NIV Zondervan Study Bible

Annotations for Joshua

1:1—5:12 The Promised Land Entered. The beginning of Joshua recounts the spiritual and physical preparations for the subsequent battles to acquire the land. God appoints Joshua as leader, and Joshua takes charge of all Israel. Rahab’s confession of faith encourages the Israelites before God leads the people into the promised land through a miracle. Israel celebrates God’s gift of the land with the sign of the Abrahamic covenant (circumcision) and the festival of God’s redemption from Egypt (Passover).

1:1–18 Joshua Installed as Leader. God’s vision for Israel consists of establishing Joshua as its leader and giving him promises (vv. 1–5a) and the means to accomplish them (vv. 5b–9). The promises outline the contents of the book of Joshua, and the means to accomplish them place Israel in God’s ongoing plan to bless his people and give them success (Gen 12:1–3). Joshua implements God’s instructions for Israel (vv. 10–11) and faces a potential challenge to his leadership (vv. 12–18).

1:1 death of Moses. Described in the preceding chapter (Deut 34), thus connecting this book with the first five books of the Bible. Moses’ death creates a vacuum in Israel’s leadership. Joshua could not be leader while Moses was God’s appointed head, but now he must become leader or Israel as a nation will be vulnerable to infighting and divisions over this concern. The book of Joshua begins with a need to replace the former leader, Moses, just as the book of Judges begins with the death Joshua (Judg 1:1; cf. Exod 1:6). the servant of the LORD. Although Moses was recognized as God’s servant earlier (Exod 14:31), this title is first given to him at his death (Deut 34:5; then 13 times in Joshua); it will also be bestowed on Joshua at his death (24:29). It honors the leaders for a life of faithfulness. Joshua son of Nun. Nun was an Ephraimite (Num 13:8; see Jacob’s choice of Ephraim over Manasseh in Gen 48:5–20). The full name identifies this figure with the Joshua of Exodus–Deuteronomy and the divinely chosen successor of Moses as leader of God’s people (Deut 31:23; cf. Deut 3:28; 31:14). See Introduction: The Figure of Joshua. Moses’ aide. Only Joshua has this role in Exodus–Deuteronomy (Exod 24:13; 33:11; Num 11:28).

1:2 all these people. The unity of God’s people in faithfulness is key to success. When Israel is united in their faithfulness to God, they cannot be defeated (chs. 6; 8; 10–11; etc.). When they are divided, they do not win (7:3–5; much of Judges). The Hebrew word for “all” or “each” or “every” occurs 236 times in Joshua, inundating the book with the theme of a unified nation called to receive the whole land. The unity of God’s people in their faithfulness to him remains key for winning Canaan and, in the NT, for winning the world (John 17:21). cross the Jordan River. This charge summarizes 1:1—5:12, describing the first major part of Israel’s responsibility under Joshua. cross. The Hebrew word for “cross (over)” appears 32 times in the first five chapters, unifying many acts in these chapters as part of a greater movement into the promised land (e.g., “go through,” 1:11; “go into,” 3:11; “carried . . . over,” 4:8). land I am about to give to them. A promise God first made to Abraham (Gen 12:1–3, 5–7; 15:18; etc.). give. The Hebrew word is used 89 times in Joshua; 78 times it refers to God’s gift of all or part of the land and its occupants. The land is God’s gift to his covenant people.

1:3 every place where you set your foot. By repeating Deut 11:24, this phrase informs Israel as to what it should do to occupy the land. It summarizes the second part of Joshua (5:13—12:24): Israel’s acts of taking the land. as I promised Moses. Mentions Moses (Deut 34:1–4) rather than Abraham to indicate Joshua’s role as successor. What God promised Moses, he promises Joshua; every promise will be fulfilled (23:14).

1:4 God identifies the areas and borders of the promised land, identical to Canaan (Gen 10:19; 15:18; Num 13:17–22; Deut 1:7) in the Bible and in ancient descriptions from Egypt at the time of Joshua. Although only David and Solomon would control all this land, the southern part is allotted to the tribes in 13:1—21:45. desert. The southern part of the promised land, including the “wilderness” (i.e., the desert region west of the Dead Sea) and the region around Bethel and Ai (8:15, 20; 12:8; 15:61; 16:1; 18:12). Lebanon. The mountains of modern Lebanon that stretch into the northern part of the promised land. Euphrates . . . Mediterranean Sea. The northeastern and western boundaries. Hittite country. The Hittites, a second-millennium BC empire in modern Turkey, extended their rule into Canaan. The area became known as “Hittite land” as early as Joshua.

1:5a No one will be able to stand against you all the days of your life. This promise anticipates Joshua’s career and summarizes the last days of his life (chs. 23–24), when all Israel “presented themselves” (24:1, translating the same Hebrew verb behind “stand against”) and Joshua reviewed all God had done.

1:5b–9 As I was with Moses, so I will be with you. This moves from God’s promises (that summarize the book of Joshua) to explaining how this vision will be enacted. We can understand this by seeing the structure: the first and last phrases of vv. 5b–9 repeat one another (a / a´, b / b´, etc.) and the middle is the focus:

a I will never leave you nor forsake you.

b Be strong and courageous . . .

c Be strong and very courageous.

d Be careful to obey all the law . . .

e Keep this Book of the Law . . .

e´ meditate on it day and night . . .

d´ be careful to do everything written in it.

c´ Be strong and courageous.

b´ Do not be afraid; do not be discouraged . . .

a´ God will be with you wherever you go.

Note that a, like a´, emphasizes God’s presence as essential for accomplishing the vision; b and c, like b´ and c´, repeat the charge to Israel and Joshua in Deut 31:6–8, 23. “Be strong and courageous” appears three additional times in the OT (10:25; 1 Chr 28:20; 2 Chr 32:7), always to encourage God’s people to a great mission (fighting on, building the temple, resisting the Assyrians).

1:6 inherit the land I swore to their ancestors. See vv. 3–4 and notes.

1:7 Be careful to obey all the law. See note on vv. 5b–9 where lines d and e, like d´ and e´ repeat the central emphasis on God’s law as a guide for obedience and meditation.

1:8 Book of the Law. For Joshua, God’s law consisted of the instruction found in Deuteronomy (cf. Deut 31:24–26) and possibly Genesis–Numbers. always on your lips. The ancients read aloud. prosperous and successful. This instruction (especially Deuteronomy) became the standard by which God judged Israel in the OT period. Verses 5 and 9 surround this command with God’s promised presence. Joshua and Israel will be successful not because they obey God’s word but because God is with them to enable them to obey his word—just as Jesus promises to be with his disciples in their mission (Matt 28:18–20). Joshua possessed the law of God as revealed in Genesis through Deuteronomy. Today we have all of God’s Word in the Old and New Testaments. Those who study and obey God’s Word (1 Tim 4:11–14) also succeed in God’s mission.

1:10 ordered. Joshua enlists the others to assist in the implementation of the vision. officers. Civil leaders (3:2; 8:33; 23:2; 24:1; Exod 5:6–19; Deut 1:15; 20:5–9; 29:10; 31:28).

1:11 Three days. Sometimes this refers to a general period of time (9:16), but here it is likely three specific days (2:16, 22; 3:2) that include a series of ceremonial actions (cf. 6:3, 14).

1:12 Reubenites . . . Gadites . . . half-tribe of Manasseh. Having already received their land from Moses (Num 32; Deut 3:12–20), these tribes represent those most likely to reject Joshua’s leadership and command to cross the Jordan and risk their lives. Joshua directly confronts this challenge to his God-given leadership.

1:13 Remember. God’s leader quotes Deut 3:18–20, using Scripture (cf. 1:8–9) to make his case. As they followed Moses in receiving the land, they must now follow Joshua in fighting with all Israel. give you rest. See Introduction: Theological Themes (The Gift of the Promised Land).

