913–1914).

  83.  On this history, see Layton and Pierce, The Dawn of Technicolor, 25–29.

  84.  Layton and Pierce, The Dawn of Technicolor, 36–42.

  85.  Layton and Pierce, The Dawn of Technicolor, 145–148.

  86.  See, for instance, Leonard Troland’s essays on Bergson, Fechner, and psychophysics, “Paraphysical Monism,” Philosophical Review 27, no. 1 (1918): 39–62; on Freud and psychic phenomena, “The Freudian Psychology and Psychical Research,” Journal of Abnormal Psychology 8, no. 6 (March 1914): 405–428; and on magical and psychical phenomena, “Listening in on the Universe, VI: The Tricks in the Trade: Much That Seems Psychic a Clever Conjurer Can Achieve by Magic,” Delineator 98, no. 3 (April 1921): 20. For Theosophical praise of Troland and his autocatalytic view of the chemical origins of life, which was seen as being in line with Theosophy’s conception of the “fundamental identity of all Souls,” see “On the Lookout,” Theosophy: A Magazine Devoted to the Path 6, no. 1 (November 1917): 45. Hugo Münsterberg vigorously opposed Troland’s interest in psychical research; see Bruce Kuklick, The Rise of American Philosophy: Cambridge, Massachusetts, 1860–1930 (New Haven, Conn.: Yale University Press, 1979), 420.

  87.  See the four letters “Hugo Münsterberg to Leonard Thompson Troland,” March 24, March 30, April 30, and August 2, 1916, Hugo Münsterberg Collection, Folder 2415, Items 1–4, Boston Public Library; and Hugo Münsterberg, The Photoplay: A Psychological Study (New York: Appleton, 1916).

  88.  See the correspondence from March 30 and April 20, Hugo Münsterberg Collection, Folder 2415, Boston Public Library, as well as Kuklick, The Rise of American Philosophy, 420.

  89.  Leonard Troland, “Troland Diaries, March 11,” 1926, E17, Technicolor Notebooks: Troland Diaries 1926–1929, George Eastman Museum. More generally on Münsterberg’s Harvard lab, see Giuliana Bruno, “Hugo Münsterberg’s Laboratory of Moving Images,” Grey Room 36 (Summer 2009): 88–113.

  90.  Herbert Kalmus, “[H. T. Kalmus to L. T. Troland],” April 23, 1929, M0006 Technicolor Internal Correspondence, George Eastman Museum.

  91.  Kenneth Mees makes similar points in “The Organization of Industrial Scientific Research,” 766.

  92.  Johnston, “The Construction of Colorimetry by Committee,” 387–420.

  93.  Leonard Troland, “Report of the Colorimetry Committee of the Optical Society of America,” Journal of the Optical Society of America and Review 6, no. 6 (1922): 527–596. On its influence, see, for example, Lewis M. Townsend and Loyd A. Jones, “The Use of Color for the Embellishment of the Motion Picture Program,” 41–42.

Interestingly enough, growing out of his collaboration with Jones through the Colorimetry Committee, Troland even attempted to recruit Jones to Technicolor in 1929, as Troland’s diaries note: “L.A. Jones in NY asking if he could stop and see me Sunday. He wires: no and I call him on the phone at Hotel Pennsylvania. I ask him if he would consider our Hollywood job. He says his present rate 14k and he would not consider anything under 20. This seems to count him out. Eastman research men have no contracts,” Leonard Troland, “Troland Diaries,” February 22, 1929, E17, Technicolor Notebooks, Troland Diaries, 1926–1929, George Eastman Museum.

  94.  Johnston, “The Construction of Colorimetry by Committee,” 404. Importantly, on this connection between Helmholtz and additive and subtractive color systems, the Optical Society of America translated and published Helmholtz’s Treatise on Physiological Optics, trans. James P. C. Southall (Rochester, N.Y.: Optical Society of America, 1924).

  95.  Troland, “Report of the Colorimetry Committee,” 531–532.

  96.  Johnston, “The Construction of Colorimetry by Committee,” 400.

  97.  Sean Cubitt’s discussion of CIE and its connection to film in the context of the history of “Ordering Color” is provocative, though he does not trace Troland’s involvement in these various developments; in The Practice of Light: A Genealogy of Visual Technologies from Prints to Pixels (Cambridge, Mass.: MIT Press, 2014), 138–144.

  98.  “Taylor for Mary and Doug Film,” Film Daily, April 15, 1929, 4.

  99.  Herbert Kalmus, “[H. T. Kalmus to L. T. Troland],” July 17, 1929, M0006 Technicolor Internal Correspondence, George Eastman Museum.

100.  As Christel Schmidt notes, even though the film opened two days after the stock market crash, box office receipts were healthy, coming in at close to a million dollars. “Crown of Glory: The Rise and Fall of the Mary Pickford Curls,” in Mary Pickford: Queen of the Movies, ed. Christel Schmidt (Lexington: University Press of Kentucky, 2012), 184. The film has recently been restored by the Museum of Modern Art.

101.  “The Evolution of Film,” 37–38.

102.  “The Evolution of Film,” 37. For more details on the tinting process, see Joshua Yumibe, Moving Color, 97–105.

103.  “The Evolution of Film,” 37.

104.  In addition, see Loyd A. Jones, “Tinted Films for Sound Positives,” 199–226; and advertisements such as “New Color Moods in Sound [Kodak Sonochrome Ad],” Motion Picture News 40, no. 6 (August 10, 1929): 635; “New Beauty for the Sound Screen [Kodak Sonochrome Ad],” Motion Picture Projectionist 3, no. 1 (November 1929): 27; and “Low Cost Tints That Match Every Mood in Sound Pictures [Kodak Sonochrome Ad],” Motion Picture Projectionist 3, no. 4 (February 1930): 40.

105.  See “The New Age of Color,” Saturday Evening Post, January 21, 1928, 22; and “Color in Industry,” Fortune 1 (February 1930): 85–94.

106.  “The Public Wants Color [Kodak Sonochrome Ad],” Film Daily 54, no. 45 (November 16, 1930): 13.

107.  Matthew Luckiesh, The Language of Color (New York: Dodd, Mead, 1918), 109.

108.  Jones, “Tinted Films for Sound Positives,” 216. Luckiesh and Troland both participated in the 1916 annual convention of the Illuminating Engineering Society, when Troland was also in research residence at Nela Park with Luckiesh, and they continued to collaborate on various research committees until Troland’s death in 1932. See “Happenings in the Industry,” Electrical Review and Western Electrician 69, no. 13 (September 23, 1916): 539. Troland also reviewed Luckiesh’s work, including The Language of Color, at various points: “[Luckiesh] discusses the problem of the emotional correlations of the various colors, the recent advances which have been made in the standardization of color and the technique of producing various colors,” in Leonard Troland, “Vision—General Phenomena,” Psychological Bulletin 16, no. 4 (April 1919): 123.

2. Advertising, Fashion, and Color

    1.  Pierre Bourdieu, “The Field of Cultural Production, or: The Economic World Reversed,” in The Field of Cultural Production: Essays on Art and Literature, ed. Randal Johnson, trans. Richard Nice (New York: Columbia University Press, 1993), 53.

    2.  For a reflection on the significance of mass fashion—whether symbolic or sensual—and the influence it has had on the field of high fashion, see Agnès Rocamora, “Fields of Fashion: Critical Insights Into Bourdieu’s Sociology of Culture,” Journal of Consumer Culture 2, no. 3 (November 1, 2002): 341–362.

    3.  Miriam Hansen, “The Mass Production of the Senses: Classical Cinema as Vernacular Modernism,” Modernism/Modernity 6, no. 2 (April 1999): 60.

    4.  Louis Weinberg, Color in Everyday Life (New York: Moffat, Yard, 1918): 105–106.

    5.  See Joshua Yumibe, “Stenciling Technologies and the Hybridized Image in Early Cinema,” in Exposing the Film Apparatus: The Film Archive as a Research Laboratory, ed. Giovanna Fossati and Annie van den Oever (Amsterdam: Amsterdam University Press, 2016), 232–241.

    6.  Robert Mallet-Stevens, A Modern City (London: Benn Brothers, 1922).

    7.  Sarah Schleuning, Moderne: Fashioning the French Interior (Princeton, N.J.: Princeton Architectural Press, 2008), 11.

    8.  For the “garçonne look,” see Valerie Mendes and Amy De La Haye, Twentieth Century Fashion (London: Thames & Hudson, 1999), 58–62.

    9.  Emily Burbank, Woman as Decoration (New York: Dodd, Mead, 1920), 81.

  10.  Burbank, Woman as Decoration, 81.

  11.  Edward Gordon Craig was the author of On the Art of the Theatre (London: Heinemann, 1911), a celebrated book on theater stage design. His approach was nonnaturalistic, and he was enthusiastic about exploiting electric lighting techniques in the theater.

  12.  Burbank, Woman as Decoration, 81.

  13.  Burbank, Woman as Decoration, 84.

  14.  Gabrielle Amati, “Cinéa-Ciné interviewe Lilian Gish à Florence,” Cinéa-Ciné pour tous, June 1, 1924, 21–22.

  15.  David Kyvig, Daily Life in the United States 1920–39: Decades of Promise and Pain (Westport, Conn.: Greenwood Press, 2002), 47.

  16.  For a detailed discussion, see Victor Arwas, Art Deco (New York: Harry N. Abrams, 1980), 27–50.

  17.  Pascal Rousseau, “‘Voyelles’: Sonia Delaunay and the Universal Language of Colour Hearing,” in Sonia Delaunay, ed. Anne Montfort (London: Tate, 2014), 72–73.

  18.  Wassily Kandinsky, “Über Bühnenkomposition” (“On Stage Composition”), Almanac der Blaue Reiter (1912), quoted in Rousseau, “‘Voyelles,’” 75.

  19.  Léon Deshairs, Intérieurs en couleurs: Exposition des arts décoratifs, Paris, 1925 (Paris: A. Lévy, 1926).

  20.  Lucy Fischer, Designing Women: Cinema, Art Deco, and the Female Form (New York: Columbia University Press, 2003), 17–19.

  21.  Deshairs, Intérieurs en couleurs, “Preface” (translated from French).

  22.  Léon Deshairs, Modern French Decorative Art, 2nd series (London: Architectural Press: 1930), “Introduction.”

  23.  Matteo de Leeuw-de-Monti, “Sonia Delaunay: The Designs for Metz & Co,” in Sonia Delaunay, ed. Anne Montfort (London: Tate, 2014), 175–181.

  24.  Regina Lee Blaszczyk, The Color Revolution (Cambridge, Mass.: MIT Press, 2012), 174.

  25.  Deborah Ryan, “Daily Mail”: The Ideal Home Through the Twentieth Century (London: Hazar, 1997).

  26.  Daily Mail Ideal Home Exhibition Catalogue (London: Daily Mail, 1927), 21, 37.

  27.  Ellen Woolrich, “Colourful Homes,” in Daily Mail Ideal Home Exhibition Catalogue, 47.

  28.  Woolrich, “Colourful Homes,” 47.

  29.  Matthew Luckiesh, Light and Color: Advertising and Merchandising (London: Crosby, Lockwood, 1923), 14–15.

  30.  Sally Stein, “The Rhetoric of the Colorful and the Colorless: American Photography and Material Cultures Between the Wars” (Ph.D. diss., Yale University, 1991), 47.

  31.  Paul Nystrom, Economics of Fashion (New York: Ronald Press, 1928), 480.

  32.  “Lady Pepperell Colored Sheets and Pillow Cases [Ad],” Photoplay 35, no. 3 (February 1929): 80.

  33.  “How the Stars Make Their Homes Attractive,” Photoplay 35, no. 3 (February 1929): 68–69, 81.

  34.  “How the Stars Make Their Homes Attractive,” 81.

  35.  “Lady Pepperell Colored Sheets and Pillow Cases [Ad],” 80.

  36.  Bourdieu, The Field of Cultural Production, 121.

  37.  Millicent Melrose, Color Harmony and Design in Dress (New York: Social Mentor, 1922), 62.

  38.  Roland Marchand, Advertising the American Dream: Making Way for Modernity, 1920–1940 (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1985), 132.

  39.  Blaszczyk, The Color Revolution, 78.

  40.  Margaret Hayden Rorke, “Color in Industry” speech, 13 April 1928, Hotel Astor, New York, Hagley Museum and Library, Box 41, Inter-Society Color Council, TCCA.

  41.  “The Textile Color Card Association,” Color Trade Journal 10, no. 4 (April 1922): 159–160.

  42.  Margaret Hayden Rorke, TCCA Annual Report, 1926, Hagley Museum and Library, Box 1, Color Association of the United States (CAUS), TCCA.

  43.  Hagley Museum and Library, manuscripts and archives department, ISCC records, accession no. 2188, accessed July 13, 2015, http://findingaids.hagley.org/xtf/view?docId=ead/2188.xml.

  44.  Hagley Museum and Library, Box 56, Inter-Society Color Council, TCCA, 1922 and 1923.

  45.  Spring Season Card for 1923, Hagley Museum and Library, Box 56, Inter-Society Color Council, TCCA, 1922 and 1923.

  46.  Salina Evening Journal, March 10, 1923, 2.

  47.  When Claude Bragdon, American architect and theater designer whose color work is discussed in chapter 3, designed costumes for Ophelia in Hamlet, he chose turquoise blue and daffodil green “for she is spring, she is virginity.” Bragdon, “Color and Costume,” Foreword 17, no. 5 (February 1930): 3–4.

  48.  Margaret Hayden Rorke, “Color as a Silk Salesman” (TCCA, 1923), 2188 Inter Society Color Council (ISCC), Box 13, Hagley Museum and Library.

  49.  “New Colors Puzzle Mere Man,” Sun, October 6, 1920, Hagley Library, 2188 Inter Society Color Council (ISCC), Box 43.

  50.  Aloys John Maerz and Morris Rea Paul, Dictionary of Color (New York: McGraw-Hill, 1930), v.

  51.  Maerz and Paul, Dictionary of Color, v.

  52.  Maerz and Paul, Dictionary of Color, 140.

  53.  Lynda Nead, The Tiger in the Smoke: Art and Culture in Post-War Britain (New Haven, Conn.: Yale University Press, 2017), 148.

  54.  TCCA, ISCC Spring Season Cards for 1923, 1926 and 1927, Hagley Museum, Box 56.

  55.  Maerz and Paul, Dictionary of Color, 200.

  56.  William Leach, Land of Desire: Merchants, Power, and the Rise of a New American Culture (New York: Pantheon Books, 1993), 311–312.

  57.  Blaszczyk, The Color Revolution, 141–144.

  58.  Colour 2, no. 11 (September 1930): 29.

  59.  “Color Schemes Declared to Have Effect on Health. Beatrice Irwin Wins Membership in Society of Illuminating Engineers by Study of Lighting,” Sunday Oregonian, March 12, 1922, 11.

  60.  Dorothy Nickerson, Color Measurement and Its Application to the Grading of Agricultural Products: A Handbook on the Method of Disk Colorimetry (Washington, D.C.: U.S. Department of Agriculture, 1946).

  61.  Hagley Museum and Library, ISCC records, accession no. 2188, finding aid.

  62.  Sarah Street, “A Suitable Job for a Woman: Color and the Work of Natalie Kalmus,” in Doing Women’s Film History: Reframing Cinemas, Past and Future, ed. Christine Gledhill and Julia Knight (Champaign: University of Illinois Press, 2015), 206–217.

  63.  Amy De La Haye, “The Dissemination of Design from Haute Couture to Fashionable Ready-to-Wear During the 1920s with Specific Reference to the Hodson Dress Shop in Willenhall,” Textile History 24, no. 1 (1993): 39–48.

  64.  Margaret Hayden Rorke, TCCA Annual Report, 1925, Hagley Museum, Box 1, Color Association of the United States (CAUS), TCCA.

  65.  Regina Lee Blaszczyk, “The Color Schemers: American Color Practice in Britain, 1920s–1960s,” in Bright Modernity: Color, Commerce, and Consumer Culture, ed. Regina Lee Blaszczyk and Uwe Spiekermann (Cham, Switzerland: Palgrave Macmillan, 2017), 201–202.

  66.  Margaret Hayden Rorke, TCCA Annual Report, 1928, Hagley Museum, Box 1, Color Association of the United States (CAUS), TCCA.

  67.  The colors were seed pearl, miniature pink, stardew, glint o’ gold, arcadian green, coquette, romantic green, antique fuchsia, moonmist, beige soirée, citronelle, venice, orchadee, piquant green, sunrise yellow, and flirt. TCCA, ISCC Fall Season Card 1928, Hagley Museum, Box 56.

  68.  Romanticism Leaflet 1928, TCCA, ISCC 2188, Hagley Museum, Box 13.

  69.  “Showing Paris Styles in Toronto,” Dry Goods Review 33, no. 10 (October 1921): 142.

  70.  “Showing Paris Styles in Toronto,” 142.

  71.  Marketa Uhlirova, “100 Years of the Fashion Film: Frameworks and Histories,” Fashion Theory, 17, no. 2 (April 2013): 140.

  72.  Eirik Frisvold Hanssen, “Symptoms of Desire: Colour, Costume, and Commodities in Fashion Newsreels of the 1910s and 1920s,” Film History 21, no. 2 (2009): 114–115.

  73.  Hanssen, “Symptoms of Desire,” 116.

  74.  “Fashion Fun and Fancy” was the motto of the cinemagazine; see Jenny Hammerton, For Ladies Only?: Eve’s Film Review: Pathé Cinemagazine 1921–33 (Hastings, UK: Projection Box, 2001), 20.

  75.  Eve and Everybody’s Film Review No. 362, nitrate reel viewed at the National Film Archive, Berkhamsted, UK.

  76.  Eve and Everybody’s Film Review No. 373, nitrate reel viewed at the National Film Archive, Berkhamsted, UK.

  77.  Mendes and de la Haye, Twentieth Century Fashion, 66–70.

  78.  Mendes and de la Haye, Twentieth Century Fashion, 72.

  79.  Blaszczyk, The Color Revolution, 177.

  80.  Gaumont Graphic No. 154, Latest Paris Fashions, nitrate reel viewed at the National Film Archive, Berkhamsted, UK.

  81.  Eve’s Film Review, Fashions in Hairdressing, 1925, 6143Ad, nitrate reel viewed at the National Film Archive, Berkhamsted, UK.

  82.  Eve’s Film Review, The Shoe Show, 444, nitrate reel viewed at the National Film Archive, Berkhamsted, UK.

  83.  Hammerton, For Ladies Only?, 80–81.

  84.  Eve’s Film Review, Fashions in Colour, 1925, 6143Ad, nitrate reel viewed at the National Film Archive, Berkhamsted, UK.

  85.  Emily Crosby, “The ‘Colour Supplement’ of the Cinema: The British Cinemagazine,” Journal of British Cinema and Television 5, no. 1 (2008): 14.

  86.  Gilbert Adrian, “La Mode à Hollywood,” Cinéa-Ciné pour tous 134 (June 1, 1929): 9–10.

  87.  Quoted in Hammerton, For Ladies Only?, 77; originally in Film Renter and Moving Picture 21 (May 1921).

  88.  The intertitle is a humorous allusion to Robert Burns’s poem “Comin’ thro’ the Rye,” a children’s song and the title of Cecil Hepworth’s 1923 British film.

  89.  François Ede, “Un épisode de l’histoire de la couleur au cinéma: le procéde Keller-Dorian et les films lenticulaires,” 1895: Revue d’histoire du cinéma 71 (2013): 187–202.

  90.  Natalie Snoyman, “Kodachrome’s Hope: The Making and Promotion of McCall Colour Fashion News,” in The Colour Fantastic: Chromatic Worlds of Silent Cinema, ed. Giovanna Fossati et al. (Amsterdam: Amsterdam University Press, 2018), 182.

  91.  “Illustrations in Color in Style Catalogue,” McCall’s Ad-Sheet, April 1927, 8; quoted in Snoyman, “Kodachrome’s Hope,” 189.

  92.  Snoyman, “Kodachrome’s Hope,” 190.

  93.  James Layton and David Pierce, The Dawn of Technicolor (Rochester, N.Y.: George Eastman House, 2015), 334.

  94.  “Moves,” Hollywood Filmograph 10, no. 23 (June 21, 1930): 18. We are grateful to James Layton for sharing materials relating to the Fashion News films.

  95.  Natalie Snoyman, “‘In to Stay’: Selling Three-Strip Technicolor and Fashion in the 1930s and 1940s” (Ph.D. diss., Stockholm University, 2017), 150.

  96.  “Fads and Fashions,” Hollywood Filmograph 10, no. 14 (April 19, 1930): 9.

  97.  “Fashion News Follows Sound Trend,” Hollywood Filmograph 9, no. 28 (July 13, 1929): 4; “Fashion News,” Hollywood Filmograph 10, no. 9 (March 15, 1930): 9.

  98.  “Hollywood Styles,” Hollywood Filmograph 9, no. 33 (August 17, 1929): 25; and report in the Binghampton Press, November 18, 1929, 25.

  99.  Colorart Pictures produced more than fifty Technicolor shorts 1926–29. Founded by two former Technicolor employees, Howard C. Brown and Curtis F. Nagel, the company collapsed in 1929 after a failed attempt to finance a South Seas project involving F. W. Murnau and Robert Flaherty.

100.  “Tiffany Distributing Colorart Fashion Picture,” Motion Picture News 35, no. 3 (January 21, 1927): 227.

101.  “Sigrid Holmquist is seen in remarkable Fashion Color Film,” Moving Picture World 84, no. 5 (January 29, 1927): 351.

102.  Louise Wallenberg, “Fashion and the Moving Image,” in The Fashion History Reader: Global Perspectives, ed. Giorgio Riello and Peter McNeil (London: Routledge, 2010), 496.

103.  “Love Reappears: Transforming Failure Into Success,” Kinematograph Weekly 72, no. 823 (February 1, 1923): 55.

104.  “Love Reappears,” 55.

105.  “La Mode au cinéma,” Cinéa-Ciné pour tous 1 (November 15, 1923): 24.

106.  Charles Eckert, “The Carole Lombard in Macy’s Window,” reprinted from Quarterly Review of Film Studies 3, no. 1 (1978) in Fabrications: Costume and the Female Body, ed. Jane Gaines and Charlotte Herzog (London: Routledge, 1990), 106.

107.  Sumiko Higashi, Cecil B. DeMille and American Culture: The Silent Era (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1994), 177.

108.  Michelle Tolini Finamore, Hollywood Before Glamour: Fashion in American Silent Film (London: Palgrave Macmillan, 2013), 124–125.

109.  “The Octopus Gown,” Photoplay 20, no. 4 (September 1921): 20.

110.  Erté is credited as having designed William Randolph Hearst’s film The Restless Sex in 1920. The striking resemblance between West’s gowns and Erté’s style has possibly led many to believe that Erté worked on The Affairs of Anatol, even though he is not credited. A selection of Erté’s designs confirms this view, particularly designs of 1920–21. See Erté, Erté Fashions (New York: St. Martin’s Press, 1972); and Erté, Erté’s Fashion Design (New York: Dover, 1981).

111.  Drake Stutesman, “Clare West,” in Women Film Pioneers Project, ed. Jane Gaines, Radha Vatsal, and Monica Dall’Asta (New York: Columbia University Libraries, Center for Digital Research and Scholarship, 2013), accessed May 18, 2018, https://wfpp.cdrs.columbia.edu/pioneer/ccp-clare-west/.

112.  Mark Lynn Anderson, “1921: Movies and Personality,” in American Cinema of the 1920s: Themes and Variations, ed. Lucy Fischer (New Brunswick, N.J.: Rutgers University Press, 2009), 57.

113.  Lucy Fischer, Cinema by Design: Art Nouveau, Modernism, and Film History (New York: Columbia University Press, 2017), 78.

114.  Fischer, Cinema by Design, 143.

115.  Ruth Schwartz Cowan, “The ‘Industrial Revolution’ in the Home: Household Technology and Social Change in the 20th Century,” Technology and Culture 17, no. 1 (1976): 1–23.

116.  For a useful discussion of the film’s Art Nouveau references, see Fischer, Cinema by Design, 75–80.

117.  Cecil B. DeMille, “Color Problem of Film Production Reduced to an Exact Science,” Reel and Slide 2, no. 4 (April 1919), 21.

118.  Tim Bergfelder, Sue Harris, and Sarah Street, Film Architecture and the Transnational Imagination: Set Design in 1930s European Cinema (Amsterdam: Amsterdam University Press, 2007), 61. Also see Francois Albera, Albatros: Des Russes á Paris, 1919–1929 (Paris: Cinémathèque Française, 1995).

119.  See Flicker Alley’s 2013 DVD collection of Albatros films restored by the Cinemathèque Française, French Masterworks: Russian Émigrés in Paris 1923–1928 (FA0029).

120.  Edward W. Said, Orientalism: Western Conceptions of the Orient (London: Penguin Books, 1995), 3.

121.  Said, Orientalism, 3.

122.  Matthew Bernstein, “Introduction,” in Visions of the East: Orientalism in Film, ed. Matthew Bernstein and Gaylyn Studlar (New Brunswick, N.J.: Rutgers University Press, 1997), 3.

123.  Mendes and de la Haye, Twentieth Century Fashion, 32.

124.  Adam Geczy, Fashion and Orientalism: Dress, Textiles and Culture from the Seventeenth to the Twenty-First Century (London: Bloomsbury, 2013), 2.

125.  It is notable that, in a parallel move, Black Narcissus (Michael Powell and Emeric Pressburger, U.K., 1947), a seminal use of three-strip Technicolor, created its Himalayan setting entirely in a British film studio in order to achieve Powell’s vision of the East that was characterized as “other” and as alien to the experience of visiting nuns.

126.  The advertisement is reproduced in Layton and Pierce, The Dawn of Technicolor, 95.

127.  The child was played by Priscilla Moran, an American child actress. This casting was strategic, so that Allen’s son appeared Caucasian, yet the cross-gender casting also allows for an element of gender fluidity to translate subtly as biracial alterity in the film.

128.  Jeanne Thomas Allen, “Fig Leaves in Hollywood: Female Representation and Consumer Culture,” in Fabrications: Costume and the Female Body, ed. Jane Gaines and Charlotte Herzog (London: Routledge, 1990), 128.

129.  “Four in Color,” Motion Picture News 34, no. 2 (July 10, 1926): 119.

130.  Bryony Dixon, “Pretty in Pink,” Sight and Sound 28, no. 6 (June 2018): 42.

131.  See the discussion with Bryony Dixon about this recently discovered footage, in British Film Institute, Early Technicolor Discoveries from the BFI National Archive, accessed July 5, 2018, https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=a46tD6sjD58.

132.  The Dressmaker from Paris (Paul Bern, U.S., 1925), a film believed lost, was about a midwestern American department store that employs a Parisian dressmaker to transform its approach to retailing. The film featured a spectacular fashion show; see Finamore, Hollywood Before Glamour, 171.

133.  Layton and Pierce, The Dawn of Technicolor, 313. A French production called Monte Carlo, starring British actress Betty Balfour, had also been released in 1925. It is reported to have contained a fashion ball scene in color. “Movie Making at Monte,” Pictures and Picturegoer 10, no. 54 (June 1925): 10–11.

134.  Dudley Andrew and Steven Ungar, Popular Front Paris and the Poetics of Culture (Cambridge, Mass.: Harvard University Press, 2005), 255.

135.  Mila Ganeva, Women in Weimar Fashion: Discourses and Displays in German Culture, 1918–1933 (Rochester, N.Y.: Camden House, 2008), 129.

136.  Ganeva, Women in Weimar Fashion, 129.

137.  Eckert, “The Carole Lombard in Macy’s Window,” 107.

138.  Janet Staiger, “Announcing Wares, Winning Patrons, Voicing Ideals: Thinking About the History and Theory of Film Advertising,” Cinema Journal 29, no. 3 (1990): 11. On tie-ins in silent cinema, also see Jane Gaines, “The Queen Christina Tie-Ups: Convergence of Show Window and Screen,” Quarterly Review of Film and Video 11, no. 1 (1989): 35–60.

139.  “Window Displays Feature ‘Christian’ Campaign,” Motion Picture News 28, no. 11 (September 15, 1923): 1325.

140.  Victoria Jackson and Sarah Street, “Kevin Brownlow on Film Color,” Moving Image 15, no. 1 (2015): 101–102.

141.  Kinematograph Year Book (London: Kinematograph, 1927), 197.

142.  Victoria Jackson and Bregt Lameris, “Phantom Colours: Alice Blue and Phantom Red: Changing Meanings of Two Fashionable Colours, 1905–30,” Catwalk: The Journal of Fashion, Beauty and Style 3, no. 2 (2014): 19–46.

143.  “Irene [Ad],” Motion Picture News 33, no. 10 (March 6, 1926): 1065–1070.

144.  Matthew Luckiesh, Color and Its Applications (New York: Van Nostrand, 1927), 78.

145.  Jackson and Lameris, “Phantom Colours,” 26.

146.  Jackson and Lameris, “Phantom Colours,” 27.

147.  Jackson and Lameris, “Phantom Colours,” 31.

148.  Hagley Archive, Box56, ISCC, TCCA, Fall Card 1926.

149.  Layton and Pierce, The Dawn of Technicolor, 316. A British review of the film referred to “fine color photography” in the ballet sequence. “The Week’s New Films Reviewed,” Hull Daily Mail, January 4, 1927, 8.

150.  “Midnight Sun Yellow Proving Popular Tie-Up,” Universal Weekly 24, no. 11 (October 23, 1926): 23.

151.  “Midnight Sun Color in England,” Universal Weekly 24, no. 13 (November 6, 1926): 29. This was also reported in the UK press—in Kinematograph Weekly 116, no. 1018 (October 21, 1926): 72—as were many other exploitation initiatives.

152.  Margaret Hayden Rorke, The Broadcast, July 1926, Hagley Archive, 2188-ISCC-TCCA, box 34.

153.  “The Midnight Sun,” Film Daily 38, no. 26 (August 1, 1926): 3; “The Midnight Sun,” Film Daily 38, no. 77 (December 30, 1926): 6.

154.  “The Midnight Sun [Ad],” Kinematograph Weekly 115, no. 1011 (September 2, 1926): 8; “What Managers Are Doing,” Kinematograph Weekly 115 no. 1011 (September 2, 1926): 63.

155.  The Tamworth Herald refers to “wonderful scenes in natural colour,” January 1, 1927, 4. The Gloucester Citizen referred to “remarkable scenes” in a new color process, January 4, 1927.

156.  “Production Menu—Looks Delightfully Appetizing,” Film Daily 52, no. 39 (May 15, 1930): 2.

157.  “Rhapsody Blue: Fashion Expert Names New Colour,” Times of India, Cinema Supplement, July 18, 1930, 12.

158.  According to Universal Weekly, a holiday was declared in California for the film, which entailed a premiere of the film accompanied with a ball, and various gold-themed Sutter’s Gold fashion displays in cinema windows and jewelry stores. See Universal’s “Declares California Holiday for Sutter’s Gold,” Universal Weekly 38, no. 8 (March 21, 1936): 9, 29; “Sutter’s Gold: Color Is New Spring Shade,” Motion Picture Herald 122, no. 10 (March 7, 1936): 96; and “ ’Frisco Windows Glitter with ‘Gold’ Displays,” Universal Weekly 38, no. 12 (April 25, 1936): 30.

159.  “Movies Set a New Color Vogue,” Universal Weekly 38, no. 4 (February 22, 1936): 22.

160.  The number of color terms in everyday use tends to be limited to around twelve, but for cosmetics, paints, textiles, and horticulture, a much fuller, variable set is used. Siegfried Wyler, Colour and Language: Colour Terms in English (Tübingen, Germany: Gunter Narr Verlag, 1992), 101.

3. Synthetic Dreams: Expanded Spaces of Cinema

    1.  David Curtis, A. L. Rees, Duncan White, and Steven Ball, eds., Expanded Cinema: Art, Performance, Film (London: Tate, 2011), 12.

    2.  Pierre Bourdieu, The Field of Cultural Production (Oxford: Polity Press, 1993), 257–258.

    3.  Miriam Bratu Hansen, “The Mass Production of the Senses: Classical Cinema as Vernacular Modernism,” Modernism/Modernity 6, no. 2 (1999): 59–77. On the relation of color to vernacular modernism, see also Joshua Yumibe, “‘Harmonious Sensations of Sound by Means of Colors’: Vernacular Colour Abstractions in Silent Cinema,” Film History: An International Journal 21, no. 2 (July 2009): 164–176.