1:16-17 Whatever . . . wherever . . . Just as we fully. This is a structured oath with three clauses, each beginning with the Hebrew word for “all” or “everything” to emphasize total commitment. Oaths would be taken pledging allegiance to a new leader.

1:17 Only may the LORD. This forms a blessing on Joshua.

1:18 rebels . . . put to death. Capital crimes for Israel (Deut 1:26; 9:7, 23–24; 31:27) and individuals (Deut 21:18–21). be strong and courageous! Cf. vv. 5b–9 (see note there).

2:1–24 Rahab and the Spies. Rahab provides a Canaanite counterpart to Joshua. Rahab risks her life to hide the spies (vv. 1–8), confesses her faith in God’s acts of redemption (vv. 9–11), and negotiates for her family’s preservation (vv. 12–21). Using Rahab’s words, the spies confess their faith that God has given the land to Israel (vv. 22–24).

2:1 two spies. Using spies was part of Israel’s strategy (7:2–3; Num 13:1–33). Spies could both gather and disseminate information (2 Sam 15:10). Staying at Rahab’s house, which was likely an inn, would enable them to gather information from travelers and military personnel and identify potential allies. Shittim. Means “Acacia trees,” likely Tell Ḥammām, nine miles (14.5 kilometers) northeast of the Dead Sea and ten miles (16 kilometers) east of the Jordan in the plains of Moab (Num 22:1; 25:1–3). Jericho. Tell es-Sultan; with little archaeological evidence for occupation of the site at the time of Joshua, it may suggest a fort rather than a large city (contrast 10:2; 11:10, where large size is noted, unlike here). house of a prostitute. Ancient sources (e.g., Hammurabi’s law code, #109) assume that innkeepers are female and warn against their hosting conspiracies. At Shittim Israel fell into the sin (Num 25:1–3) that Rahab abandons. Located on east-west and north-south trade routes, Jericho and Rahab’s inn were strategic. For an inn at NT Jericho, cf. Luke 10:25–37. Rahab. The only Canaanite named from Jericho and Ai.

2:2–8 Repetition of phrases in this story emphasize Rahab’s great risk (see notes on these verses).

2:2 king of Jericho. Canaan at this time was divided into small kingdoms such as Jericho. Or Jericho was a fort, and the “king” was a commander. If Jericho was a fort, it was garrisoned by “kings” of Jerusalem and Bethel, whose ancient roads ran directly to Jericho.

2:2, 3 to spy out the [whole] land. If Rahab hides these spies, she is a traitor.

2:4, 6 had taken the two men [them] . . . and hidden them. A second repetition in this narrative.

2:4, 5 I did not know . . . I don’t know. Rahab lies not because she is a Canaanite and doesn’t know better but because no other response would protect the spies. The story does not dwell on the morality of lying but reports that this ruse was used to subvert certain death (cf. Exod 1:15–21; 1 Sam 16:2). Heb 11:31 and Jas 2:25 praise Rahab for hiding the spies.

2:5, 7 gate. Shutting the city gate requires that the king’s agents make an immediate decision. If they believe Rahab, they must leave at once without searching her house. But doing so also prevents Joshua’s spies from escaping the way they entered Jericho. They are completely dependent on Rahab (cf. vv. 15, 21).

2:6 This parenthesis (note the parentheses in the text) heightens the story’s drama. The reader is not told whether the king’s agents follow Rahab’s advice until v. 7.

2:6, 8 the roof. Farthest from the entrance and the public areas. Withholding nothing, Rahab opens the most secluded part of her house to the spies.

2:9–11 “I know” (v. 9) contrasts the “I did not [don’t] know” of vv. 4, 5. Rahab separates herself from Jericho’s people and identifies with Israel. Beginning the longest biblical prose speech by a woman, this confession forms a concentric structure (cf. 1:5b–9; see note there):

a the LORD has given you this land . . .

b a great fear of you has fallen on us . . .

c all who live in this country are melting in fear because of you.

d We have heard

e how the LORD dried up the water of the Red Sea . . .

e´ what you did to Sihon and Og . . .

d´ When we heard of it,

c´ our hearts melted in fear . . .

b´ everyone’s courage failed because of you,

a´ for the LORD your God is God in heaven above and on the earth below.

In the structure above, b and c quote Exod 15:15b–16a, fulfilling the prophecy at the exodus of how Canaan would respond (see 5:1 and note; 10:2; 14:8); e and e´ are God’s historic acts of redemption at the beginning (Exod 14–15) and end (Num 21; Deut 3) of Israel’s sojourn; similarly, the historic acts of redemption that Christians confess and believe are Christ’s death and resurrection (Rom 10:9).

2:12 kindness. Hebrew ḥesed; covenantal love and loyalty (Exod 15:13; Deut 7:9). “Show kindness” refers to future generations (Gen 24:12, 49; Exod 20:6; Deut 5:10). Rahab’s confession of faith leads on to petition. She expresses concern for her family (listing them in v. 13 but not naming herself) and their welfare. my family. Lit. “the household of my father”; the extended family (grandparents, their children, married sons and their families), the basic unit of Canaanite and Israelite societies. Rahab negotiates as leader of her extended family.

2:14 Our lives for your lives! These first recorded words of the spies consent to her request. By negotiating the means to preserve both Rahab and themselves, the spies recognize that Rahab has converted from Canaanite religion (which is to be eliminated, Deut 20:16–18) to Israelite faith (cf. vv. 9–11; 6:22–25).

2:15 she let them down by a rope. The discussion of vv. 16–21 does not take place with spies dangling on the wall or shouting from beneath Rahab’s window; v. 15 introduces the scene, and v. 21 concludes by summarizing the action. through the window. Contrasts with the shut gate (vv. 5, 7; 6:1); Rahab’s openness to the spies in aiding them (ch. 2) contrasts with Jericho’s resistance (ch. 6). part of the city wall. Either the wall consisted of houses joined end to end, or the wall was a “casemate” wall with two parallel walls joined by short connecting walls that formed sections filled in with rubble or that created living spaces.

2:16 Go to the hills. West of Jericho the hills rise dramatically out of the Jordan Valley. This direction is opposite that of the Jordan, where the king’s agents searched. Rahab believes God, acts on that belief to preserve God’s people, and advances the kingdom. three days. See note on 1:11.

2:18 scarlet cord in the window . . . all your family into your house. Rahab had closed her door on the rest of Jericho and opened her window for the spies to return to the Israelite camp. The scarlet cord would show the Israelite forces that Rahab and her family had become identified with them. At the same time that Rahab and her family were anticipating the coming of Israel, Israel was celebrating Passover (5:10–12), during which the Israelites gathered as families (Exod 12:1–11, 43).

2:24 The LORD has surely given. Summarizes Rahab’s words that begin her confession (v. 9). As with Caleb’s report (Num 14:30), this report emphasizes that following God will lead to success. Spies who instead evaluate the physical threat (Num 13:27–29, 31–33) counsel in a way that leads to defeat.

3:1—5:1 Crossing the Jordan. The Israelites approach the Jordan River (3:1). A holy God leads his consecrated people across the last natural barrier with a great miracle and a memorial for future generations (3:2–13). The ceremony focuses on the priests who carry the ark, the symbol of God’s presence, into the riverbed and stand until all have crossed (3:14–17). The memorial of 12 stones evokes the unity of the nation before God (4:1–9, 19–24), just as Israel’s safe crossing fulfills the promise of bringing them into the promised land (4:10–13, 15–18). Exalting Joshua remains central to God’s purpose (4:14), and the enemy reacts with fear (5:1).