    4.  Loyd A. Jones, “Tinted Films for Sound Positives,” Transactions of the Society of Motion Picture Engineers 13, no. 37 (May 6, 1929): 199–226; and Natalie M. Kalmus, “Color Consciousness,” Journal of the Society of Motion Picture Engineers 25, no. 2 (August 1935): 139–147.

    5.  Theo van Doesburg, “Notes on L’Aubette at Strasbourg [1928],” in De Stijl, ed. Hans L. C. Jaffé (New York: Abrams, 1971), 232–237. Van Doesburg was one of the leaders of De Stijl (the Style, also known as Neoplasticism), founded in 1917 in Amsterdam, which was also associated with painter Piet Mondrian.

    6.  Colour 2, no. 9 (1930): 28; Colour 2, no. 11 (1930): 29.

    7.  “New Process Sign: Animation Obtained in Don Juan Sign by Application of ‘Color Absorption’ Principle,” Film Daily 37, no. 8 (July 11, 1926): 9.

    8.  “New Process Sign,” 9.

    9.  P. Morton Shand, The Architecture of Pleasure: Modern Theatres and Cinemas (London: B. T. Batsford, 1930), 29.

  10.  Shand, The Architecture of Pleasure, figure 96.

  11.  Shand, The Architecture of Pleasure, 29.

  12.  Matthew Luckiesh, “The Potentiality of Color in Lighting,” Transactions of the Illuminating Engineering Society, Part 11—Papers 13, no. 1 (1918): 1–6.

  13.  Sean F. Johnston, “The Construction of Colorimetry by Committee,” Science in Context 9, no. 4 (1996): 392.

  14.  Luckiesh, “The Potentiality of Color in Lighting,” 3.

  15.  Beatrice Irwin, The Gates of Light: A Record of Progress in the Engineering of Color and Light (London: Rider, 1920), 73.

  16.  Leonard Troland, “The Psychology of Color, in Relation to Illumination,” Transactions of the Illuminating Engineering Society, Part 11—Papers 13, no. 1 (1918): 37.

  17.  Leonard Troland, “The Psychology of Natural Color Motion Pictures,” American Journal of Physiological Optics 7, no. 3 (1926): 382.

  18.  Imbibition was Technicolor’s breakthrough technique in terms of achieving greater image stability and contrast by printing from color separation negatives photographed on black and white using a beam-splitter Technicolor camera. On concerns about variable projection conditions for color films, see Leonard Troland, letter to Herbert Kalmus, December 30, 1925, M0006 Technicolor Internal Correspondence, George Eastman Museum, Rochester, New York.

  19.  “Exhibition on the Science and Art of Color,” Science 73, no. 1881 (January 16, 1931): 69–70.

  20.  “Cultural capital” refers to the possession of knowledge, accomplishments, or taste by which an individual may secure a particular social position. See Pierre Bourdieu, Distinction: A Social Critique of the Judgment of Taste (Cambridge, Mass.: Harvard University Press, 1984).

  21.  A. L. Rees, A History of Experimental Film and Video, 2nd ed. (London: British Film Institute/Palgrave Macmillan, 2011), 1.

  22.  There are numerous overlapping definitions of the terms; see William Moritz, “The Dream of Color Music, and Machines That Made It Possible,” Animation World Magazine 4, no. 2 (Spring 1996): 69–84.

  23.  “Says We Will Sleep Under Violet Rays: Dr. Luckiesh Predicts Light Bath Will Give Effect of Repose in Sunlit Meadow,” New York Times, February 11, 1931, 24.

  24.  Troland, “The Psychology of Color,” 36.

  25.  See Lewis M. Townsend and Loyd A. Jones, “The Use of Color for the Embellishment of the Motion Picture Program,” Transactions of the Society of Motion Picture Engineers 21 (August 1925): 38–65; and Yumibe, “‘Harmonious Sensations of Sound by Means of Colors.’”

  26.  Jones, “Tinted Films for Sound Positives,” 225.

  27.  Quoted in “Says We Will Sleep Under Violet Rays,” 24.

  28.  Adrian Cornwell-Clyne, Colour-Music: The Art of Light, 2nd ed. (London: Crosby Lockwood, 1930), 150.

  29.  Frederick Bentham, Sixty Years of Light Work (Isleworth, UK: Strand Lighting, 1992), 31.

  30.  Bourdieu, The Field of Cultural Production, 225.

  31.  For useful discussions of color music, see Kerry Brougher, Olivia Mattis, Jeremy Strick, Ari Wiseman, and Judith Zilczer, eds., Visual Music: Synaesthesia in Art and Music Since 1900 (London: Thames & Hudson, 2005); R. Bruce Elder, Harmony and Dissent: Film and Avant-Garde Art Movements in the Early Twentieth Century (Waterloo, Ont.: Wilfrid Laurier University Press, 2010), 2–200; and William Moritz, “Abstract Film and Color Music,” in The Spiritual in Art: Abstract Painting 1890–1985, ed. Maurice Tuchman (New York: Abbeville Press, 1986), 297–311.

  32.  Joshua Yumibe, “On the Education of the Senses: Synaesthetic Perception from the ‘Democratic Art’ of Chromolithography to Modernism,” New Review of Film and Television Studies 7, no. 3 (September 1, 2009): 269.

  33.  Cornwell-Clyne, Colour-Music, 179.

  34.  On the skirt-dance craze, see Catherine Hindson, “Interruptions by Inevitable Petticoats: Skirt Dancing and the Historiographical Problem of Late Nineteenth-Century Dance,” Nineteenth Century Theatre and Film 35 (December 1, 2008): 48–64; and Joshua Yumibe, Moving Color: Early Film, Mass Culture, Modernism (New Brunswick, N.J.: Rutgers University Press, 2012), 49–58.

  35.  Andrew Robert Johnston, “The Color of Prometheus: Thomas Wilfred’s Lumia and the Projection of Transcendence,” in Color and the Moving Image: History, Theory, Aesthetics, Archive, ed. Sarah Street, Simon Brown, and Liz Watkins (New York: Routledge, 2013), 70. Also see Keely Orgeman, ed., Lumia: Thomas Wilfred and the Art of Light (New Haven, Conn.: Yale University Art Gallery, 2017).

  36.  Johnston, “The Color of Prometheus,” 71.

  37.  Johnston, “The Color of Prometheus,” 69.

  38.  Thomas Wilfred, “Light and the Artist” (1947), reprinted in Thomas Wilfred’s Clavilux, ed. Michael Betancourt (Rockville, Md.: Wildside Press, 2006), 16.

  39.  George Vail, “Visible Music: The Birth of a New Art,” Educational Screen 10 (1922): 255.

  40.  Vail, “Visible Music,” 255.

  41.  “Color Organ Featured at N.Y. Rivoli,” Exhibitors Trade Review 11, no. 15 (November 3, 1922): 1027.

  42.  “Clavilux Enthralls College,” Vassar Miscellany News 7, no. 46 (April 21, 1923): 1, 4.

  43.  Alvin Leslie Powell, The Coordination of Light and Music (Cleveland, Ohio: General Electric, 1930): 12.

  44.  “Color Organ Paints Ballroom with Magic Light,” Popular Mechanics 53, no. 3 (March 1930): 401.

  45.  “Color Organ Paints Ballroom with Magic Light.”

  46.  Johnston, “The Color of Prometheus,” 70.

  47.  Linda Dalrymple Henderson, The Fourth Dimension and Non-Euclidean Geometry in Modern Art (Cambridge, Mass.: MIT Press, 2013), 362.

  48.  Vail, “Visible Music,” 253.

  49.  See Anne Ciecko, “Mary Hallock-Greenewalt’s Spectral Middle East: Autobiographical Orientations and Reflexive Mediations,” Feminist Media Histories 3, no. 1 (January 1, 2017): 25–49.

  50.  Regina Lee Blaszczyk, The Color Revolution (Cambridge, Mass.: MIT Press, 2012), 194–195.

  51.  J. H. Vallette, “[Vallette Machine Company to W. L. Washbourne],” December 31, 1924, MSS24049: Mary Elizabeth Hallock Greenewalt Papers, 1918–1942, Box 1, Library of Congress.

  52.  Blaszczyk, The Color Revolution, 194–195.

  53.  “[Letter to Paramount Famous Lasky Corporation],” February 6, 1928, MSS24049: Mary Elizabeth Hallock Greenewalt Papers, 1918–1942, Box 1, Library of Congress.

  54.  See MSS24049: Mary Elizabeth Hallock Greenewalt Papers, 1918–1942, Series III, Legal, b. Lawsuits, 1920–1936.

  55.  Rose Rosner, “New ‘Color Organ’ to Interpret Music,” New York Times, November 12, 1922, 98.

  56.  Rosner, “New ‘Color Organ’ to Interpret Music.”

  57.  Elder, Harmony and Dissent, 78.

  58.  Henderson, The Fourth Dimension, 324.

  59.  Henderson, The Fourth Dimension, 324.

  60.  For diagrams of Bragdon’s various instruments, see Eugenia Victoria Ellis and Andrea Reithmayr, eds., Claude Bragdon and the Beautiful Necessity (Rochester, N.Y: RIT Cary Graphic Arts Press, 2010), 166–168.

  61.  Jonathan Massey, “Transnational Transmedia Modernism,” in Ellis and Reithmayr, Claude Bragdon and the Beautiful Necessity, 51.

  62.  Claude Bragdon, The Secret Springs: An Autobiography (1938; reprint, New York: Cosimo, 2005), 122.

  63.  Claude Bragdon, More Lives Than One (New York: Knopf, 1938), 124.

  64.  Bragdon, The Secret Springs, 128.

  65.  “Beethoven’s Moonlight Sonata,” Educational Screen 1, no. 10 (1922): 329.

  66.  Adrian Bernard Klein, Colour-Music: The Art of Light (London: Crosby, Lockwood, 1926), vii.

  67.  William Moritz, “The Absolute Film,” Lecture notes, WR099, Media Art Biennale, Wrodaw, Poland, 1999, accessed May 7, 2018, http://www.centerforvisualmusic.org/library/WMAbsoluteFilm.htm.

  68.  William Moritz, Musique de la Couleur—Cinéma Intégral in Poétique de la Couleur (Paris: Musée du Louvre, 1995), accessed May 7, 2018, http://www.centerforvisualmusic.org/WMCM_IC.htm.

  69.  Michael Cowan, Walter Ruttmann and the Cinema of Multiplicity: Avant-Garde Film—Advertising—Modernity (Amsterdam: Amsterdam University Press, 2014), esp. 12–13, 27–54; and Hansen, “The Mass Production of the Senses.”

  70.  Rudolf Kurtz, Expressionism and Film, trans. Brenda Benthien (New Barnet, UK: John Libbey, 2016), 106–107; also quoted in Michael Cowan, “Absolute Advertising: Walter Ruttmann and the Weimar Advertising Film,” Cinema Journal 52, no. 4 (2013): 63.

  71.  Cowan, Walter Ruttmann and the Cinema of Multiplicity, 36–37.

  72.  Cowan, Walter Ruttmann and the Cinema of Multiplicity, 57.

  73.  William Moritz, “The Absolute Film,” Center for Visual Music, April 1999, accessed May 7, 2018, http://www.centerforvisualmusic.org/library/WMAbsoluteFilm.htm.

  74.  Michael Cowan, “Advertising, Rhythm, and the Filmic Avant-Garde in Weimar: Guido Seeber and Julius Pinschewer’s Kipho Film,” October, no. 131 (2010): 23–50; and Cowan, “Absolute Advertising,” 49–73.

  75.  Cindy Keefer, “Raumlichtmusik: Early 20th Century Abstract Cinema Immersive Environments,” Leonardo Electronic Almanac 16, no. 6–7 (October 2009): 1–5.

  76.  The project was reconstructed by restoring the 1920s nitrate film photochemically and digitizing the new preservation materials. Cindy Keefer, Centre for Visual Music, correspondence with authors, May 15, 2018.

  77.  The geometric, abstract films of Eggeling (Symphonie diagonale) and Richter (Rhythmus), for example, are referenced by critic Roger Burford in the film-as-art magazine Close Up as being models for successful use of color. Published in Switzerland by the Pool Group, Close Up featured many British writers who were impressed by modernist films, particularly from Germany. “From Abstract to Epic,” Close Up 2, no. 3 (October 1928): 16–21.

  78.  Bauhaus Exhibition catalog (London: Barbican Gallery, 2012), 80.

  79.  Chiaki Yamane, “A New Art Fork for Common Experience: Hirschfeld-Mack’s Farbenlichtspiele,” CARLS Series of Advanced Study of Logic and Sensibility 4 (2010): 345–346.

  80.  Yamane, “A New Art Fork for Common Experience,” 346.

  81.  Kurt Schwerdtfeger, Bildende Kunst und Schule (Hannover: Hermann Schroedel Verlag KG, 1957).

  82.  Georg Anschütz was a professor of music, psychology, and aesthetics in Hamburg in the 1920s, and a leading expert on synaesthesia. See Georg Anschütz, Farbe-Ton-Forschungen 1 (Hamburg: Akademische Verlagsgesellschaft, 1927).

  83.  Loyd A. Jones, “Tinted Films for Sound Positives,” 225.

  84.  Townsend and Jones, “The Use of Color for the Embellishment of the Motion Picture Program,” 41.

  85.  Nitrate elements of these dynamic color effects were donated by Kodak to the George Eastman Museum in 1961, and a preservation of the material was presented at the Pordenone Silent Film Festival in 2007 as [Kaleidoscope] (c. 1925); see Daniela Currò, “[Kaleidoscope],” in Twenty-Sixth Pordenone Silent Film Festival Catalog, ed. David Robinson (Sacile, Italy: Le Giornate del Cinema Muto, 2007), 150–151.

  86.  Yumibe, “‘Harmonious Sensations of Sound by Means of Colors,’” 171–172; Jones and Townsend refer to the use of abstract color effects as preludes to feature films in “The Use of Color,” 39–40. For extant title sequences in films, see Kodak’s demo reel of its lenticular Kodacolor process, Garden Party (1928), preserved at the George Eastman Museum.

  87.  Quoted in Harold B. Franklin, “Color,” Transactions of the Society of Motion Picture Engineers 17, no. 1 (July 1931): 4.

  88.  Shand, The Architecture of Pleasure, 2.

  89.  There is a considerable literature on these developments. See, for example, David E. Nye, Electrifying America: Social Meanings of a New Technology (Cambridge, Mass.: MIT Press, 1990); Lucy Fischer, “‘The Shock of the New’: Electrification, Illumination, Urbanization, and the Cinema,” in Cinema and Modernity, ed. Murray Pomerance (New Brunswick, N.J.: Rutgers University Press, 2006), 19–37; Kirsten Whissell, Picturing American Modernity (Durham, N.C.: Duke University Press, 2008); and Lauren Rabinovitz, Electric Dreamland: Amusement Parks, Movies, and American Modernity (New York: Columbia University Press, 2012).

  90.  Kirsten Moana Thompson, “Rainbow Ravine: Colour and Animated Advertising in Times Square,” in The Colour Fantastic: Chromatic Worlds of Silent Cinema, ed. Giovanna Fossati, Victoria Jackson, B. G. Lameris, Elif Rongen-Kaynakci, Sarah Street, and Joshua Yumibe (Amsterdam: Amsterdam University Press, 2018), 168.

  91.  Catherine Saillant, “Pair Sheds New Light on L.A.’s Claim to Neon Fame,” December 3, 2013, accessed February 28, 2018, http://www.latimes.com/local/la-me-c1-los-angeles-neon-20131203-dto-htmlstory.html.

  92.  Christoph Ribbat, Flickering Light. A History of Neon (London: Reaktion, 2013), 8, 35.

  93.  James Sedgeworth, “Signs to Success: The Importance of Light,” Kinematograph Weekly, July 14, 1927, 67.

  94.  Thompson, “Rainbow Ravine,” 168.

  95.  Advertising World, February 1929, 174.

  96.  Advertising World, November 1929, 526.

  97.  Federico Pierotti, “Chromatic Objects: Colour Advertising and French Avant-Garde Films of the 1920s,” in Fossati et al., The Colour Fantastic, 197–198.

  98.  Pierotti, “Chromatic Objects,” 205.

  99.  Janet Ward, Weimar Surfaces: Urban Visual Culture in 1920s Germany (Berkeley: University of California Press, 2001), 168.