3:2 three days. This reference returns the reader to the events of 1:10–18 (see note on 1:11).

3:3 ark of the covenant. Constructed 40 years earlier at Sinai (Exod 25:10–22; 37:1–5), the ark is a gold-covered box that represents the special presence of God with his people and may be associated with the throne of God. It is where the high priest sprinkles blood to atone for the sins of the people (Lev 16). As God led the nation through the wilderness (Num 10:33–36), the ark will lead Israel into the promised land and come to rest in Jerusalem (1 Sam 4–6; 2 Sam 6).

3:5 Consecrate yourselves. At Sinai (Exod 19:10–15) Moses told the people to abstain from sex and wash their clothes to become consecrated. amazing things. Whether sending the Egyptian plagues (Exod 3:20) or holding back the Jordan River, God’s power is apparent.

3:7 exalt. Israel will regard Joshua as they did Moses (1:1, 3).

3:9 Come here and listen. Joshua commands the people to listen (cf. Deut 6:4–9) and be assured that they will win their battles (cf. 1:5). Israel will be assured by seeing evidence of God’s presence (cf. 1:5–9) when the Jordan stops flowing (mentioned for the first time in v. 13).

3:10 living God. Describes God’s closeness to his people and his amazing acts for them (cf. Pss 42:2; 84:2; Hos 1:10). drive out. The expression is often used of Israel’s occupation of the land and suggests expulsion rather than annihilation (Num 14:24; 32:21; 33:52–53, 55; Deut 4:38; 7:17; 9:4–5; 11:23). Canaanites. Deut 7:1 mentions the same seven nations of Canaan—seven being a full number. See variations of those included: 9:1; 12:8; Gen 15:19–21; Exod 3:8, 17; 23:23; 33:2; 34:11; Deut 20:17; etc.

3:15 flood stage all during harvest. In the spring (the Passover of 5:10 is celebrated in March/April) the faster-flowing Jordan reaches 100 feet (30 meters) in width. feet touched the water’s edge. Even at the river’s edge, this dangerous act required obedient trust.

3:16 heap. See v. 13; it describes the Red Sea crossing (Exod 15:8; Ps 78:13). Adam. Ed-Damiye, where the Jabbok River joins from the east, about 18 miles (29 kilometers) north, indicating that the stoppage affected the lower part of the Jordan Valley.

3:17 all. Stresses the unity of the people of God (see 1:2 and note). passed by. Uses the key Hebrew ʿ ābar (translated “to cross” in 1:2), which occurs 23 times in 3:1—5:1 and emphasizes the key event: Israel’s crossing of the Jordan River.

4:3 twelve stones. Represents Israel’s 12 tribes. priests. They carry the ark that remains in the riverbed and is blocking the waters (3:17). They remain close to God’s presence, despite the danger. As Israel crosses the people witness the example of the priests who stand in the riverbed, dependent on God for their safety.

4:5–7 In v. 5 Joshua instructs the 12 men about what they are to do. Verses 6–7 form a concentric structure that describes the deed’s significance (cf. 1:5b–9; 2:9–11; see notes there).

a to serve as a sign among you. In the future, when your children ask you,

b “What do these stones mean?” tell them that

c the flow of the Jordan was cut off

d before the ark of the covenant of the LORD.

d´ When it crossed the Jordan,

c´ the waters of the Jordan were cut off.

b´ These stones are to be

a´ a memorial to the people of Israel forever.

4:7 memorial. Used in conjunction with the exodus, the Passover, and the Festival of Unleavened Bread (Exod 12:14; 13:9), it also describes a military victory (Exod 17:14), priestly and cultic items (Exod 28:12, 29; 30:16; 39:7; Num 16:38), and festivals, feasts, and offerings (Lev 23:24; Num 5:15, 18; 10:10; 31:54). This is the first of seven stone memorials in the promised land that commemorate God’s work among his people (7:26; 8:28–29, 32; 10:27; 22:34; 24:26; cf. 1 Sam 7:12). The visual aid will remain and help future generations remember how God provisioned his people. The central emphasis is on the ark itself. No obstacle can stop the onward movement of God’s presence, whether natural (e.g., the Jordan River) or man-made (e.g., Jericho, ch. 6).

4:9 There are three possibilities for interpreting this verse: (1) These stones were different from those of vv. 3, 8. Those earlier stones, placed in the middle of the Jordan, may have been visible during the dry season. (2) The men took these stones from the Jordan to the riverbank. (3) Joshua had set a stone memorial in the middle of the Jordan and then had the men move it to the bank. Options 2 and 3 imply that this memorial and that of vv. 3, 8 are the same.

4:13 About forty thousand. Seems far fewer than those mentioned in Num 26 for Reuben (43,730), Gad (40,500), and about half of Manasseh’s forces (half of 52,700). Some may have stayed east of the Jordan to guard the land there. More likely, “thousand” (Hebrew ʾelep) can mean a military squad or unit (a “clan”: Num 10:4; Judg 6:15; 1 Sam 10:19; see Introduction to Numbers: Interpretive Issues) so that these tribal units were reorganized to march together. Those who promised to follow Joshua (1:12–18) become an example of loyalty to Joshua and of courage to Israel.

4:14 exalted. God uses the miracle to exalt Joshua as a new Moses (see 3:7).

4:16 ark of the covenant law. See note on 3:3; see also Introduction: Theological Themes (The Sovereign Presence of a Holy and Loving God).

4:19 tenth day of the first month. The day of preparation for the Passover (Exod 12:3). went up from the Jordan. The wilderness journey began (Exod 14–15) and here ends by passing through waters. Gilgal. Khirbet el-Mafjir lies about two miles (3 kilometers) northeast of OT Jericho.

4:24 all the peoples of the earth might know that the hand of the LORD is powerful. This missional goal to the world recalls the promise that Abram would be a blessing to all people on earth (Gen 12:1–3) and that Israel would become a priesthood (Exod 19:6).

5:1 Amorite . . . Canaanite. While these two terms may overlap in this context, Amorites may refer to those in the hill country (10:6; 11:3; Num 13:29; Deut 1:7, 19–20, 44; Judg 1:34) and Canaanites to those in the valleys and plains (17:16; Num 13:29; 14:25; Deut 1:7). their hearts melted in fear. The proper response of “fear” (4:24) comes upon the leaders as a result of God’s work for Israel. Israel is not attacked at this point.

5:2–12 Circumcision and Passover at Gilgal. Circumcision was the sign of God’s covenant with Abraham (Gen 17:8–13). Passover recalls God’s redemptive act of delivering the people from Egypt so that all Israel could become a covenant people (Exod 12:1–17). As Christian baptism (Col 2:11–12) and the Lord’s Supper (Matt 26:26–29) symbolize faith and remembrance of Christ’s redemption in the new covenant, so circumcision and Passover symbolize the Abrahamic covenant and Israel’s covenant. Israel observes these symbols as it enters the land and begins to claim the fulfillment of God’s covenantal promises.

5:2, 3 flint knives. Likely obsidian, with a sharper (though more brittle) edge than metal. Obsidian was widely used for knives. Egyptians circumcised their males with such knives. Circumcision was required to celebrate the Passover (Exod 12:48).

5:2 circumcise . . . again. Although the regulations of Leviticus refer to the circumcision of a recently born male (Lev 12:3), this is the first reference to its practice (cf. vv. 4–8) since before the exodus (Exod 4:26).

5:4-8 All . . . all . . . All . . . all . . . all . . . whole. Contrasts Israel’s first generation with the present one. Both generations were circumcised (although the second generation was not circumcised as children), but only the second generation followed God’s covenant and saw the promised land.

5:6 milk and honey. Egyptians also were impressed with the herds and orchards of Canaan, which this faithful generation of Israel would see and taste.

5:9 rolled away the reproach of Egypt. Perhaps this describes the disgrace of slavery in Egypt. Alternatively, the obedience of the present generation (signaled by their practicing circumcision) contrasts with the disobedience of the first generation that left Egypt.

5:10 Gilgal on the plains of Jericho. Mention of these places looks back to the crossing and circumcision (Gilgal) and forward to the fall of Jericho (ch. 6). Passover. In Exod 12:25–27; 13:5, Israel is commanded to observe the Passover when they enter the promised land. This generation inherited the promises that the first generation had lost through disobedience. As the first generation celebrated the Passover and then crossed the Red Sea, the present generation crossed the Jordan River and celebrated this festival.

5:11 unleavened bread and roasted grain. They celebrate the Festival of Unleavened Bread the week following the Passover (Exod 12:17–20; 13:7; 23:15; Deut 16:3). It recalls Israel’s hasty departure from Egypt, which allowed them no time to bake bread and wait for the yeast to work. These foods also reflect the barley harvest in the spring.

5:12 manna. This is the staple food of the wilderness as grains are the staple food of the promised land. The roasted grain forms a “down payment” on Israel’s acquiring the whole land and all its blessings (24:13).

5:13—12:24 The Promised Land Taken. Initial entry through Jericho (ch. 6) and into the central hill country via Ai (chs. 7–8) leads to Israel’s defeat of coalitions in the south (ch. 10) and north (ch. 11). Corresponding to this is the initial outworking of sin (Achan in ch. 7) that grows to include failure to seek God first (Gibeon in ch. 9), despite the renewed covenant at Mount Ebal (8:30–35). Nevertheless, God faithfully gives Israel the land (ch.12).

5:13—6:27 The Fall of Jericho. The commander of the Lord’s army prepares Joshua for the battle that illustrates (1) how nothing can resist the advancement of God’s people when led by him and (2) how much God is concerned for the salvation of those who have faith, such as Rahab and her family.

5:13–14 Like Jacob (Gen 32:22–32) and Moses (Exod 3:1—4:17), Joshua encounters the divine presence before he begins his mission. He immediately accepts his task and obeys.

5:13 drawn sword. Prepares to execute divine judgment (Num 22:23; 1 Chr 21:16).

5:14 commander of the army of the LORD. This is either an appearance of God (a theophany) or an angel representing God.

5:15 Take off your sandals . . . holy. Echoing God’s command to Moses (Exod 3:5), the holiness of the place demonstrates that God is meeting with Joshua. This, along with Joshua’s worship of this figure (v. 14) and the continuing divine instructions (ch. 6), indicates that God is present here (cf. Gen 18; 22; 32; Exod 3). Joshua’s acknowledgment of God’s holiness leads to the charge of ch. 6. Cf. the emphasis on God’s holiness followed by God’s call to a mission for Isaiah (Isa 6), Ezekiel (Ezek 1), Mary (Luke 1:26–38), and Jesus at the transfiguration (Matt 17:1–13; Mark 9:2–13; Luke 9:28–36).

6:1 This verse appears out of place in the middle of God’s charge to Joshua (5:14—6:5). It emphasizes the physical obstacle that prevents the onward movement of God’s presence and people. Cf. 2:5, 7. Jericho. See note on 2:1. Jericho means “moon” and may refer to the site as a center of moon worship. But its status at the time of Joshua is not known. Except for Rahab (see note on 2:15), Jericho shuts itself against God.

6:2 I have delivered Jericho. God has done the work (1:2; 2:8–11; 5:1; 10:8). Joshua and Israel need only believe (cf. Eph 2:8–9). God can give assurance before the battle (cf. Pss 18:43; 54:7; 56:13; 71:23; 86:13; 116:8). its king and its fighting men. This suggests that Jericho is a fortress occupied by a king/commander (see 2:1–2 and notes) and warriors.

6:3-4 six days . . . seventh day. Takes place during the seven days of the Festival of Unleavened Bread (5:11). Like the Passover (see 5:10 and note), the festival takes on new meaning for Joshua’s generation. The “seven days” also signals a special event for God (Gen 7:4, 10; Exod 7:25; 29:37; 1 Sam 13:8; 1 Kgs 8:65; 2 Chr 30:22, 23; Neh 8:18). The seven priests, trumpets, and marches also emphasize it (vv. 4, 13, 15, 16). This march warns of Israel’s hostile intent while it daily and publicly appeals to Jericho to open its city and yield or flee (cf. Rahab in 2:15 [see note]).

6:4-5 rams’ horns . . . long blast . . . loud shout. Blowing the horns prepares Israel for sacred marches (Num 10:9). Loud noises proclaim victory in war and accompany the ark’s processions (Num 10:2–6; 1 Sam 4:5–6; 2 Sam 6:15–16).

6:4 ark. Symbolizes God’s presence in the ceremonial processions (see 3:3 and note) around Jericho and in its destruction.

6:5 whole army . . . will go up . . . straight in. Just as they crossed the Jordan after God stopped the waters (chs. 3–4), God again wins the victory; Israel need only walk in and take Jericho. wall . . . will collapse. The shut gate (2:5, 7; 6:1) and resistance for six days (6:3–4) climax in God’s destroying Jericho’s symbol of resistance. God’s gracious offer to allow Jericho to yield ends. Nothing natural (chs. 3–4) or man-made (Jericho’s walls) stops the advance of God’s mission. The ark that was constructed at Mount Sinai will move forward until it reaches its resting place in Jerusalem (2 Sam 6).

6:6–15 These verses repeat the divine commands of vv. 3–5. Joshua leads Israel to obey (1:8; cf. Exod 19:8; 23:13; 24:7; 2 Kgs 21:8; 2 Chr 33:8; Jer 11:4).

6:9 armed guard . . . priests . . . rear guard. In this holy procession, the honor guard (all the army of Israel) surrounds the priests, whose horns announce the ark that follows them (cf. 3:1–17; Num 10:1–28; 2 Sam 6:12–17).

6:16–25 Saving Rahab’s family interweaves with the story of Jericho’s destruction. God’s gracious saving of Rahab and his destruction of Jericho are equally important.

6:17 devoted to the LORD. See NIV text note; see also Introduction to Deuteronomy: Themes and Theology (Holy War). God commanded Israel to do to Canaan (Deut 20:17) what Israel had done to Sihon and Og (Josh 2:10; see Num 21:21–35; Deut 2:34; 3:6). Although this practice existed among Israel’s neighbors (Mesha of Moab later uses it against Israel in the ninth century BC), Israel practiced it because of Canaan’s sin (Gen 15:16) and to preserve their own holiness (worshiping God alone) from the seduction of living with those who worshiped other gods (Deut 20:18). Jericho’s likely status as a fort (see notes on 2:1, 2; 6:2) implies that Israel attacks an army, not civilians. Rahab. God does not devote to destruction those who devote themselves freely to him. They can, like Rahab, become heroes of faith (Heb 11:31; Jas 2:25). Rahab became part of the ancestral line of Jesus (Matt 1:5).

6:18 devoted things. Everything not destroyed is to go to the Lord’s treasury for his use (v. 19), not to the Israelites for personal plunder. Jericho had turned away from God, and now God demands Jericho back, including all its property. It is either to be placed in God’s treasury or sacrificed to him and burnt in the fire (v. 24). Joshua’s warning anticipates Achan’s sin and Israel’s punishment (ch. 7).

6:21 men and women. The Hebrew has the idea “from man unto woman” (8:25; 1 Sam 15:3; 22:19; 2 Sam 6:19; 1 Chr 16:3; 2 Chr 15:13; Neh 8:2). The phrase regularly appears with the Hebrew for “all” as a stereotypical way to signify everyone. This formed part of the checklist, along with the animals, and indicated that outwardly (cf. ch. 7) Israel followed Joshua’s command (v. 17). They killed any on the list who were found. However, the expression does not necessarily mean that noncombatants were present.