100.  Ward, Weimar Surfaces, 168–169.

101.  Siegfried Kracauer, “Picture Postcards” (1930), quoted in Esther Leslie, “Kracauer’s Weimar Geometry and Geomancy,” New Formations 61 (2007): 46.

102.  Kracauer, “Picture Postcards” (1930), quoted in Leslie, “Kracauer’s Weimar Geometry and Geomancy,” 46.

103.  Siegfried Kracauer, “Cult of Distraction: On Berlin’s Picture Palaces” (1926), in The Mass Ornament: Weimar Essays, ed. and trans. Thomas Y. Levin (Cambridge, Mass.: Harvard University Press, 1995), 324.

104.  Kracauer, “Cult of Distraction: On Berlin’s Picture Palaces,” 324.

105.  Tim Hatcher, “Holophane and the Golden Age of Colour Lighting,” Picture House 35 (2010): 40.

106.  “Introduction: Colour Lighting: Its Present Applications and Future Possibilities,” Holophane Illumination: The Journal of Better Lighting 11, no. 3 (1929): 4.

107.  R. Gillespie Williams, “Psychology of Entertainment,” Kinematograph Weekly 142, no. 1129 (December 6, 1928): 79.

108.  Williams, “Psychology of Entertainment,” 79.

109.  Williams, “Psychology of Entertainment,” 79.

110.  “Colour in the Kinema. A Practical Demonstration to Exhibitors,” Kinematograph Weekly 119, no. 1032 (January 27, 1927): 79.

111.  “Holophane Colour Lighting at the Ritz Cinema Birmingham,” Holophane Illumination. The Journal of Better Lighting 11, no. 3 (1929): 21.

112.  “Holophane Advert,” Kinematograph Weekly 120, no. 1034 (February 10, 1927): 74.

113.  “Colour in the Kinema.” 79.

114.  “Atmospheric Stage Curtains,” Holophane Illumination. The Journal of Better Lighting 11, no. 3 (1929): 27.

115.  “Atmospheric Stage Curtains,” 27.

116.  Alvin Leslie Powell, The Coordination of Light and Music (Cleveland, Ohio: General Electric, 1930), 3.

117.  Powell, The Coordination of Light and Music, 5.

118.  Yumibe, “‘Harmonious Sensations of Sound by Means of Colors,’” 170.

119.  Klein, Color-Music, 25.

120.  Douglas Gomery, Shared Pleasures: A History of Movie Presentation in the United States (London: British Film Institute, 1992), 48.

121.  Julie Brown, “Framing the Atmospheric Film Prologue in Britain, 1919–26,” in The Sounds of the Silents in Britain, ed. Julie Brown and Annette Davison (New York: Oxford University Press, 2013), 201–205.

122.  “Science as an Aid to Religion: Coloured Lights in Church to Influence Mood,” Angus Evening Telegraph, October 19, 1921, 5.

123.  Claude Bragdon, “Lighting St Marks,” Edison Monthly, 1921, 189–191.

124.  Bragdon, “Lighting St Marks.”

125.  “Mr and Mrs Picturegoer at the Futurist, Birmingham,” Pictures and Picturegoer 3, no. 16 (April 1922): 42.

126.  See, for instance, Joshua Yumibe, “Colour Magic: Illusion and Abstraction in Silent and Experimental Cinemas,” Moving Image Review & Art Journal 2, no. 2 (2013): 229–237.

127.  Sarah Street, Colour Films in Britain: The Negotiation of Innovation, 1900–55 (London: British Film Institute/Palgrave Macmillan, 2012): 184–197.

128.  Wilfred, “Light and the Artist,” 10.

129.  Daan Hertogs and Nico de Klerk, “Disorderly Order”: Colors in Silent Film: The 1995 Amsterdam Workshop (Amsterdam: Stichting Nederlands Filmmuseum, 1996), 30.

130.  There was considerable variation in the size of orchestras in cinemas in the 1920s, depending on the location of the cinema and managers’ interest in musical accompaniment. In the UK, the periodical Musical Notes and Herald detailed such trends in London. For general information on film and music in Britain during the silent period, see Brown and Davison, The Sounds of the Silents in Britain.

131.  See, for instance, his writings on color in Sergei Eisenstein, “Vertical Montage,” in Towards a Theory of Montage: Sergei Eisenstein Selected Works, ed. Michael Glenny and Richard Taylor, trans. Michael Glenny (London: I. B. Tauris, 2010), 327–400.

132.  John F. Barry and Epes Winthrop Sargent, Building Theatre Patronage (New York: Chalmers, 1927), 383.

133.  Edwin Evans, “Music and the Films: Associate or Accessory?,” Musical News and Herald 62, no. 1554 (January 7, 1922): 19.

134.  Barry and Sargent, Building Theatre Patronage, 389–390.

135.  A. L. Powell, “Motion Picture Theatre Lighting,” in Motion Picture Theatre Lighting 4, no. 2 (1923): 12, 22.

136.  Lucy Fischer, Cinema by Design: Art Nouveau, Modernism, and Film History (New York: Columbia University Press, 2017), 112.

137.  “The Function of the Organ: Its Characteristics Are Flexibility and Economy in Relation to Volume,” Kinematograph Weekly 120, no. 1035 (February 17, 1927): Kine Weekly Supplement 41, 43.

138.  “The Glorious Adventure [Ad],” Pictures and Picturegoer 3, no. 14 (February 1922): 3.

139.  Felix Orman, “Music, Colour, and Human Emotion: Achieving an Artistic Triumvirate,” Musical News and Herald 62, no. 1564 (March 18, 1922): 346–348.

140.  Orman, “Music, Colour, and Human Emotion.”

141.  “The Films,” Musical News and Herald 62, no. 1555 (January 14, 1922): 58.

142.  Gilbert Stevens, “Technical Supplement: Picture Music,” Kinematograph Weekly 59, no. 769 (January 19, 1922): viii.

143.  “Technical Supplement: Picture Music,” Kinematograph Weekly 60, no. 771 (February 2, 1922): ix.

144.  “Music Written for the Kinema?” Manchester Guardian, June 20, 1922, 9.

145.  Carroll H. Dunning, “Color Photography in 1922,” Film Year Book, 1923, 171.

146.  “‘Music Films’: New Series Designed to Bring About Perfect Synchronisation Between Orchestra and Film,” Film Daily 20, no. 38 (May 8, 1922): 1.

147.  “The Screen,” New York Times, May 15, 1922, 24.

148.  This is in juxtaposition to the problems experienced by other photographic color processes such as Cinecolor and Multicolor. See Adrian Cornwell-Clyne, Colour Cinematography (London: Chapman & Hall, 1951), 588.

149.  Charles O’Brien, Cinema’s Conversion to Sound: Technology and Film Style in France and the U.S. (Bloomington: Indiana University Press, 2005), 7.

150.  Erwin Panofsky, “Style and Medium in the Motion Pictures” (1934, rev. 1947), in Film Theory and Criticism: Introductory Readings, 5th ed., ed. Leo Braudy and Marshall Cohen (New York: Oxford University Press, 1999), 279–292.

151.  James Layton and David Pierce, The Dawn of Technicolor, 1915–1935 (Rochester, N.Y.: George Eastman House, 2015), 248–250.

152.  Charles O’Brien, “Color as Image Schema,” in Street et al., Color and the Moving Image, 38.

153.  Cornwell-Clyne, Colour Cinematography, 651.

154.  Cornwell-Clyne, Colour Cinematography, 653.

155.  J. A. Ball to L. Troland, January 5, 1927. George Eastman Museum, M0006 Technicolor Internal Correspondence.

156.  Jones, “Tinted Films for Sound Positives,” 224.

157.  Kalmus, “Color Consciousness.”

158.  L. M. Dieterich, “The Relative Values of Sound and Color,” American Cinematographer, 13, no.2, June 1932, 10, 44.

4. Color in the Art and Avant-Garde of the 1920s

    1.  Paul Scheerbart, “Glass Architecture (1914),” in Glass! Love!! Perpetual Motion!!!: A Paul Scheerbart Reader, ed. Josiah McElheny and Christine Burgin, trans. James Palmes (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 2014), 48.

    2.  In examining the cosmopolitan flows of modernist practice, we draw here from Rebecca Walkowitz, Cosmopolitan Style: Modernism Beyond the Nation (New York: Columbia University Press, 2006).

    3.  See Iain Boyd Whyte, Bruno Taut and the Architecture of Activism (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2010), 32–36.

    4.  Noam Elcott, “‘Kaleidoscope-Architecture’: Scheerbart, Taut, and the Glass House,” in Elheny and Burgin, Glass! Love!! Perpetual Motion!!!, 111–117.

    5.  See Bernard Smith, Modernism’s History: A Study in Twentieth-Century Art and Ideas (New Haven, Conn.: Yale University Press, 1998), 76.

    6.  Walter Benjamin, “On Scheerbart,” trans. Edmund Jephcott, in Selected Writings, vol. 4 (1938–1940), ed. Michael W. Jennings (Cambridge, Mass.: Belknap Press, 2003), 386; and “Edward Fuchs, Collector and Historian,” trans. Howard Eiland and Michael W. Jennings, in Selected Writings, vol. 3 (1935–1938), 266.

    7.  See John Gage, Color and Culture: Practice and Meaning from Antiquity to Abstraction (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1999), 221–224.

    8.  Annie Besant and C. W. Leadbeater, Thought Forms, 2nd ed. (Wheaton, Ill.: Theosophical Publishing House, 1999), 22–25.

    9.  For useful discussions, see in particular the essays collected in Maurice Tuchman, ed., The Spiritual in Art: Abstract Painting 1890–1985 (New York: Abbeville Press, 1986). Also see Kerry Brougher, Jeremy Strick, Ari Wiseman, and Judith Zilczer, eds., Visual Music: Synaesthesia in Art and Music Since 1900 (New York: Thames & Hudson, 2005); Bruce R. Elder, Harmony and Dissent: Film and Avant-Garde Art Movements in the Early Twentieth Century (Waterloo, Ont.: Wilfrid Laurier University Press, 2008); and Sixten Ringbom, The Sounding Cosmos: A Study in the Spiritualism of Kandinsky and the Genesis of Abstract Painting (Âbo, Finland: Âbo Akademi, 1970).

  10.  Kerry Brougher, “Visual Music Culture,” in Brougher et al., Visual Music, 96. Also see Joshua Yumibe, “Colour Magic: Illusion and Abstraction in Silent and Experimental Cinemas,” MIRAJ: Moving Image Review & Art Journal 2, no. 2 (October 1, 2013): 228–237.

  11.  Smith, Modernism’s History, 82.

  12.  László Moholy-Nagy, Malerei, Photographie, Film, vol. 8, Bauhausbücher (München: Albert Langen Verlag, 1925), revised and republished in 1927; references are to the English translation, Painting, Photography, Film, trans. Janet Seligman (Cambridge, Mass.: MIT Press, 1969), 13.

  13.  Pierre Bourdieu, “The Field of Cultural Production, or: The Economic World Reversed,” in The Field of Cultural Production: Essays on Art and Literature, ed. Randal Johnson, trans. Richard Nice (New York: Columbia University Press, 1993), 53.

  14.  Charles Acland and Haidee Wasson, “Introduction: Utility and Cinema,” in Useful Cinema, ed. Charles R. Acland and Haidee Wasson (Durham, N.C.: Duke University Press, 2011), 1–16.

  15.  See Malte Hagener, Moving Forward, Looking Back: The European Avant-Garde and the Invention of Film Culture, 1919–1939 (Amsterdam: Amsterdam University Press, 2007), 130–131; and the essays in Thomas Tode, ed., “Bauhaus & Film,” Special issue, Maske Und Kothurn 57, no. 1–2 (December 1, 2011).

  16.  For a discussion of Bayer’s design in the context of the Reklame-Architektur of the interwar period, see Hal Foster, “Herbert Bayer: Advertising Structures, 1924–25,” in Bauhaus 1919–1933: Workshops for Modernity, ed. Barry Bergdoll and Leah Dickerman (New York: Museum of Modern Art, 2009), 174–181.

  17.  Wassily Kandinsky, Concerning the Spiritual in Art, trans. Hilla Rebay (New York: Guggenheim Foundation, 1946), 71.

  18.  See Hajo Düchting, Farbe am Bauhaus: Synthese und Synästhesie (Berlin: Gebr. Mann, 1996); as well as John Gage, “Colour at the Bauhaus,” AA Files, no. 2 (July 1, 1982): 50–54; and Philip Ball and Mario Ruben, “Color Theory in Science and Art: Ostwald and the Bauhaus,” Angewandte Chemie International Edition 43, no. 37 (2004): 4842–4847.

  19.  Ball and Ruben, “Color Theory in Science and Art,” 4845–4846.

  20.  Egbert Jacobson and Wilhelm Ostwald, The Color Harmony Manual and How to Use It (Chicago: Color Laboratories Division, Container Corporation of America, 1942); Egbert Jacobson, Basic Color: An Interpretation of the Ostwald Color System (Chicago: Theobald, 1948). The Container Corporation of America, founded by Walter Paepcke, was one of the key institutions that enabled the transatlantic movement of the European avant-garde into the United States during and after the Second World War. Paepcke was a financial supporter of Moholy as he founded the New Bauhaus in Chicago in 1937.

  21.  The most sustained study of color at the Bauhaus is Düchting, Farbe am Bauhaus.

  22.  See Joan Campbell, The German Werkbund: The Politics of Reform in the Applied Arts (Princeton, N.J.: Princeton University Press, 2015), 3.

  23.  Ostwald consulted with German paint and colorant producers in the 1910s and even synthesized his own colorants to paint with (he was an amateur painter), which eventually led him to found a colorant factory in Leipzig that operated from 1920 to 1923. Ball and Ruben, “Color Theory in Science and Art,” 4844.

  24.  Walter Gropius, “Programme of the Staatliche Bauhaus in Weimar [1919],” republished in Catherine Ince and Lydia Yee, eds., Bauhaus: Art as Life (London: Walther König, 2012), 15–17.

  25.  For a thorough account of Itten’s activities at the Bauhaus, see in particular Éva Forgács, The Bauhaus Idea and Bauhaus Politics, trans. John Bátki (Budapest: Central European University Press, 1995), 46–62.

  26.  Smith, Modernism’s History, 76–77.

  27.  Rudolf Steiner, Practical Advice to Teachers (Great Barrington, Mass.: Anthroposophic Press, 2000), 35

  28.  Johannes Itten, Design and Form: The Basic Course at the Bauhaus, trans. John Maass (New York: Reinhold, 1964), 45.

  29.  See Gertrud Grunow, “The Creation of Living Form Through Color, Form and Sound,” in The Bauhaus: Weimar, Dessau, Berlin, Chicago, ed. Hans M. Wingler and Joseph Stein, trans. Wolfgang Jabs and Basil Gilbert (Cambridge, Mass.: MIT Press, 1969), 69–71.

  30.  On the relation and distinctions between Einfühlung and empathy in relation to the moving image, see Robin Curtis, “Einfühlung and Abstraction in the Moving Image: Historical and Contemporary Reflections,” Science in Context 25, no. 3 (September 2012): 425–446. Also see Scott Curtis, The Shape of Spectatorship: Art, Science, and Early Cinema in Germany (New York: Columbia University Press, 2015), 214–230.

  31.  Lipps’s notion of Einfühlung was more influential at the Bauhaus than Worringer’s juxtaposition of it with abstraction in his groundbreaking 1907 dissertation, Abstraction and Empathy: A Contribution to the Psychology of Style, trans. Michael Bullock (Chicago: Elephant Paperbacks, 1997). For Worringer, alienation is one of the pivots between Einfühlung and abstraction: Einfühlung seeks an unalienated relation to the organic, whereas abstraction begins with one’s self-alienation from the organic—it allows for an anxious and critical separation from the world. His theory was taken up at the Bauhaus, for instance, by Oskar Schlemmer, but Lipps’s sense of Einfühlung was more in keeping with figures such as Itten and later Kandinsky and Moholy. The literature on Lipps and Worringer is vast, but specifically on Schlemmer, see Melissa Trimingham, The Theatre of the Bauhaus: The Modern and Postmodern Stage of Oskar Schlemmer (New York: Routledge, 2011), 17–18; and on Lipps’s influence at the Bauhaus, see Harry Francis Mallgrave, Architecture and Embodiment: The Implications of the New Sciences and Humanities for Design (New York: Routledge, 2013), 128–130.