6:23 outside the camp. Rahab and her family remain temporarily (v. 25) in this unclean place.

6:26 Cursed . . . is the one. Deut 13:16 commands that any town destroyed for advocating the worship of other gods should never be inhabited again. This curse was fulfilled in 1 Kgs 16:34.

7:1–26 Achan’s Sin. This story describes the effects of a single transgression that leads all Israel to sin and defeat (vv. 1–5). Its resolution requires turning to God (vv. 6–9) and a divinely led purification from the sin (vv. 10–26). Achan’s departure from God’s covenant with Israel contrasts with Rahab’s embrace of that covenant (chs. 2; 6). God can forgive the nation, but the effects of this sin affect the attitudes of the surrounding nations (v. 9; cf. 5:1).

7:1 Israelites were unfaithful. Israel violated their obligations toward the “devoted things” (6:18). son of Karmi. This, the longest genealogy in Joshua, proves that Achan (a non-Hebrew name) is an Israelite and connects him and his sin with Israel.

7:2 Ai. Usually associated with et-Tell, this site guarded the middle of three roads from Jericho. The path to Ai led 15 miles (24 kilometers) westward and ascended 3,400 feet (1,035 meters). Bethel. Usually associated with Beitin, about two miles (3 kilometers) northwest of Ai. spy out. Cf. 2:1–2.

7:3 Not all the army. This decision breaks the unity of “all” the people (see 1:2 and note there).

7:4–5 This loss meant God was not with Israel.

7:5 melted in fear. The loss reversed the effect of the previous victories (2:11; 5:1). Instead of Canaan fearing Israel (see 2:24 and note), Israel feared Canaan.

7:6 tore his clothes. This sign of distress and mourning (Gen 37:34; 44:13; Judg 11:35) introduces the sorrow of Joshua and the elders. sprinkled dust. Another sign of sorrow (Job 2:12; Lam 2:10).

7:9 wipe out our name. Joshua foresees the Canaanites, who were emboldened by Israel’s defeat, attacking Israel and reversing the great reputation that God promised Abram (Gen 12:2–3). for your own great name. Like Moses (Num 14:13–16; Deut 9:28–29), Joshua puts God’s honor at the center of his plea.

7:11 Israel has sinned. God announces the reason for Israel’s failure for the first time after Israel’s day of prayer and sorrow. The sin of one affects all (22:20). Achan’s disobedience compromises the integrity of Israel as a nation dedicated to God. They need to know how serious disobedience is. violated. Israel could not cross against its enemies because it crossed against (the same Hebrew term translated “crossed” is here translated “violated”; see note on 1:2) God and his covenant. stolen . . . lied. The one act leads to sin in several areas (Exod 20:15–16; Deut 5:19–20).

7:12 devoted to destruction. God owns the “devoted things” from Jericho (see 6:18 and note there; see also 6:19, 24). Until Israel rids itself of the one responsible for taking those “devoted things” (7:1), God will treat Israel as “devoted things.”

7:13 Consecrate yourselves. See 3:5 and note.

7:14 tribe . . . clan . . . family. Israelite society was based on kinship relations. The extended “family” formed the basic unit (2:12), multiple families composed the clan, and multiple clans made up the tribe. The OT people of God were a large family; what affected one (as Achan’s sin) affected all. the LORD chooses. While it is not stated here, the priest normally used the Urim and Thummim to determine God’s will (1 Sam 10:20–21 [“lot”]; 14:41–42). These were associated with casting lots (see notes on Exod 28:30; Num 27:21).

7:15 destroyed by fire. As Israel devoted Jericho to the Lord by fire (6:24), so any who took the “devoted things” (see 6:18 and note there) must be devoted to him by fire. outrageous thing. A shockingly wicked and willful act against God’s holiness (Deut 22:21; Judg 19:23–24; 20:6, 10; 2 Sam 13:12).

7:18 Achan . . . was chosen. Cf. v. 1. God discloses the identity of the sinner (Num 32:23).

7:19 give glory to the LORD. Speak the truth and so give glory to God (John 9:24). With the guilt established, Joshua instructs Achan to confess the sin so that Achan may honor God with his words and Joshua may restore the “devoted things” (v. 1) to God. Confession cannot avert the consequences of this sin, but it can begin to repair the broken relationships that dishonored God.

7:21 saw . . . beautiful. Eve’s sin is also described with these Hebrew words, translated “saw . . . good” (see Gen 3:6 and note). two hundred shekels of silver. The value of a slave (perhaps representing a lifetime of labor) was 30 silver shekels (Exod 21:32).

7:23 spread them out before the LORD. Israel returned to God what was his.

7:24 all Israel. The sin affects all Israel. Everyone must participate in Achan’s punishment in order to “purge the evil from among [them]” (Deut 17:7). took Achan . . . and all that he had. They burn and so devote to God Achan, his property, and the goods he took. It is not clear if the silver and gold that the fire could not destroy remain in the pile of rocks or if it was returned to the tabernacle treasury. The family of Achan would have known what he had hidden in his tent (v. 22) and therefore shared his guilt (Prov 15:27). Valley of Achor. The Hebrew name is ʿākar (“trouble”). See NIV text note on v. 26.

7:25 trouble on us . . . trouble on you. This wordplay with the Hebrew ʿ ākar (“trouble”) sounds like “Achan” and becomes the name of the valley of Achan’s execution as well as Achan’s nickname (see 1 Chr 2:7 and NIV text note). stoned. Stoning punished idolatry, blasphemy, Sabbath breaking, and disobeying one’s parents (Lev 20:2; 24:14; Num 15:35; Deut 21:21). The whole community participates in the punishment and purge the sin from their midst. stoned the rest. This “stoned” is a different Hebrew word (sql) than the first use of “stoned” in this verse (Hebrew rgm). In Hebrew, the clause follows “they burned them,” which may suggest heaping up the pile of stones in v. 26. There is another possibility. In 2 Sam 16:6, 13 sql is used to describe how Shimei threw stones at David. Perhaps after burning Achan’s tent and his belongings, the Israelites drove away Achan’s family and cattle by throwing stones at them. burned. Cf. 6:24, where Jericho is similarly “devoted to the LORD” (6:17).

7:26 pile. These stones recall those set up at the crossing of the Jordan (4:20). The circular pile would remind passersby that God demands holiness. turned from. The prophets use this verb to call Israel to repent, or turn from their sin, and return to God (e.g., Jer 3), so that God may turn from his anger. Here, at the beginning of their life in the promised land, the Israelites learn the terrible consequences of sin and the need to purge it, just as the young church would later learn (Acts 5:1–11). Valley of Achor. Probably Buqei’ah Valley, about eight miles (13 kilometers) south of Jericho; see note on v. 24.

8:1–29 Ai Destroyed. In part 2 of Ai’s story (ch. 7 is part 1), success for the Israelites comes from obeying God’s instructions.

8:1 the LORD said to Joshua. Contrast the lack of divine direction in 7:1–5. Do not be afraid; do not be discouraged. See 1:5b–9 and note. The second phrase is found in 1 Chr 22:13; 28:20 (cf. Deut 1:21), where David charges Solomon to build the temple. Here as well, these words encourage Joshua for a great mission from God. God mercifully gives Israel a second chance (ch. 7). the whole army. All Israel, not a fraction (7:3–4), is united before God (see 1:2 and note). I have delivered. See 6:2 and note. king . . . city. Cf. 2:2; 6:2 (see notes there). his land. Israel could occupy this land, unlike cursed Jericho (6:26).