  32.  Rudolf Kurtz, Expressionism and Film, trans. Brenda Benthien (New Barnet, UK: John Libbey, 2016), 98. For a productive analysis of Einfühlung and abstraction in relation to Absolute Film, see Christine Brinckmann, “Abstraction and Empathy in the Early German Avant-Garde,” in Color and Empathy: Essays on Two Aspects of Film (Amsterdam: Amsterdam University Press, 2015), 145–170.

  33.  Importantly, Michael Cowan has noted regarding this passage that Einfühlung and psychophysics cannot be collapsed into one another, as the corresponding bodily receptions that Kurtz describes were more of interest to experimental psychology than to the aesthetic theorization of Einfühlung, which attempted “to salvage a notion of disinterested aesthetic experience” separated from such motor reflexes. See Walter Ruttmann and the Cinema of Multiplicity: Avant-Garde Film—Advertising—Modernity (Amsterdam: Amsterdam University Press, 2014), 192 n. 14; also see 30–31.

  34.  Moholy-Nagy, Painting, Photography, Film, 122. Also see his discussion of film projects at the Bauhaus in László Moholy-Nagy, “Film im Bauhaus,” Film-Kurier 296 (December 18, 1926).

  35.  Forgács, The Bauhaus Idea, 94.

  36.  Laszlo Moholy-Nagy, The New Vision and Abstract of an Artist, trans. Daphne M. Hoffman (New York: Wittenborn, Schultz, 1947), 71, 72.

  37.  Moholy-Nagy, The New Vision and Abstract of an Artist, 72

  38.  Jan-Christopher Horak, “László Moholy-Nagy: The Constructivist Urge,” in Making Images Move: Photographers and Avant-Garde Cinema (Washington, D.C.: Smithsonian Institution Press), 109–135.

  39.  Brigid Doherty, “László Moholy-Nagy: Constructions in Enamel, 1923,” in Bauhaus 1919–1933: Workshops for Modernity, ed. Barry Bergdoll and Leah Dickerman (New York: Museum of Modern Art, 2009), 130.

  40.  Wilhelm Ostwald, “Die Harmonie der Farben,” De Stijl—maandblad voor de beeldende vakken 3, no. 7 (1920): 60–62; originally published in Innen-Dekoration, November 1919, 386–388.

  41.  Ise Gropius, “Typewritten English Translation of Ise Gropius’ German Diary, 1924–1928” (Archives of American Art, Smithsonian Institution, 1982), Microfilm 2393, Ise Gropius Papers, June 13, 1927 entry, p. 222.

  42.  Gropius, “Typewritten English Translation.”

  43.  On the New Typography, see Jan Tschichold, The New Typography, trans. Ruari McLean (Berkeley: University of California Press, 2006); on Moholy and Benjamin, see Frederic J. Schwartz, Blind Spots: Critical Theory and the History of Art in Twentieth-Century Germany (New Haven, Conn.: Yale University Press, 2005), 37–102.

  44.  See especially Andrea Nelson, “László Moholy-Nagy and Painting Photography Film: A Guide to Narrative Montage,” History of Photography 30, no. 3 (September 1, 2006): 258–269; and Pepper Stetler, “‘The New Visual Literature’: László Moholy-Nagy’s Painting, Photography, Film,” Grey Room, no. 32 (2008): 88–113. On the script “Dynamic of the Metropolis,” see also Edward Dimendberg, “László Moholy-Nagy’s Film Scenario ‘Dynamic of the Metropolis,’” in Camera Obscura, Camera Lucida: Essays in Honor of Annette Michelson, ed. Allen Richard and Malcolm Turvey (Amsterdam: Amsterdam University Press, 2003), 109–126.

  45.  Moholy-Nagy, Painting, Photography, Film, 28; italics in original. This had significant influence on Benjamin’s theory of the “optical unconscious,” for instance in Walter Benjamin, “Little History of Photography” (1931), in Selected Writings, vol. 2 (1927–1934), ed. Michael W. Jennings, Howard Eiland, and Gary Smith, trans. Edmund Jephcott and Kingsley Shorter (Cambridge, Mass.: Belknap Press, 1999), 510–512.

  46.  Much has been written about such claims regarding the transformation of sensory perception and aesthetics in the early twentieth century. For a discussion, see Joshua Yumibe, “On the Education of the Senses: Synaesthetic Perception from the ‘Democratic Art’ of Chromolithography to Modernism,” New Review of Film and Television Studies 7, no. 3 (September 1, 2009): 257–259.

  47.  Quoted in Walter Benjamin, “News About Flowers” (1928), in Selected Writings, vol. 2 (1927–1934), ed. Michael W. Jennings, Howard Eiland, and Gary Smith, trans. Michael Jennings (Cambridge, Mass.: Belknap Press, 1999), 155–156. Originally from László Moholy-Nagy, “Fotografie ist Lichtgestaltung,” Bauhaus: Zeitschrift für Bau und Gestaltung 2, no. 1 (February 15, 1928): 3; also available as László Moholy-Nagy, “Photography Is Creation with Light,” in Moholy-Nagy, ed. Krisztina Passuth, trans. Mátyás Esterházy (London: Thames & Hudson, 1987), 303.

  48.  Moholy-Nagy, Painting, Photography, Film, 15.

  49.  Moholy-Nagy, Painting, Photography, Film, 15.

  50.  Moholy’s emphasis on the moving image and other forms of kinetic art as being the chromatic successors to painting was certainly not shared by all at the Bauhaus. In letters to his spouse, painter and Bauhaus teacher Lyonel Feininger railed against Moholy’s writings, even as Feininger was himself an avid film viewer: “We can say that this is terrible and the end of all art—in itself a technical, very interesting mass endeavor—but why is this mechanization of all optics called art; the sole art of our time and even more of the future? Is this the atmosphere in which painters like Klee and some of us can continue to grow?” Our translation is from “Letters from Lyonel Feininger to Julia Feininger,” March 9, 1925; quotations are from copies held by the Bauhaus Archiv of transcripts of the Lyonel Feininger letters held by the Busch-Reisinger Museum, Harvard University.

  51.  Moholy-Nagy, Painting, Photography, Film, 9. Benjamin made similar arguments: “In reaction to photography, painting begins to stress the elements of color in the picture”; Walter Benjamin, “Paris, the Capital of the Nineteenth Century (Exposé of 1935),” in The Arcades Project, ed. Ralph Tiedemann, trans. Howard Eiland and Kevin McLaughlin (Cambridge, Mass.: Belknap Press, 1999), 6; as did Siegfried Kracauer, with direct reference to Moholy-Nagy, in Siegfried Kracauer, Theory of Film: The Redemption of Physical Reality, intro. Miriam Hansen (Princeton, N.J.: Princeton University Press, 1997), 9–10.

  52.  Moholy-Nagy, Painting, Photography, Film, 8.

  53.  Moholy-Nagy, Painting, Photography, Film, 24.

  54.  On Moholy-Nagy and the senses, see Oliver Botar, Sensing the Future: Moholy-Nagy, Media and the Arts (Zürich: Lars Muller, 2014).

  55.  Moholy-Nagy, Painting, Photography, Film, 13.

  56.  Moholy-Nagy, Painting, Photography, Film, 20.

  57.  William Moritz, “Abstract Film and Color Music,” in The Spiritual in Art: Abstract Painting 1890–1985, ed. Maurice Tuchman (New York: Abbeville Press, 1986), 301.

  58.  The only known precedent for such a move is Guillaume Apollinaire’s 1914 account of Léopold Survage’s abstract film animation Colored Rhythm. Apollinaire notes that the work “draws its origins from fireworks, fountains, electric signs, and those fairy-tale palaces which at every amusement park accustom the eyes to enjoy kaleidoscopic changes in hue”; Guillaume Apollinaire, “Colored Rhythm” (1914), trans. Cecile Starr, in Experimental Animation, ed. Robert Russett and Cecile Starr (New York: Van Nostrand Reinhold, 1976), 38.

  59.  Moholy-Nagy, Painting, Photography, Film, 21.

  60.  Moholy-Nagy, Painting, Photography, Film, 21.

  61.  See Bregt Lameris, “Colourful Projections: Bauhaus Farbenlichtspiele and their Various Reconstructions,” in At the Borders of (Film) History: Archaeology, Temporality, Theories, ed. Alberto Beltrame and Andrea Mariani (Udine, Italy: Film Forum, 2015), 371–379.

  62.  Anton Kaes, “The Absolute Film,” in Inventing Abstraction, 1910–1925: How a Radical Idea Changed Modern Art, ed. Leah Dickerman (New York: Museum of Modern Art, 2012), 346–348; and Joel Westerdale, “May 1925: French and German Avant-Garde Converge at Der Absolute Film,” in A New History of German Cinema, ed. Jennifer M. Kapczynski and Michael D. Richardson (Rochester, N.Y.: Camden House, 2012), 160–166.

  63.  Kaes, “The Absolute Film,” 346.

  64.  See especially Michael Cowan, “Taking It to the Street: Screening the Advertising Film in the Weimar Republic,” Screen 54, no. 4 (2013): 463–479.

  65.  See Jeanpaul Goergen, “Julius Pinschewer: A Trade-Mark Cinema,” in A Second Life: German Cinema’s First Decades, ed. Thomas Elsaesser (Amsterdam: Amsterdam University Press, 1996), 168–174.

  66.  See Michael Cowan, “Absolute Advertising: Walter Ruttmann and the Weimar Advertising Film,” Cinema Journal 52, no. 4 (Summer 2013): 49–73; as well as his longer study, Walter Ruttmann and the Cinema of Multiplicity.

  67.  Kurtz, Expressionism and Film, 106.

  68.  Hans Richter, Hans Richter, ed. Cleve Gray (New York: Holt, Rinehart and Winston, 1971), 60. As Brinckmann delineates, Richter and Eggeling were much more versed in Worringer’s critique of Einfühlung for its naturalist emphasis on the organic and in favor of abstraction that embraces the alienating qualities of the inorganic; Brinckmann, Color and Empathy, 149–150. This can also be read in terms of Richter’s Dadaist investments, as Malcolm Turvey does in his careful reading of the filmmaker in The Filming of Modern Life: European Avant-Garde Film of the 1920s (Cambridge: Mass.: MIT Press, 2011), 18–45.

  69.  Justin Hoffman, “Hans Richter: Constructivist Filmmaker,” in Hans Richter: Activism, Modernism, and the Avant-Garde, ed. Stephen C. Foster, trans. Michaela Nierhaus (Cambridge, Mass.: MIT Press, 2000), 81–86.

  70.  Theo van Doesburg, “Film as Pure Form,” trans. Standish Lawder, Form 1 (Summer 1966): 11; originally published as “Film als reine Gestaltung,” Die Form 4, no. 10 (May 15, 1929): 241–248.

  71.  See Forgács, The Bauhaus Idea, 65–70; and Michael White, “Mechano-Facture: Dada/Constructivism and the Bauhaus,” in Albers and Moholy-Nagy: From the Bauhaus to the New World, ed. Achim Borchardt-Hume (New Haven, Conn.: Yale University Press, 2006), 79–84.

  72.  Moholy-Nagy, Painting, Photography, Film, 45.

  73.  On the complexities of identifying and defining Expressionist film, see Thomas Elsaesser’s careful summary in Weimar Cinema and After: Germany’s Historical Imaginary (New York: Routledge, 2000), 24–27.

  74.  Quoted in Elsaesser, Weimar Cinema and After, 26.

  75.  See Hagener, Moving Forward, Looking Back, 69–70.

  76.  Richard Abel, French Cinema: The First Wave, 1915–1929 (Princeton, N.J.: Princeton University Press, 1987), 279–286.

  77.  Quoted in Kurtz, Expressionism and Film, 68; Siegfried Kracauer, From Caligari to Hitler: A Psychological History of the German Film, ed. Leonardo Quaresima, New Edition (Princeton, N.J.: Princeton University Press, 1966), 68; Lotte H. Eisner, The Haunted Screen: Expressionism in the German Cinema and the Influence of Max Reinhardt, trans. Roger Greaves, 2nd rev. ed. (Berkeley: University of California Press, 2008), 25.

  78.  Eisner, The Haunted Screen, 100.

  79.  Eisner, The Haunted Screen, 100.

  80.  Siegfried Kracauer, Theory of Film: The Redemption of Physical Reality (Princeton, N.J.: Princeton University Press, 1997), 136.

  81.  For a detailed account of surviving print material, see Anke Wilkening, “Die Nibelungen: A Restoration and Preservation Project by Friedrich-Wilhelm-Murnau-Stiftung, Wiesbaden,” Journal of Film Preservation 79–80 (May 2009): 86–98. As Wilkening notes, the one exception to this is a Spanish intertitled print from the Archivo Nacional de la Imagine–Sodre, Montevideo, which primarily uses an orange tint but also features scenes with blue-green for night and red for fire; however, the camera negative on which the print is based still indicates that orange was the proper tint (91–92).

  82.  Anke Wilkening, email message to authors, December 21, 2016.

  83.  See John G. Capstaff and Merrill W. Seymour, “The Duplication of Motion Picture Negatives,” Transactions of the Society of Motion Picture Engineers 10, no. 28 (February 1927): 223–229.

  84.  See J. H. McNabb, “Film Splicing,” Transactions of the Society of Motion Picture Engineers, no. 14 (May 1922): 40–54; and Earl J. Denison, “Sprockets and Splices,” Transactions of the Society of Motion Picture Engineers 7, no. 17 (October 1923): 179–184.

  85.  J. I. Crabtree, “The Development of Motion Picture Film by the Reel and Tank Systems,” Transactions of the Society of Motion Picture Engineers 7, no. 16 (May 1923): 186.

  86.  Roscoe C. Hubbard, “Printing Motion Picture Film,” Transactions of the Society of Motion Picture Engineers 10, no. 27 (October 1926): 252–278. This was also the case in Germany, as Anke Wilkening delineates, “The New Restoration of The Cabinet of Dr Caligari,” Bristol Silents, August 29, 2014, https://bristolsilents.org.uk/2014/08/29/returning-to-the-cabinet-of-dr-caligari-1920-by-david-robinson/.

  87.  Wilkening, “Die Nibelungen,” 98.

  88.  Translated in Wilkening, “Die Nibelungen,” 97 n. 15.

  89.  Erwin Panofsky, “Style and Medium in the Motion Pictures,” in Film: An Anthology, ed. Daniel Talbot (Los Angeles: University of California Press, 1966), 18–19.

  90.  See the discussion in Joshua Yumibe, Moving Color: Early Film, Mass Culture, Modernism (New Brunswick, N.J.: Rutgers University Press, 2012), 114–115.

  91.  Tom Gunning, The Films of Fritz Lang: Allegories of Vision and Modernity (London: British Film Institute, 2000), 36.

  92.  See Anton Kaes, Shell Shock Cinema: Weimar Culture and the Wounds of War (Princeton, N.J.: Princeton University Press, 2011), 135; and Franz Keim, Die Nibelungen (Vienna: Gerlach Wiedling, 1909).

  93.  Leo Lensing, “Lehrjahre Eines Großmeisters,” Frankfurter Allgemeine Zeitung, no. 149 (June 29, 2016): N3.

  94.  Thea von Harbou, Das Nibelungenbuch (München: Drei Masken Verlag, 1924).

  95.  Kurtz, Expressionism and Film, 85.

  96.  For an insightful comparison between Opus 1 and Der Sieger, see Cowan, “Taking It to the Street,” 52–53.

  97.  Gunning, The Films of Fritz Lang, 47.

  98.  Kracauer, From Caligari to Hitler, 67–68.

  99.  David Robinson, Das Cabinet des Dr. Caligari, 2nd ed. (London: Palgrave Macmillan, 2013), 9–29, 46.

100.  Kurtz, Expressionism and Film, 49–50.

101.  J. L. Styan, Modern Drama in Theory and Practice: Expressionism and Epic Theatre, vol. 3 (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1980), 99.

102.  Anke Wilkening, “Die Restaurierung von Das Cabinet des Dr. Caligari,” VDR Beiträge Zur Erhaltung von Kunst—Und Kulturgut 2 (2014): 27–47; Barbara Flueckiger, “Color Analysis for the Digital Restoration of Das Cabinet des Dr. Caligari,” Moving Image 15, no. 1 (July 9, 2015): 22–43; Enno Patalas, “On the Way to Nosferatu,” Film History 14, no. 1 (2002): 25–31; and Luciano Berriatúa, Nosferatu: un film erótico-ocultista-espiritista-metafísico (Valladolid, Spain: Divisa Ediciones, 2009).

103.  Patalas, “On the Way to Nosferatu,” 28–29.

104.  Flueckiger, “Color Analysis,” 24; Wilkening, “The New Restoration of The Cabinet of Dr Caligari.”

105.  Wilkening, “The New Restoration of The Cabinet of Dr Caligari.”

106.  Wilkening, “The New Restoration of The Cabinet of Dr Caligari.”

107.  Stephen Eskilson, Graphic Design: A New History, 2nd ed. (New Haven, Conn.: Yale University Press, 2012), 214.

108.  Kurtz, Expressionism and Film, 55.

109.  Blaise Cendrars, “On The Cabinet of Doctor Caligari [1922],” in French Film Theory and Criticism: A History/Anthology, 1907–1939, ed. Richard Abel, trans. Stuart Liebman, vol. 1 (Princeton, N.J.: Princeton University Press, 1988), 271.

110.  Jean Epstein, “For a New Avant-Garde,” in Jean Epstein: Critical Essays and New Translations, ed. Sarah Keller and Jason N. Paul, trans. Stuart Liebman (Amsterdam: Amsterdam University Press, 2012), 304.

111.  On Cinéma pur, see especially Richard Abel, “The Great Debates,” in French Film Theory and Criticism: A History/Anthology, vol. 1, 329–332; and Tami Williams, Germaine Dulac: A Cinema of Sensations (Urbana: University of Illinois Press, 2014), 158–159.

112.  On these networks of the avant-garde, see in particular Hagener, Moving Forward, Looking Back.

113.  On the complex and contested collaboration around Ballet mécanique, see especially Judi Freeman, “Bridging Purism and Surrealism: The Origins and Production of Fernand Léger’s Ballet Mécanique,” in Dada and Surrealist Film (Cambridge, Mass.: MIT Press, 1996), 28–45.

114.  See Bregt Lameris, “Reading the Archive, Tracing Film History—Ballet mécanique Coloured or Black-and-White?,” in L’archivio/The Archive (Udine, Italy: Università degli Studi di Udine, 2012), 103–110; and Rossella Catanese, Guy Edmonds, and Bregt Lameris, “Hand-Painted Abstractions: Experimental Color in the Creation and Restoration of Ballet mécanique,” Moving Image 15, no. 1 (July 9, 2015): 92–98.

For further discussions of color and Ballet mécanique, see especially William Moritz, “Strubbelingen Rond Een Kopie: Ballet Mécanique,” Versus, no. 2 (1988): 132–140. Susan Delson also notes that a 16mm colored print was donated by Léger to the Museum of Modern Art in 1939, which U.S. colorist Gustav Brock had meticulously hand-colored, specifically the geometric shapes, similar to the Dutch print; Susan Delson, Dudley Murphy, Hollywood Wild Card (Minneapolis: University of Minnesota Press, 2006), 65.

115.  Bregt Lameris, “La Ligue du Noir et Blanc: French Debates on Natural Colour Film and Art Cinema 1926–1927,” in The Colour Fantastic: Chromatic Worlds of Silent Cinema, ed. Giovanna Fossati, Victoria Jackson, B. G. Lameris, Elif Rongen-Kaynakci, Sarah Street, and Joshua Yumibe (Amsterdam: Amsterdam University Press, 2018), 221–235. Bernard Brunius’s articles include “Plaidoyer pour le noir et blanc,” Cinéa-Ciné pour tous, September 15, 1926, 21–22; “Pour le noir et blanc,” Cinéa-Ciné pour tous, January 15, 1927, 27; and “Pour le noir et blanc,” Cinéa-Ciné pour tous, February 15, 1927, 14.

116.  Quoted in and translated by Lameris, “La Ligue du Noir et Blanc.” Originally published in Brunius, “Plaidoyer pour le noir et blanc.”

117.  In the German context, this position was most forcefully articulated by Rudolf Arnheim, who claims that cinema’s difference from reality—being black and white instead of color, silent instead of with sound—is what gives it artistic possibilities, as opposed to being only a faithful reproduction of nature; see Rudolf Arnheim, Film as Art (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1957), 14–16.

118.  René Jeanne, “La controverse de la couleur,” Cinéa-Ciné pour tous, January 15, 1927, 27. For further discussion of Cinéma pur and color, see Lameris, “La Ligue du Noir et Blanc,” 228–232.

119.  Quoted in Abel, “The Great Debates,” 331.

120.  See Yumibe, Moving Color, 18; and Jennifer Wild, The Parisian Avant-Garde in the Age of Cinema, 1900–1923 (Oakland: University of California Press, 2015), 110–114.

121.  Guillaume Apollinaire, “Colored Rhythm”.

122.  Marcel Duchamp and Karl Gerstner, Marcel Duchamp: Tu m’: Puzzle Upon Puzzle (New York: Hatje Cantz, 2003).

123.  On the pulsing nature of these experiments by Duchamp, see Rosalind Krauss, “The Im/Pulse to See,” in Vision and Visuality, ed. Hal Foster (Seattle: Bay Press, 1999), 60–62.

124.  Ann Temkin, “Marcel Duchamp,” in Color Chart: Reinventing Color, 1950 to Today, ed. Emily Hall, Anne Doran, Nell McClister, and Stephen Robert Frankel (New York: Museum of Modern Art, 2008), 42–43.

125.  For instance, see Guillaume Apollinaire, Calligrammes, trans. Anne Hyde Greet (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1980), 390; and Guillaume Apollinaire, Color of Time (Cambridge, Mass.: Zone, 1980).

126.  Among the many analyses of Tu m’, see, for instance, David Joselit, Infinite Regress: Marcel Duchamp, 1910–1941 (Cambridge, Mass.: MIT Press, 2001), 69.

127.  Quoted in Temkin, “Marcel Duchamp,” 42.

128.  Fernand Léger, “Film by Fernand Léger and Dudley Murphy, Musical Synchronism by George Antheil,” Little Review, Autumn–Winter 1924, 43.

129.  Fernand Léger, “Color in the World [1938],” in Functions of Painting, ed. Edward F. Fry, trans. Alexandra Anderson (New York: Viking Press, 1973), 120.

130.  Fernand Léger, “The Spectacle: Light, Color, Moving Image, Objet-Spectacle [1924],” in Functions of Painting, 46.

131.  Léger, “The Spectacle,” 46.

132.  “[C]ette histoire féerique de l’Art décoratif moderne,” in Marcel L’Herbier, La tête qui tourne (Paris: Belfond, 1979), 102.

133.  See Richard Abel, French Cinema: The First Wave, 1915–1929 (Princeton, N.J.: Princeton University Press, 1987), 384–385; Tim Bergfelder, Sue Harris, and Sarah Street, Film Architecture and the Transnational Imagination: Set Design in 1930s European Cinema (Amsterdam: Amsterdam University Press, 2007), 58–60; Giuliana Bruno, Atlas of Emotion: Journeys in Art, Architecture, and Film (New York: Verso, 2002), 26; and Laurence Schifano, “Marcel L’Herbier 1925: De L’inhumaine à Feu Mathias Pascal, ou la naissance de la modernité,” in L’année 1925: L’esprit d’une époque, ed. Myriam Boucharenc and Claude Leroy (Nanterre: Presses universitaires de Paris, 2014), 321–333.

134.  Quoted in Abel, French Cinema, 384.

135.  Ricciotto Canudo, “Reflections on the Seventh Art [1923],” in French Film Theory and Criticism: A History/Anthology, trans. Claudia Gorbman, vol. 1, 1907–1929 (Princeton, N.J.: Princeton University Press, 1988), 293; also see Prosper Hillairet, “L’inhumaine, L’Herbier, Canudo et la synthèse des arts,” in Marcel L’Herbier: L’art du cinéma, ed. Laurent Véray (Paris: Association française de recherche sur l’histoire du cinéma, 2007), 101–108.

136.  Canudo, “Reflections on the Seventh Art,” 292; also see Abel, French Cinema, 383.

137.  Jean-André Fieschi, “Autour du cinématographe: entretien avec Marcel L’Herbier,” Cahiers du cinéma, no. 202 (July 1968): 34.

138.  Fieschi, “Autour du cinématographe.” Translated in Abel, French Cinema, 392.

139.  Dorothee Binder, “Der Film L’inhumaine und Sein Verhältnis zu Kunst und Architektur Der Zwanziger Jahre,” Magisterarbeit, LMU München: Geschichts—Und Kunstwissenschaften 29 (2005): 2–3; Gerwin Van der Pol and Karel Dibbets, “The Logic of Colour in L’inhumaine,” in Il Colore Nel Cinema Muto, ed. Monica Dall’Asta, Guglielmo Pescatore, and Leonardo Quaresima (Udine, Italy: Atti del II Convegno Internazionale di Studi sul Cinema, 1995), 155–163.

140.  Serge Bromberg and Catherine A. Surowiec, “L’inhumaine,” In Le Giornate del Cinema Muto 34: Catalog (Sacile, Italy: Le Giornate del Cinema Muto, 2015), 155–158.

141.  Translated in Abel, French Cinema, 392.

142.  Freeman, “Bridging Purism and Surrealism,” 36–38.

143.  Antonia Lant, “Haptical Cinema,” October 74 (Autumn 1995): 45–73.

144.  Sergei Eisenstein, Nonindifferent Nature: Film and the Structure of Things, trans. Herbert Marshall (New York: Cambridge University Press, 1988), 53–54.

145.  Oswell Blakeston, “Our Literary Screen,” Close Up 6, no. 4 (April 1930): 309.

146.  Samuel Brody, “Paris Hears Eisenstein,” Close Up 6, no. 4 (April 1930): 288.

147.  For a description of some of the titles, see Edwin M. Bradley, The First Hollywood Sound Shorts, 1926–1931 (Jefferson, N.C.: McFarland, 2009), 328–329.

148.  Oswell Blakeston, “Comment and Review,” Close Up 5, no. 6 (December 1929): 521.

149.  John Grierson earlier called for formal attention to film technique in a series of articles commissioned in the United States by the Famous Players–Lasky Corporation; they were republished in Motion Picture News in 1926. See, for instance, his discussion of the abstraction of visual symphonies and “cineplastic poems” as found in Ballet mécanique and Battleship Potemkin, in John Grierson, “Putting Punch in a Picture,” Motion Picture News 34, no. 22 (November 27, 1926): 2025–2026. In his article the following week, he offered similarly formal critiques of color and design in Fairbanks’s The Black Pirate, or “The Pink Pirate” as he calls it, in John Grierson, “Putting Atmosphere in Pictures,” Motion Picture News 34, no. 23 (December 4, 1926): 2025–2026.

150.  Jan-Christopher Horak, “The First American Film Avant-Garde, 1919–1945,” in Lovers of Cinema: The First American Film Avant-Garde, 1919–1945, ed. Jan-Christopher Horak (Madison: University of Wisconsin Press, 1995), 14–66.

151.  Kristin Thompson, “The Limits of Experimentation in Hollywood,” in Horak, Lovers of Cinema, 75–77. For lengthier discussions, see Patricia White, “Nazimova’s Veils: Salome at the Intersection of Film Histories,” in A Feminist Reader in Early Cinema, ed. Jennifer M. Bean and Diane Negra (Durham, N.C.: Duke University Press, 2002), 60–87; and Petra Dierkes-Thrun, Salome’s Modernity: Oscar Wilde and the Aesthetics of Transgression (Ann Arbor: University of Michigan Press, 2011), 125–160.

152.  See Elaine Showalter, Sexual Anarchy: Gender and Culture at the Fin de Siècle (New York: Viking, 1990): 149–150.

153.  Oscar Wilde, Salomé (New York: Dover, 1967): 65.

154.  Kaveh Askari, Making Movies Into Art: Picture Craft from the Magic Lantern to Early Hollywood (London: British Film Institute, 2015), 5–11. Askari’s notion of “frame jumping,” in which early art films foreground the appropriation of the other arts, thus moving between medial frames, has helped us theorize the ways in which color is frequently foregrounded in moments of intermedial and cross-field emphasis.

155.  Joseph Dannenberg, ed., “Dudley Murphy: Director-Producer [Ad],” in Film Daily Year Book (New York: Film Daily, 1926), 620. For details on the production, see Delson, Dudley Murphy, 69–72.

156.  Delson, Dudley Murphy, 3–5, 13–14.

157.  Delson, Dudley Murphy, 24.

158.  William Moritz, “Americans in Paris: Man Ray and Dudley Murphy,” in Horak, Lovers of Cinema, 122.

159.  William Moritz, “Americans in Paris,” 25.

160.  Sidney Woodward, “Colored Films Shown by Dudley Murphy,” Boston Post, September 2, 1920.

161.  Delson, Dudley Murphy, 194, 195 n. 10.

162.  On the spirituality of Brigman, as well as the Theosophical and Arts and Crafts roots of Pictorialism, see Heather Waldroup, “Hard to Reach: Anne Brigman, Mountaineering, and Modernity in California,” Modernism/Modernity 21, no. 2 (April 2014): 447–466.

163.  Delson, Dudley Murphy, 18.

164.  “Murphy and Macgowan Making One Reel ‘Visual Symphonies,’” Motion Picture News 225, no. 5 (January 21, 1922): 606.

165.  Matthew Josephson, “The Rise of the Little Cinema,” Motion Picture Classic 24, no. 1 (September 1926): 34–35, 69, 82. For more on the Little Cinema movement, see Horak, “The First American Film Avant-Garde,” 20–29.

166.  Josephson, “The Rise of the Little Cinema,” 69, 82.

167.  Josephson, “The Rise of the Little Cinema,” 69.

168.  “Projection Jottings,” New York Times, March 14, 1926, 5; and Delson, Dudley Murphy, 60. By chance, Mordaunt Hall reviewed Douglas Fairbanks’s Technicolor extravaganza The Black Pirate on the same page.

169.  Mordaunt Hall, “The Screen,” New York Times, March 15, 1926, 18.

170.  William J. Reilly, “When Is It a Moving Picture? Dudley Murphy Helps Answer the Question,” Moving Picture World 80, no. 3 (May 15, 1926): 209, 235.

171.  Quoted in Delson, Dudley Murphy, 61.

5. Chromatic Hybridity

    1.  Siegfried Kracauer, “Cult of Distraction: On Berlin’s Picture Palaces” (1926), in The Mass Ornament: Weimar Essays, trans., ed., intro., Thomas Y. Levin (Cambridge, Mass.: Harvard University Press, 1995), 324.

    2.  Richard Misek, Chromatic Cinema (Oxford: Wiley-Blackwell), 69.

    3.  Misek, Chromatic Cinema, 70.

    4.  Cecil B. DeMille, Autobiography (London: W. H. Allen 1960), 230–231.

    5.  See Richard Koszarski, “‘Foolish Wives’: The Colour Restoration That Never Happened,” Film History 12, no. 4 (2000): 341–343.

    6.  Susan Delson, Dudley Murphy, Hollywood Wild Card (Minneapolis: University of Minnesota Press, 2006), 65.

    7.  “Roxy to Use Color,” Film Daily 59, no. 29 (May 4, 1932): 3; “Manhattan Films,” Brooklyn Standard Union, November 23, 1927, 6.

    8.  Gustav Brock, “Hand-Coloring of Motion Picture Film,” Journal of the Society of Motion Picture Engineers 16, no. 6 (June 1931): 751.

    9.  Gustav Brock, “Handcoloring Film,” Film Daily 26, no. 45 (June 21, 1925): 35.

  10.  Brock, “Handcoloring Film,” 35.

  11.  Gustav Brock, quoted in “Words of Wisdom,” Film Daily 70, no. 43 (August 20, 1936): 14.

  12.  Edwin Carewe, quoted in Carl Adams, “The Silent Drama,” Cincinnati Enquirer, November 19, 1922, 59.

  13.  Carewe, quoted in Adams, “The Silent Drama,” 59.

  14.  Loyd A. Jones, “Tinted Films for Sound Positives,” Transactions of the Society of Motion Picture Engineers 13, no. 37 (6 May 1929): 224.

  15.  Colin Bennett, “Tinting and Toning,” in “Picture Making” supplement, Kinematograph Weekly 78, no. 849 (August 2, 1923): iii.

  16.  Bennett, “Tinting and Toning,” iii.

  17.  “Some Trade Hints to Showmen Suggested by a Layman,” Kinematograph Weekly 79, no. 855 (September 13, 1923): 73.