8:2 you may carry off their plunder and livestock. While Israel’s destruction of Jericho allowed no plunder or livestock (cf. Deut 20:16–18) to be taken, here God gives these to Israel as food to sustain them. Set an ambush. While this has many parallels in the history of warfare, here it demonstrates God’s use of strategy rather than an overt miracle (e.g., Jericho).

8:3 thousand. Hebrew ʾelep; it can also mean a military unit or squad, which would suggest a smaller size (cf. 4:13; 7:3, 4; 8:12, 25; see Introduction to Numbers: Interpretive Issues).

8:9-13 Joshua spent that night with the people . . . That night Joshua went into the valley. As in the story of the spies (2:1–8), crossing the Jordan (chs. 3–4), and attacking Jericho (ch. 6), this story positions different groups in different places (30,000 in vv. 3–9; “his army” in vv. 10–11; 5,000 in vv. 12–13). The two phrases (“Joshua spent that night with the people” and “That night Joshua went into the valley”) are identical in the Hebrew except for the addition of an additional letter at the end of the second phrase (Hebrew ʿm [“people”] versus ʿmq [“valley”]). The phrases bracket the section that describes the preparation for the battle. They also emphasize the main position of Israel (“the people”) in “the valley” in front of Ai.

8:12 five thousand. The 30,000 of v. 3 (see note there) may have included the 5,000 of vv. 12–13 plus 25,000 others who are not mentioned. The 30,000 may include the entire fighting force, from which 5,000 were set apart for the ambush.

8:14 the king of Ai saw this. The armed force in the valley to the north was too large to be hidden in the morning light. Arabah. See Deut 1:1; see also note on Deut 1:7.

8:17 Bethel. Either Bethel was an ally or it garrisoned Ai to guard the road from the Jordan Valley (for Ai’s “king” as a commander, see note on 2:2).

8:18 the LORD said. God directs when and where to accomplish his purpose. Hold out . . . the javelin. The soldiers could have seen the upraised javelin in the morning light.

8:25 men and women. See 6:21 and note.

8:29 impaled the body of the king. This public spectacle bore witness to the success of God and Israel; it was less brutal and gruesome than practices of other countries (e.g., Assyria), which might impale an entire army alive. take the body. Cf. Deut 21:23. large pile of rocks over it. This second memorial (cf. 7:26) completes the story of Ai.

8:30–35 The Covenant Renewed at Mount Ebal. This occurred about 1406 or 1220 BC (for the two possible dates, see Introduction to the Old Testament: Chronology/Dating). The external battles against Jericho (ch. 6) and Ai (8:1–29) alternate with events inside Israel: the Passover (ch. 5), dealing with Achan’s sin (ch. 7), and the covenant at Mount Ebal (8:30–35). Israel prepares and consecrates itself before and after each battle. This renewal emphasizes the covenant, the participation of all Israel, and the obedience of Joshua.

8:30 Mount Ebal. The highest mountain in the region north of Shechem, where Abram built his first altar (Gen 12:6–7) as did Jacob on his return to the promised land (Gen 33:19).

8:31-32 uncut stones . . . burnt offerings . . . fellowship offerings . . . Joshua wrote. Precisely follows Deut 27:4–8 (cf. Exod 24:1–8).

8:33 Half of the people stood in front of Mount Gerizim and half of them in front of Mount Ebal. Cf. Deut 27:12–13. Gerizim was south of Shechem, which does not appear in this text. Shechem may have joined Israel peacefully (but cf. 11:19), may have fled, or the battle was not recorded (cf. 21:21; 24:25, 32).

8:34 blessings . . . curses. These form an important part of OT covenants that motivate God’s people to obedience (cf. Deut 27:14—28:68). Book of the Law. This identifies the laws (and blessings and curses) in Deuteronomy (Deut 28:61; 29:21; 30:10; 31:24, 26). See note on 1:8.

9:1–27 The Gibeonite Deception. This is the first of three chapters that describe Israel’s taking the land of Canaan. Like Rahab (ch. 2), the Gibeonites negotiate with Israel. Similar to the Achan incident (ch. 7), Joshua leads the Israelites in repentance before God. Following the covenant renewal (8:30–35), Israel does not first seek God but seeks its own interests (cf. Achan [ch. 7] after the Passover [ch. 5]). Despite Israel’s lack of faithfulness, God keeps his promises to give them the land.

9:1 in the hill country, in the western foothills, and along the entire coast. These three major north-south divisions (from east to west) form Israel’s topography. Moving from east to west are the hill country, the foothills, and the Mediterranean coast. Mediterranean . . . Lebanon . . . Hittites. For the regions and borders given to Israel, see 1:4 and note. This reaches to Lebanon but omits the northernmost part that extends to the Euphrates (1:4), which is not involved in Joshua. Hittites, Amorites, Canaanites, Perizzites, Hivites and Jebusites. See 3:10 and note; 11:3; 12:8; 24:11; Deut 7:1; 20:17; they all concern Joshua and Israel’s taking of the land. Amorites, Canaanites. See 5:1 and note. Perizzites, Hivites and Jebusites. They likely migrated into Canaan from north of Israel (modern Syria and Turkey). They are perhaps related to extrabiblical Hurrians and Hittites of the second millennium BC. Hivites. Include Gibeonites (v. 7; 11:19). Jebusites. Their territory includes Jerusalem (15:8; 18:16, 28), anticipating major characters in chs. 9–10.

9:2 to wage war. This fulfills Joshua’s prophecy (7:7–9). The kings learn of the initial defeat at Ai (7:1–5), and rather than being awed by God’s great deeds of victory as had been true of Jericho’s inhabitants earlier (2:10–11; 5:1), they are not fearful but wage war. Had Achan not sinned, perhaps the battles of chs. 10 and 11, as well as the loss of life, could have been avoided. As with the sin of Gen 3 and all sin (Rom 6:23), the consequences are more terrible than the sinners expected (see notes on 7:11, 19, 26).

9:3 Gibeon. El-Jîb, about six miles (9.5 kilometers) north of ancient Jerusalem; dozens of jar handles bearing the incised name of Gibeon have been found in a water shaft there (2 Sam 2:13).

9:4 ruse. The Gibeonites would trick Joshua just as he had tricked Ai (v. 3). The term “ruse” carries the sense of prudence (Prov 1:4; 8:5, 12) rather than suggesting a malicious scheme as elsewhere (Exod 21:14).

9:6 distant country. So the Israelites could allow them to live as they were (Deut 20:10–18). treaty. Hebrew bĕrît; used of the covenant relationship between God and his people (see Gen 6:18; Exod 24:6–8 and notes).

9:7 Hivites. See v. 1 and note.

9:8 servants. The treaty (v. 6) is between the suzerain Israel and the vassal Gibeon; it follows the international language of ancient diplomacy and anticipates Gibeon’s role (vv. 21, 27).

9:9-10 Egypt . . . Sihon . . . Og. This confession of God as Savior (like Rahab’s confession in 2:9–11) leads Gibeon to submit to God and his people.

9:9 we have heard reports. These reports emphasize the historic acts of redemption. Contrast the kings of Canaan (see vv. 1–2 and note on v. 2).

9:14 Although initially suspicious (v. 7), Israel relies on its own ability to discern the truthfulness of the Gibeonites’ story. The Gibeonites confess how God led Israel, but Israel ignores God’s leadership!

9:15 peace. Hebrew šālôm; here it is the language of diplomacy (see v. 6 and note). oath. A covenant sworn before God (vv. 18–19) required obedience (Gen 26:26–31; Exod 20:7; Lev 19:12; Deut 5:11; 1 Sam 14:24; 20:8; 23:18 Ezek 16:59–60).

9:18 sworn an oath. See v. 15 and note. grumbled. The same word used of Israel’s wilderness grumbling (Exod 15:24; 16:2; Num 14:2, 27, 36). The assembly’s anger may come as much from the loss of Gibeonite booty as from any sin.

9:21 woodcutters and water carriers. In Deut 29:11 these are the activities of foreigners in Israel.

9:23 for the house of my God. Gibeonite service was devoted to God.

9:27 place the LORD would choose. Cf. Deut 12:5 (see note there). While later associated with Shiloh (1 Sam 4:3) and Jerusalem, the context places God’s choice on Mount Ebal (8:30–35; cf. chs. 23–24) or, perhaps more likely, at Gilgal (4:19–20; 5:9–10).

10:1–15 The Sun Stands Still. In ch. 10 Israel responds to a threat to its ally Gibeon (vv. 1–9) with a conflict described in three accounts: vv. 12–15, vv. 16–27, and vv. 28–43. The first (following the summary of vv. 10–11) emphasizes God’s assistance. As with the preceding miracles in Joshua, God provides everything needed, and Israel needs only walk across the land (1:3) and claim victory (vv. 16–43).

10:1 Adoni-Zedek. A Canaanite name that means “(my) lord is righteous”; similar to the earlier king Melchizedek (see Gen 14:18 and note). Jerusalem. This is its first mention in the Bible. See 9:1 and note (“Jebusites”).

10:2 Gibeon was an important city, like one of the royal cities. Unlike Jericho and Ai, Gibeon was the center of its own kingdom (cf. Gath in 1 Sam 27:3–5). Israel’s alliance threatens Jerusalem, Gibeon’s southern neighbor (see note on 9:3), cutting off political and commercial access to the north.

10:3 Hoham . . . Piram . . . Japhia . . . Debir. Names attested in Canaan in the second millennium BC. Hoham is a Hittite name; Piram, a Hurrian name. Both come from the north of Israel (see note on 9:1). Japhia and Debir are Canaanite names. Hebron . . . Jarmuth . . . Lachish . . . Eglon. City-states south and west of Jerusalem (vv. 31–37).

10:5 Amorites. See 5:1 and note.

10:6 save. The verbal form of Joshua’s name, which means “salvation.” The Gibeonites’ appeal to Joshua alone parallels and contrasts with Adoni-Zedek’s appeal to “all the Amorite kings from the hill country” (see vv. 3–4). The size of the opposition is irrelevant where God is concerned.

10:8 Do not be afraid. Cf. 1:5b–9; 8:1 (see notes there). I have given them. God has decided the victory (see 1:2; 6:2 and notes). into your hand. Cf. v. 19. “Hand” symbolizes power.

10:9 all-night march from Gilgal. This well-known military tactic gave the Israelites the advantage of surprise as it required an arduous climb of 15 miles (24 kilometers), if this Gilgal is the same as that in 4:19.

10:10 confusion. In other ancient accounts, the victorious king causes the confusion. Here it is God who controls the battle (cf. Exod 14:24; 23:27; Deut 2:15; Judg 4:15; 1 Sam 7:10; 2 Chr 15:6). Beth Horon. This is the easiest pass from Jerusalem and Gibeon westward six miles (9.5 kilometers) to Upper and Lower Beth Horon and through the Aijalon Valley. Azekah. It is 15 miles (24 kilometers) south of Beth Horon; it guards the Elah Valley and is close to Jarmuth. Makkedah. Khirbet el-Qôm, about 15 miles (24 kilometers) south of Azekah at crossroads roughly six miles (9.5 kilometers) west to Lachish, ten miles (16 kilometers) east to Hebron, and four miles (6.5 kilometers) south to Eglon. These key positions opened to Israel the entire inland region south and west of Jerusalem. Details of this brief summary emphasize God’s work (vv. 11–15) and Israel’s activities (vv. 16–43).

10:11 Claims of divine intervention like this are known in other ancient battle accounts. Hittites, Egyptians, Assyrians, and Babylonians also asserted that their gods fought for them with hailstones. They saw it as supernatural, though some scholars view it as bragging and hyperbole. Israel’s God defeats all the false gods using their own weapons. hailstones. Or “stones,” but specifically “hailstones” here (“rocks” in v. 18); the term appears 22 times in Joshua. These weapons against the armies also become a sign of judgment against the kings (vv. 18, 27). more of them died. As at Jericho (see 6:5 and note) God’s miracles bring the victory, and Israel follows after the miracles.

10:12-13 stand still . . . stood still . . . stopped. Although scholars have proposed a variety of interpretations for this miracle (an eclipse, an omen, literary imagery, etc.), the third verb (“stopped, stood” from Hebrew ʿmd) is the clearest in meaning. It suggests that the sun “stood” still. What followed was likely a prolonged day that enabled Israel to complete its victory over its enemies.

10:13 Book of Jashar. A historical (poetic?—Jashar may mean “sings” or “is upright”) source no longer available (cf. 2 Sam 1:18).

10:14 never been a day like it. This supports the traditional explanation of a prolonged day (see vv. 12–13 and note; cf. 2 Kgs 20:9–11; Isa 38:8 for a different miracle with the sun).

10:15 As in v. 43, the return to Gilgal signals the end of the campaign (and ends the first description of the event; see note on vv. 1–15). Israel remains unified and without any recorded loss of life.

10:16–27 Five Amorite Kings Killed. Just as vv. 10–15 emphasize God’s involvement in the account, so vv. 16–27 consider Israel’s treatment of the captured kings under Joshua’s authority.

10:16 Makkedah. See v. 10 and note.

10:18 large rocks. Mention of rocks begins and ends (v. 27) the story of the Amorite kings. See v. 11 and note.

10:19 pursue . . . don’t let them reach their cities. They are close to three of the five fortified enemy cities (see vv. 3, 10 and notes), and Joshua tries to prevent any survivors. God promised Israel’s victory (v. 8).

10:20 a few survivors managed to reach their fortified cities. In order to completely destroy the army, including these survivors, the systematic attack and dismantling of the fortified centers becomes necessary (vv. 28–42). No enemy is to be left alive in the cities (Deut 20:15–18).

10:21 no one uttered a word against the Israelites. No enemy is left to attack them verbally (or militarily).

10:24 put your feet on the necks. A public symbol of absolute power over the defeated. Cf. Ps 110:1; see photo.

10:25 Do not be afraid. Cf. v. 8. do not be discouraged. Be strong and courageous. Joshua passes on the charge that God gave to him (1:9) at a moment of victory. what the LORD will do. It is God’s battle; Israel must act on faith.

10:26 exposed their bodies on five poles. See 8:29 and note. As with Ai’s king, they are first executed.

10:27 large rocks. Cf. v. 18.

10:28–43 Southern Cities Conquered. This part of Israel’s campaign (see the summary, v. 10; God’s role, vv. 11–15; Israel’s role, vv. 16–43) moves from executing the Amorite kings to dismantling their cities. In many cases, these “cities” were not where everyone lived but were fortified centers of power; archaeologists have found the palace, army barracks, storehouses for the taxed produce from the region, and the temple(s) to false gods. The general populace lived in unfortified villages and came to the city to do business and for protection when attacked—though probably not in this case since their armies had been destroyed. Likely they fled and returned to trouble Israel in the following generation (Judg 2:1–4, 11–14). Deut 20:13–18 specifies the destruction of the cities, which served as centers of human and divine power (of other gods). The repetitive style of the destruction of city after city imitates the style of ancient conquest accounts and establishes God’s sovereignty over all of southern Canaan.

10:28 no survivors. This fulfills the divine command (Deut 20:16–18) to eliminate the cities and their inhabitants.