  18.  For a discussion of Prizmacolor, see Sarah Street, “Glorious and Other Adventures with Prizma,” in Color and the Moving Image: History, Theory, Aesthetics, Archive, ed. Simon Brown, Sarah Street, and Liz Watkins (New York: Routledge, 2013), 56–66.

  19.  Lynn Sally, Fighting the Flames: The Spectacular Performance of Fire at Coney Island (New York: Routledge, 2006). Films of these fire reenactments were also exhibited at the parks, including Edwin S. Porter’s Fire and Flames at Luna Park, Coney Island (U.S., 1904).

  20.  Gustav Brock, “Artist Explains Hand Color Role: Pioneer in Work Sees This Method as Indispensable to Treatment of Fire Sequences,” Motion Picture News 41, no. 9 (March 1, 1930): 62.

  21.  Joshua Yumibe, Moving Color: Early Film, Mass Culture, Modernism (New Brunswick, N.J.: Rutgers University Press, 2012), 133–135.

  22.  Technicolor would later develop a similar method of dye transfer known as imbibition printing for its No. 3 and No. 4 processes. See the comparative discussion of these processes in William V. D. Kelley, “The Handschiegl and Pathéchrome Color Processes,” Journal of the Society of Motion Picture Engineers 17, no. 2 (August 1931): 230–234.

  23.  Paolo Cherchi Usai, Silent Cinema: An Introduction (London: British Film Institute, 2000), 32–33.

  24.  Philip J. Riley, The Making of the Phantom of the Opera (Absecon, N.J.: MagicImage Filmbooks, 1999), 56.

  25.  We are grateful to James Layton for further details on the color sequences in this film. See also Lee Tsiantis, “The Phantom of the Opera (review),” Moving Image 4, no. 2 (2004): 126–128.

  26.  The second Technicolor sequence does not survive on film; Brownlow and Gill colorized the footage.

  27.  Jonathan Mack, “Finding Borderland: Intermediality in the Films of Marc Forster,” Cinema Journal 56, no. 3 (May 10, 2017): 25.

  28.  “The Phantom Premiere Thrills Broadway,” Universal Weekly 22, no. 6 (September 19, 1925): 11.

  29.  “The Phantom Premiere Thrills Broadway,” 10.

  30.  Sarah Street, Colour Films in Britain: The Negotiation of Innovation, 1900–55 (London: British Film Institute, 2012): 25–26.

  31.  Tim Bergfelder, Sue Harris, and Sarah Street, Film Architecture and the Transnational Imagination: Set Design in 1930s European Cinema (Amsterdam: Amsterdam University Press, 2007), 138–140.

  32.  Christine Gledhill, Reframing British Cinema, 1918–1928 (London: British Film Institute, 2003), 93.

  33.  Paul Read and Mark-Paul Meyer, Restoration of Motion Picture Film (Oxford: Butterworth-Heinemann, 2000), 191.

  34.  Murray Pomerance, “Light, Looks and The Lodger,” Quarterly Review of Film and Video 26, no. 5 (October 2009): 425–433.

  35.  See Richard Abel, “Memory Work: French Historical Epics, 1926–1927,” Film History: An International Journal 17, no. 2 (September 9, 2005): 355.

  36.  Abel, “Memory Work,” 357.

  37.  Victoria Jackson and Sarah Street, “Kevin Brownlow on Film Color,” Moving Image 15, no. 1 (July 9, 2015): 99. For more on the Keller-Dorian process, including the work on Napoléon, see François Ede, “Un épisode de l’histoire de la couleur au cinéma: le procéde Keller-Dorian et les films lenticulaires,” 1895: Revue d’histoire du cinéma 71 (2013): 187–202.

  38.  This scene is shown in The Charm of Dynamite (Kevin Brownlow, Rath Films for BBC, UK, 1968), a documentary about Gance. The tinting of the scene, however, is not present or discussed.

  39.  For a full discussion of the film, see Joshua Yumibe, “The Illuminated Fairytale: The Colors of Paul Fejos’s Lonesome (1928),” in Color and the Moving Image: History, Theory, Aesthetics, Archive, ed. Simon Brown, Sarah Street, Liz Watkins (New York: Routledge, 2013), 127–137.

  40.  See Siegfried Kracauer’s 1929 review of Lonesome, quoted in Yumibe, “The Illuminated Fairytale,” 127, 132–133, 136.

  41.  Kracauer, quoted in Yumibe, “The Illuminated Fairytale,” 132.

  42.  Kracauer, quoted in Yumibe, “The Illuminated Fairytale,” 135.

  43.  Charles Urban, Report on Prizma, October 11, 1916: Urban papers, National Media Museum, Bradford, UK: URB/9/10/1.

  44.  See Street, Colour Films in Britain, 9–21. The Open Road was restored by the British Film Institute and released on DVD in 2006. This version conveys the film’s intentions because its faults on first release have been reduced. A new preservation negative was made using a digital intermediate so that colors could be combined, flicker controlled, and motion depicted at twenty-four frames per second.

  45.  Street, Colour Films in Britain, 35.

  46.  James Layton and David Pierce, The Dawn of Technicolor, 1915–1935 (Rochester, N.Y.: George Eastman House, 2014), 149–157.

  47.  Layton and Pierce, The Dawn of Technicolor, 114–115.

  48.  Albert Parker, quoted in Layton and Pierce, The Dawn of Technicolor, 131.

  49.  Layton and Pierce, The Dawn of Technicolor, 141.

  50.  Layton and Pierce, The Dawn of Technicolor, 115–116.

  51.  Films in the Wonderful London series were restored and released on DVD in 2012 by the British Film Institute, BFIVD946.

6. Color and the Coming of Sound

    1.  See Hal Hall, “Society of Motion Picture Engineers Hollywood Meeting,” American Cinematographer 12, no. 2 (June 1931): 10–11, 26, 45.

    2.  Pierre Bourdieu, The Field of Cultural Production: Essays on Art and Literature, ed. Randal Johnson (New York: Columbia University Press, 1993), 32.

    3.  “The New Age of Color,” Saturday Evening Post, January 21, 1928, 22.

    4.  “Color in Industry,” Fortune Magazine 1 (February 1930): 85–94.

    5.  “Report of Color Committee May 1930,” Journal of the Society of Motion Picture Engineers 15, no. 5 (May 1930): 721–724.

    6.  John Belton, “Cinecolor,” Film History 12, no. 4 (2000): 344–345.

    7.  “The Pictures: Colour in the Cinema,” Observer, June 30, 1929, 20.

    8.  See Joshua Yumibe, Moving Color: Early Film, Mass Culture, Modernism (New Brunswick, N.J.: Rutgers University Press, 2012), 13.

    9.  See Laurent Mannoni, “Phono-Cinéma-Théâtre,” in Thirty-First Pordenone Silent Film Festival Catalog, ed. Catherine A. Surowiec (Pordenone, Italy: Le Giornate del Cinema Muto, 2012), 24–28; and Victor Pranchère, “La sortie du laboratoire ou les stratégies d’exploitation du procédé trichrome de cinématographie en couleurs de la Société des Établissements Gaumont (1913–1921),” 1895: Revue d’histoire du cinéma 71 (December 1, 2013): 61–80.

  10.  See Miriam Bratu Hansen, “America, Paris, the Alps: Kracauer (and Benjamin) on Cinema and Modernity,” in Cinema and the Invention of Modern Life, ed. Leo Charney and Vanessa R Schwartz (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1995), 362–402.

  11.  “The Pictures: Colour in the Cinema,” 20.

  12.  John W. Des Chenes, “Talkies in Color,” International Photographer 1, no. 3 (April 1929): 5.

  13.  Herbert Kalmus, “[H. T. Kalmus to L. T. Troland],” April 23, 1929, M0006: Technicolor Internal Correspondence, George Eastman Museum.

  14.  Leonard Troland, “Troland Diaries,” July 24, 1929, E17: Technicolor Notebooks: Troland Diaries, 1926–1929, George Eastman Museum.

  15.  Troland detailed in his research diary on September 1, 1926 that he had spent the day studying Handschiegl patents, and he was confident that Technicolor’s newly developed dye-transfer machine would mostly not infringe on the Handschiegl process; however, a few years later, on July 24, 1929, he recommended to Kalmus that Technicolor should acquire a Handschiegl patent because of the overlap with Technicolor’s imbibition printing. Leonard Troland, “Troland Diaries,” entries September 1, 1926, and July 24, 1929, E17: Technicolor Notebooks: Troland Diaries, 1926–1929, George Eastman Museum.

  16.  See Russell M. Otis, “The Multicolor Process,” Journal of the Society of Motion Picture Engineers 17, no. 1 (July 1931): 5–10; Roderick T. Ryan, A History of Motion Picture Color Technology (London: Focal Press, 1977), 100–102; and James Layton and David Pierce, The Dawn of Technicolor: 1915–1935, ed. Paolo Cherchi Usai and Catherine A. Surowiec (Rochester, N.Y.: George Eastman House, 2015), 228–229.

  17.  See Herbert C. McKay, “Reeling the Rainbow: A Discussion of Motion Pictures in Natural Color,” Movie Makers 4, no. 8 (August 1929): 509–511, 538.

  18.  Earle C. Anthony, “Vitacolor Movies: Reporting a New Color Process for the Amateur,” Movie Makers 3, no. 12 (December 1928): 772.

  19.  See Richard Lewis Ward, When the Cock Crows: A History of the Pathé Exchange (Carbondale: Southern Illinois University Press, 2016), 67–68, 129.

  20.  On the importance of color and the amateur market, see Charles Tepperman, “Color Unlimited: Amateur Color Cinema in the 1930s,” in Color and the Moving Image: History, Theory, Aesthetics, Archive, ed. Simon Brown, Sarah Street, and Liz Watkins (New York: Routledge, 2013), 138–149; and John Beardslee Carrigan, “Portrait of the Pioneer: George Eastman,” Movie Makers 3, no. 12 (December 1928): 770. As Eastman explains, “I believe that color films will be the making of the amateur cinema movement. Without them it could never have been so great. With them it has limitless possibilities.”

  21.  See “Yesterday in Santa Fe Completed in Multicolor,” International Photographer 3, no. 6 (July 1931): 23; “Multicolor Branch Slated for Construction in Japan,” International Photographer 3, no. 5 (June 1931): 34; and “Howe Takes Vitacolor to the Orient,” American Cinematographer 10, no. 1 (April 1929): 11.

  22.  See “News of the Day,” Film Daily 51, no. 4 (January 6, 1930): 4; “Report of Color Committee May 1930,” Journal of the Society of Motion Picture Engineers 15, no. 5 (May 1930): 721–724; and “Buys Vitacolor Processes,” Motion Picture News 41, no. 14 (April 5, 1930): 22.

  23.  “Fix Jan. 5 as Trial Date for Vitacolor-Cinecolor,” Film Daily 70, no. 101 (October 28, 1936): 2.

  24.  Layton and Pierce, The Dawn of Technicolor, 208.

  25.  Michel Chion, Audio-Vision: Sound on Screen, trans. Claudia Gorbman (New York: Columbia University Press, 1994).

  26.  Herbert T. Kalmus, “Technicolor Adventures in Cinemaland,” Journal of the Society of Motion Picture Engineers 31, no. 6 (1938): 573–574.

  27.  Bourdieu, The Field of Cultural Production, 32.

  28.  Maxim Gorky, “A Review of the Lumière Programme at the Nizhni-Novgorod Fair,” as printed in the Nizhegorodski listok, newspaper, July 4, 1896, and signed ‘I. M. Pacatus,’ reprinted in Maxim Gorky, “Maxim Gorky on the Lumière Programme, 1896,” in Kino: A History of the Russian and Soviet Film, trans. ‘Leda Swan,’ ed. Jay Leyda (New York: Macmillan, 1960), 407–409.

  29.  “The Future of Color,” American Cinematographer 10, no. 4 (July 1929): 12.

  30.  Harold B. Franklin, “Color,” Transactions of the Society of Motion Picture Engineers 17, no. 1 (July 1931): 3.

  31.  See the finding aid for the Earl Theisen Film Frame Collection, Seaver Center for Western History Research, Natural History Museum of Los Angeles County, accessed April 11, 2018, http://www.oac.cdlib.org/findaid/ark:/13030/c82f7p84/.

  32.  “DuPont Vitacolor,” Exhibitors Daily Review 24, no. 5 (July 9, 1928): 3.

  33.  Louis M. Bailey, “Educational Films,” Movie Makers 4, no. 10 (October 1929): 662.

  34.  Anthony, “Vitacolor Movies,” 771.

  35.  John W. Des Chenes, “A.S.C. Approves Vitacolor,” American Cinematographer 9, no. 11 (February 1929): 26–27.

  36.  Max B. DuPont, “Color for the Amateur,” American Cinematographer 10, no. 2 (May 1929): 32.

  37.  Quoted in Anthony, “Vitacolor Movies,” 826.

  38.  “Multicolor Coming Fast,” International Photographer 1, no. 11 (December 1929): 21.

  39.  “Multicolor Advert,” Cinematographic Annual 1 (1930): Adv 4.

  40.  John Seitz, “Introduction,” Cinematographic Annual 1 (1930): 16–17.

  41.  Hilde D’Haeyere, “Color Processes in Mark Sennett Comedies,” in Brown, Street, and Watkins, Color and the Moving Image, 29–31.

  42.  D’Haeyere, “Color Processes in Mark Sennett Comedies,” 30.

  43.  Otis, “The Multicolor Process,” 9–10.

  44.  See Belton, “Cinecolor,” 344–357; and Layton and Pierce, The Dawn of Technicolor, 274–275.

  45.  See Herbert Kalmus, “[H. T. Kalmus to Judge William Travers Jerome (copied to L T. Troland)],” August 4, 1928, M0006 Technicolor Internal Correspondence, George Eastman Museum.

  46.  Layton and Pierce, The Dawn of Technicolor, 239–264.

  47.  Kalmus, “Technicolor Adventures in Cinemaland,” 574.

  48.  “Technicolor Plans 2 Studios Abroad,” Variety 97, no. 5 (November 13, 1929): 5.

  49.  Herbert Kalmus, “[Herbert T. Kalmus to Clarel Seelye (London)],” December 27, 1930, M0006: Technicolor Internal Correspondence, Box 2, doc 0986, George Eastman Museum.

  50.  Sarah Street, Colour Films in Britain: The Negotiation of Innovation 1900–1955 (London: British Film Institute, 2012), 55–57.

  51.  “Technicolor Musical Reviews [Ad],” Film Daily 51, no. 4 (January 6, 1930): 3.

  52.  “Sound for Viking,” Variety 93, no. 9 (December 12, 1928): 23; also see James Layton and David Pierce, “The Viking,” in Le Giornate Del Cinema Muto: Catalogue, ed. Catherine A. Surowiec, vol. 31 (Gemona, Italy: La Cineteca del Friuli, 2012), 162.

  53.  See “Color Pictures Being Created: Natalie Kalmus Made First Color Art Director,” Calgary Daily Herald, September 1, 1928, 11.

  54.  See Donald Beaton, “As They Appeal to a Youth,” Film Spectator 6, no. 9 (November 17, 1928): 10.

  55.  Arne Lunde, Nordic Exposures: Scandinavian Identities in Classical Hollywood Cinema (Seattle: University of Washington Press, 2011), 28–29.

  56.  Layton and Pierce, The Dawn of Technicolor, 198.

  57.  James Layton and David Pierce, King of Jazz: Paul Whiteman’s Technicolor Revue (Severn, Md.: Media History Press, 2016). On the restoration, also see Jan-Christopher Horak, “King of Jazz: Paul Whiteman’s Technicolor Revue,” January 6, 2017, https://www.cinema.ucla.edu/blogs/archival-spaces/2017/01/06/king-of-jazz.

  58.  Layton and Pierce, King of Jazz, 57.

  59.  See Paul Young’s analysis of racial representation in the film in The Cinema Dreams Its Rivals: Media Fantasy Films from Radio to the Internet (Minneapolis: University of Minnesota Press, 2006), 73–135.

  60.  On epidermal readings of race, see Michelle Ann Stephens, Skin Acts: Race, Psychoanalysis, and the Black Male Performer (Durham, N.C.: Duke University Press, 2014).

  61.  See Layton and Pierce, King of Jazz, 136.

  62.  J. Hoberman, “King of Jazz Is Back, Burnished for Movie Fans,” New York Times, May 10, 2016, http://www.nytimes.com/2016/05/11/movies/king-of-jazz-is-back-burnished-for-movie-fans.html.

  63.  Layton and Pierce, King of Jazz, 215.

  64.  Layton and Pierce, King of Jazz, 201.

  65.  Layton and Pierce, King of Jazz, 207–209.

  66.  Scott Higgins, Harnessing the Technicolor Rainbow: Color Design in the 1930s (Austin: University of Texas Press, 2007).

  67.  Sarah Street, Colour Films in Britain, 280–281, 283–284; and Frank Tilley, “British Film Field,” Variety 97, no. 10 (December 18, 1929): 4.

  68.  Denise K. Cummings and Annette Kuhn, “Elinor Glyn,” in Women Film Pioneers Project, ed. Jane Gaines, Vatsal Radha, and Monica Dall’Asta (New York: Center for Digital Research and Scholarship, Columbia University Libraries, 2013), accessed November 3, 2017, https://wfpp.cdrs.columbia.edu/pioneer/ccp-elinor-glyn.

  69.  François Ede, “Un épisode de l’histoire de la couleur au cinéma: le procéde Keller-Dorian et les films lenticulaires,” 1895: Revue d’histoire du cinéma 71 (2013): 187–202.

  70.  James P. Cunningham, “$24,250,000 Issue for New Moviecolor, Ltd,” Film Daily 47, no. 16 (January 20, 1929): 10.

  71.  “Enter Moviecolor: Blattner’s Double Demonstration: Use of the Keller-Dorian Process,” Kinematograph Weekly 141, no. 1126 (November 15, 1928): 29.

  72.  Jack Cunningham, “Refuge First Color, Sound Blattner Film,” Film Daily 48, no. 69 (March 24, 1929): 9.

  73.  “Technicolor in British Link with Keller-Dorian,” Film Daily 51, no. 45 (February 23, 1930): 7.

  74.  Leonard Troland, “Troland Diaries, February 1, 1929,” 1929, E17: Technicolor Notebooks: Troland Diaries, 1926–1929, George Eastman Museum.

  75.  Layton and Pierce, The Dawn of Technicolor, 258; and Ede, “Un épisode de l’histoire de la couleur au cinéma,” 201.

  76.  Moviecolor Limited vs. Eastman Kodak Company, Technicolor, Inc. and Technicolor Motion Picture Corporation, No. 193, Docket 26470 (United States Court of Appeals Second Circuit, 1961).

  77.  Gustav Brock, “Hand-Coloring of Motion Picture Film,” Journal of the Society of Motion Picture Engineers 16, no. 6 (June 1931): 751.

  78.  Gustav Brock, “Handcoloring Film,” Film Daily 26, no. 45 (June 21, 1925): 35.

  79.  Brock, “Hand-Coloring of Motion Picture Film,” 753.

  80.  Gustav Brock, “Artist Explains Hand Color Role: Pioneer in Work Sees this Method as Indispensable to Treatment of Fire Sequences,” Motion Picture News 41, no. 9 (March 1, 1930): 62.

  81.  Brock, “Hand-Coloring of Motion Picture Film,” 755.

  82.  Brock, “Hand-Coloring of Motion Picture Film,” 754.

  83.  Brock, “Hand-Coloring of Motion Picture Film,” 754–755.

  84.  See “Roxy to Use Color,” Film Daily 59, no. 29 (May 4, 1932): 3; “Manhattan Films,” Brooklyn Standard Union, November 23, 1927; and “Brock Handling Color Work on Roxy Newsreels,” Film Daily 42, no. 52 (December 1, 1927): 10. For details on Brock’s silent-film work, see Richard Koszarski, “Foolish Wives: The Colour Restoration That Never Happened,” Film History 12, no. 4 (January 1, 2000): 341–343.

  85.  “Look at the Man Hunt in The Vampire Bat [Ad],” Film Daily 61, no. 19 (January 24, 1933): 2; “Pickanniny Blues,” Film Daily 61, no. 45 (February 24, 1933): 7; “Brock Color for Film,” Film Daily 63, no. 14 (July 18, 1933): 12; “Brock Colors Two Features,” Film Daily 63, no. 42 (August 19, 1933): 2; Phil M. Daly, “Along the Rialto,” Film Daily 64, no. 41 (November 18, 1933): 3; Phil M. Daly, “Along the Rialto,” Film Daily 65, no. 132 (June 7, 1934): 3; Phil M. Daly, “Along the Rialto,” Film Daily 66, no. 18 (July 23, 1934): 5; and “Brock Colors Adventure Girl,” Film Daily 66, no. 31 (August 7, 1934): 2.

  86.  See Tom Weaver, “Scott MacQueen Interview,” Classic Images, no. 504 (June 2017): 18–22; and Scott MacQueen, email correspondence with authors, August 2, 2017.

  87.  Weaver, “Scott MacQueen Interview,” 21.

  88.  “New Gustav Brock Method,” Film Daily 79, no. 29 (February 11, 1941): 9.

  89.  Gustav Brock, “Letter to Alfred Hitchcock About Saboteur,” March 28, 1942, Alfred Hitchcock Papers, 53-f.636, Margaret Herrick Library of the Academy of Motion Picture Arts and Sciences; quoted in Murray Pomerance, Alfred Hitchcock’s America (Cambridge, UK: Polity, 2013), 33 n. 16.

  90.  See Joshua Yumibe, “Industrial Research Into Color at Pathé During the 1910s & 1920s,” in Recherches et innovations dans l’industrie du cinema: les cahiers des ingénieurs Pathé: 1906–1927, ed. Jacques Malthête and Stephanie Salmon (Paris: Fondation Jérôme Seydoux-Pathé, 2017), 196–208. More generally on the state of Pathé during the time, see especially Stéphanie Salmon, Pathé: A la conquête du cinéma, 1896–1929 (Paris: Editions Tallandier, 2014); and Richard Lewis Ward, When the Cock Crows: A History of the Pathé Exchange (Carbondale: Southern Illinois University Press, 2016).

  91.  See Street, Colour Films in Britain, 38.

  92.  See the trademark details in M. H. Schoenbaum, “Inventions, Trade Marks, Patents,” Motion Picture News 9, no. 12 (March 28, 1914): 25.

  93.  William V. D. Kelley, “The Handschiegl and Pathéchrome Color Processes,” Journal of Society of Motion Picture Engineers 17, no. 2 (August 1, 1931): 230–234.

  94.  “Pathéchrome, New Color Process to Make Bow in Pathé Review,” Exhibitors Herald and Moving Picture World 93, no. 8 (November 24, 1928): 34.

  95.  Terry Ramsaye, Million and One Nights: A History of the Motion Picture Through 1925 (New York: Simon and Schuster, 1926); “Pathéchrome, New Color Process to Make Bow in Pathé Review,” 34.

  96.  “Pathéchrome, New Color Process to Make Bow in Pathé Review,” 34.

  97.  “Pathé Plans Color for Its Sound Pictures,” Film Daily 48, no. 27 (May 1, 1929): 11.

  98.  “Pathéchrome-Sound Soon,” Pathé Sun 14, no. 31 (December 6, 1929): 4.

  99.  See the frames collected on the Timeline of Historical Colors, accessed April 18, 2018, http://zauberklang.ch/filmcolors/galleries/stencil-colored-samples-kodak-film-samples-collection/.

100.  Lakeland Glimpses—With Camera and Car Around the English Lakes, ca. 1930, https://www.britishpathe.com/video/lakeland-glimpses-with-camera-and-car-around-the/query/wildcard; The Palace of the Stuarts, ca. 1929, https://www.britishpathe.com/video/the-palace-of-the-stuarts-pathecolor-sic-in/query/wildcard.

101.  For more on this process of bolstering the cultural capital of a landscape through film, see Tom Rice and Joshua Yumibe, “Chariots of Fire Rerun: Locating Film’s Cultural Capital on a Contemporary Stage,” Journal of British Cinema and Television 12, no. 3 (July 1, 2015): 321–341.

102.  An Old Indian Name, ca. 1928, https://www.britishpathe.com/video/an-old-indian-name-aka-colour-film-of-1928/query/wildcard.

103.  James M. Vest, “Alfred Hitchcock’s Role in Elstree Calling,” Hitchcock Annual 9 (2000): 116–126; and Ian Conrich and Estella Tincknell, Film’s Musical Moments (Edinburgh: Edinburgh University Press, 2006).

104.  Quoted in John Mundy, Popular Music on Screen: From Hollywood Musical to Music Video (Manchester, UK: Manchester University Press, 1999), 142; originally published in the Tatler, March 5, 1930.

105.  “First British Talkie Revue,” Yorkshire Post, February 11, 1930.

106.  “Elstree Calling: Will Fyffe in a Big Talkie Revue,” Dundee Evening Telegraph, February 14, 1930.

107.  “Elstree Calling”; and “Big Image with 35mm Film Tested in London House,” Film Daily 51, no. 45 (February 23, 1930): 7.

108.  “First British Talkie Revue.”

109.  Mundy, Popular Music on Screen, 143.

110.  “Rialto Briggate Leeds [Ad],” Yorkshire Evening Post, July 21, 1930; “B.I.P. Talkies Arouse the Industry in All Parts of the World [Ad],” Variety 100, no. 3 (July 30, 1930): 65.

111.  “Picturedrome Bedford: Elstree Calling [Ad],” Bedfordshire Times and Independent, August 29, 1930.

112.  “Famous Co-Optimists in Sound Film,” Dundee Evening Telegraph, April 22, 1930.

113.  “The Film World,” Times, January 29, 1930; “A Romance of Seville,” Kinema Guide, no. 8 (January 19–25, 1931): 20.

114.  L. M. Dieterich, “The Relative Values of Sound and Color in Motion Pictures,” American Cinematographer 13, no. 2 (June 1932): 10, 44.

115.  Victor Milner, “Tinted Stock for Better Pictures,” American Cinematographer 13, no. 2 (June 1932): 11, 28.

116.  C. E. Kenneth Mees, “A Research Triumph: The Story of Black-and-White Film,” International Projectionist 30, no. 7 (July 1955): 15.

117.  “New Color Moods in Sound [Kodak Sonochrome Ad],” Motion Picture News 40, no. 12 (September 21, 1929): 1097.

118.  “New Color Moods in Sound,” 1097.

119.  “Film Tints to Suit Film Subjects,” Motion Picture Projectionist 5, no. 11 (September 1932): 16.

120.  Milner, “Tinted Stock for Better Pictures,” 11.

121.  Loyd A. Jones, “Tinted Films for Sound Positives,” Transactions of the Society of Motion Picture Engineers 13, no. 37 (May 6–9, 1929): 199–226.

122.  Anthony L’Abbate, “L’aventure des films sonores teintés et virés aux États-Unis,” trans. Céline Ruivo, 1895: Revue d’histoire du cinéma 71 (December 1, 2013): 133–143; see also Kyle Westphal, “The True Story of Tinted Talkies: An Interview with Anthony L’Abbate,” Northwest Chicago Film Society, September 3, 2013, http://www.northwestchicagofilmsociety.org/2013/09/03/the-true-story-of-tinted-talkies-an-interview-with-anthony-labbate/.

123.  Milner, “Tinted Stock for Better Pictures,” 11.

124.  William Stull, “Concerning Cinematography,” American Cinematographer 12, no. 12 (April 1932): 24.

125.  William Stull, “Concerning Cinematography,” American Cinematographer 13, no. 2 (June 1932): 23.

126.  Rachael Low, History of British Film, vol. 4, The History of the British Film 1918–1929 (London: Allen & Unwin, 1997), 280.

127.  J. I. Crabtree and W. Marsh, “Double Toning of Motion Picture Films,” Journal of the Society of Motion Picture Engineers 16, no. 1 (January 1931): 60.

128.  Water Babies, 1932, https://www.britishpathe.com/video/water-babies-tinted-version/; The Bear Truth, 1932, https://www.britishpathe.com/video/the-bear-truth-tinted-version/; Big Hits, 1932, https://www.britishpathe.com/video/big-hits-tinted-version/.

129.  “Tone-Tint Merging,” Cine-Technician, December–January, 1937–1938, 187.

130.  “Sepia Tinting Bridges Gap of Color, Black and White,” Motion Picture Daily 42, no. 98 (October 25, 1937): 1, 6.

131.  Interestingly enough, Dudley Murphy worked on the script continuity with Tod Browning. See Susan Delson, Dudley Murphy, Hollywood Wild Card (Minneapolis: University of Minnesota Press, 2006), 221.

132.  Milner, “Tinted Stock for Better Pictures,” 11.

133.  See Carlos Clarens, An Illustrated History of Horror and Science-Fiction Films (New York: Da Capo Press, 1997), 80.

134.  Philip J. Riley, Dracula: The Original 1931 Shooting Script (Absecon, N.J.: MagicImage Filmbooks, 1990), 67.

135.  We are grateful to George Willeman, Nitrate Film Vault Manager, National Audio-Visual Conservation Center of the Library of Congress, for assistance on the print, and to Jack Theakston for further information on the film.

136.  For an excellent reading of the uncanny nature of the film, see the Robert Spadoni, Uncanny Bodies: The Coming of Sound Film and the Origins of the Horror Genre (Berkeley: University of California Press, 2007), 61–92.

7. Conclusion

    1.  “The Pictures: Colour in the Cinema,” Observer, June 30, 1929, 20.

    2.  André Bazin, “The Myth of Total Cinema” (1946), in What Is Cinema?, vol. 1, selected and trans. Hugh Gray (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1967), 21.

    3.  Ágnes Pethö, Cinema and Intermediality: The Passion for the In-Between (Newcastle upon Tyne, UK: Cambridge Scholars, 2011), 6.

    4.  In exploring these moments of chromatic tableau, we are indebted to Kaveh Askari’s notion of “frame jumping” in Making Movies into Art: Picture Craft from the Magic Lantern to Early Hollywood (London: British Film Institute, 2015), 51.

    5.  Miriam Bratu Hansen, “America, Paris, the Alps: Kracauer (and Benjamin) on Cinema and Modernity,” in Cinema and the Invention of Modern Life, ed. Leo Charney and Vanessa R Schwartz (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1995), 363.

    6.  See the various essays in Tim Bergfelder and Christian Cargnelli, eds., Destination London: German-Speaking Emigrés and British Cinema, 1925–1950 (New York: Berghahn, 2008).

    7.  On Fischinger at Disney, see William Moritz, “Fischinger at Disney, or Oskar in the Mousetrap,” Millimeter 5, no. 2 (February 1977): 25–28, 65–67; for his relationship to U.S. experimental work, see the “testimonial section” in William Moritz, Optical Poetry: The Life and Work of Oskar Fischinger (Bloomington: Indiana University Press, 2004), 163–171.

    8.  For a full discussion of Vyvyan Donner and the Fashion Forecast films, see Natalie Snoyman, “‘In to Stay’: Selling Three-Strip Technicolor and Fashion in the 1930s and 1940s” (Ph.D. diss., Stockholm University, 2017), 151–178.

    9.  Snoyman, “‘In to Stay,’” 179–218.

  10.  “Release Shipments, 1924 to 1951 Incl.,” Technicolor Corporation 1951, Technicolor Corporate Archive, George Eastman Museum, quoted in Snoyman “‘In to Stay,’” 180.

  11.  Colin Bennett, “Colour Is an Adjunct,” Kinematograph Weekly 225, no. 1492 (November 21, 1935): 19.

  12.  Natalie Kalmus, “Color Consciousness,” Journal of the Society of Motion Picture Engineers 25, no. 2 (August 1935): 139–147.

  13.  Regina Lee Blaszczyk and Uwe Spiekermann, “Bright Modernity: Color, Commerce, and Consumer Culture,” in Bright Modernity: Color, Commerce, and Consumer Culture, ed. Regina Lee Blaszczyk and Uwe Spiekermann (Cham, Switzerland: Palgrave Macmillan, 2017), 13.

  14.  See Dudley Andrew, “The Postwar Struggle for Color,” Cinema Journal 18, no. 2 (1979): 41–52; and Sarah Street, Black Narcissus (London: I. B. Tauris, 2005).

  15.  The enduring influence of 1920s modernism in contemporary literature, has been a topic of ongoing discussion in literary studies. See, for example, Rebecca Walkowitz, Cosmopolitan Style: Modernism Beyond the Nation (New York: Columbia University Press, 2006); and David James, Modernist Futures: Innovation and Inheritance in the Contemporary Novel (New York: Cambridge University Press, 2012).