10:33 Gezer. Of the seven cities listed in vv. 28–39, this is the fourth or middle one, suggesting an important site. Uniquely, Israel does not attack Gezer but defeats its king and army. Perhaps Gezer’s role as the major Egyptian administrative city in the region at that time may have discouraged an attack on it (16:10; Judg 1:29). Centuries later, when the city had come under Canaanite rule, Pharaoh attacked and captured it and gave it to Solomon (1 Kgs 9:15–17).

10:38 Debir. Khirbet Rabud (also called Kiriath Sepher [15:15]); it is about five miles (8 kilometers) southwest of Hebron.

10:40 subdued. This does not mean that the Israelites settle this land but only that they defeat their enemies. no survivors. See note on v. 28. totally destroyed all who breathed. This summarizes the complete destruction of all the kings, their armies, and the cities from which they ruled (vv. 28–39).

10:41 Goshen. This is not the region in Egypt (Gen 47:27) but a town in the Negev in the southeastern part of the area covered by Israel’s southern campaign (11:16; 15:51).

10:42 the LORD, the God of Israel, fought for Israel. Although God’s role is emphasized in vv. 12–15, this summarizes God’s role in the whole campaign as the key to Israel’s survival and victory.

10:43 returned with all Israel to . . . Gilgal. See v. 15 and note.

11:1–23 Northern Kings Defeated. Like ch. 10, Israel is attacked first (vv. 1–5) and must defend itself to survive. God’s promise and command (vv. 6, 15) set the context for Joshua to lead Israel to defeat the northern coalition (vv. 7–14). The summary (vv. 15–23) emphasizes the faithfulness of Joshua and Israel in the lengthy battles and the manner in which God prepared the hearts of the Canaanites so that they would not respond as the Gibeonites had (vv. 19–20).

11:1 Jabin. A different Jabin appears in Judg 4; the name may be dynastic. Hazor. The largest Canaanite city in the north (v. 10), covering about 175 acres (70 hectares), leads the region against Israel. Second-millennium BC texts from Hazor, Mari (eighteenth century BC), and Egypt (at Amarna, fourteenth century BC) attest to its importance.

11:2 Arabah. The Jordan Valley (Deut 1:1; see note on Deut 1:7). Kinnereth. The Sea of Galilee (but see Deut 3:17 and note). Naphoth. Uncertain; associated only with Dor (12:23; 17:11; 1 Kgs 4:11).

11:3 Amorites, Hittites, Perizzites and Jebusites . . . Hivites. See 5:1; 9:1 and notes. Mizpah. This region may be the southern Lebanese valley of the Litani River.

11:4 horses and chariots. See photo. As mobile firing platforms for archers, chariots were the most advanced weapon technology of the day and symbolized military power (Exod 14:9, 23; Deut 11:4; 20:1; 1 Kgs 20:1, 21). sand on the seashore. A large number of people (Gen 22:17; 1 Sam 13:5) or animals (Judg 7:12); emphasizes the power of the opposition, invincible from a human perspective.

11:5 Waters of Merom. May be Tel Qarnei Hattin, five miles (8 kilometers) west of the Sea of Galilee, a battle site known throughout recorded history.

11:6 hamstring their horses. Cutting the tendon above the ankle cripples the animal and also makes it unusable for Israel. Horses were used for military purposes. God’s people were to trust in him, not in horses, for their victories (Deut 17:16). burn their chariots. Israel’s trust in God would enable them to destroy these wooden instruments of war rather than use them.

11:8 Greater Sidon, to Misrephoth Maim, and to the Valley of Mizpah. Israel moves clockwise; from Merom (v. 5) west and north to the Mediterranean coast, and then east (see v. 3 and note). Misrephoth Maim. Uncertain but may relate to the Litani River (“Maim” means “waters”) that formed a border south of Sidon and north of Tyre.

11:10 turned back. Israel moves from Mizpah (see v. 3 and note) in southern Lebanon south toward Hazor and the heart of their territory (chs. 5–10). Hazor . . . head of all these. See v. 1 and note.

11:11 not sparing anyone that breathed. See note on 10:40. burned Hazor. Israel burns only Hazor after Ai (v. 13; 8:19). Multiple burn layers have been found at Hazor, attesting to its conflagration in the time of Joshua.

11:12 royal cities. See 10:2 and note. destroyed. See v. 20; 2:10; 6:18, 21; 8:26; 10:1, 28, 35, 37, 39, 40; see also notes on v. 20; 6:17, 18, 21; 7:12, 15; 10:28, 40; see further Introduction to Deuteronomy: Themes and Theology (Holy War).

11:13 mounds. Hebrew tēl (“tell”); a hill formed by accumulated debris from previous settlements one on top of another on the same site. The levels of debris from previous generations attested to the importance of the city. Instead of burning these cities, conquerors would dismantle the cities’ defenses.

11:15 Moses commanded Joshua. See 1:1–3 and notes; cf. Deut 34. left nothing undone. Joshua is successful because he obeys God’s instructions in each campaign.

11:16 Goshen. See 10:41 and note.

11:18 a long time. See 14:7, 10 and note.

11:19 Except for the Hivites living in Gibeon. See ch. 9.

11:20 hardened their hearts. See Exod 4:21 and note; 7:13. exterminating. Translates the same Hebrew word elsewhere translated “destroyed” (see v. 12 and note).

11:22 Anakites. Leaders, warriors, and giants, the Anakites were the reason the Israelites had earlier feared to enter the land (Num 13:33). Now the victory includes their elimination. Compare the work of Caleb (15:14). The Anakites may appear in Egyptian records of the second millennium BC.

11:23 the land had rest from war. This ends Joshua’s battles (14:15). rest. See Introduction: Theological Themes (The Gift of the Promised Land).

12:1–24 List of Defeated Kings. Ch. 12 explains 11:15–23, giving details of the places and towns defeated. It summarizes the victories under Moses east of the Jordan River (vv. 1–6) and under Joshua west of the Jordan River (vv. 7–24). This story begins not with Joshua but with Moses. Nevertheless, Joshua is the divinely appointed successor to Moses to acquire the promised land.

12:1 These are the kings of the land. The Hebrew behind the phrase is identical to the Hebrew in v. 7; it introduces each of the two parts of ch. 12. took over. Emphasizes possessing the land and anticipates its allotment (chs. 13–21). Arnon Gorge. Marked Moab’s northern border and Israel’s southern border. Arabah. See 11:2 and note; Deut 1:1; see also Deut 1:7 and note.

12:2 Heshbon. Probably not Tell Hesban, which was not inhabited until later, but a nearby site east of the Dead Sea. from Aroer. The area east of the Jordan River was divided into larger states comprising regions ruled by Sihon and Og. Contrast the area west of the Jordan that was comprised of cities and their immediate environs.

12:4 Rephaites. Legendary warriors; similar to the Anakites west of the Jordan River (see 11:22 and note; 17:15; Num 13:33). Ashtaroth and Edrei. Sites near the modern border of Syria and Jordan; mentioned in Ugaritic legends (thirteenth century BC) and related to ancient heroes. The picture emphasizes God’s great work for Israel.

12:5 people of Geshur and Maakah. Kingdoms north and east of the Sea of Galilee and reaching into the Golan Heights.

12:7 Here is a list of the kings of the land. Cf. v. 1 (see note there). from Baal Gad. Cf. 11:2, 17, 21.

12:8 Hittites . . . Jebusites. See 3:10; 9:1 and notes.

12:9–24 This list resembles lists of defeated Canaanite kings (and their cities) found in contemporary Egyptian accounts. It generally follows the sequence in chs. 6–12, beginning with Jericho and Ai, turning south, and then listing northern towns. This list includes Hormah, Arad, Bethel, and many northern towns not found in the preceding chapters. It indicates that Joshua preserves select battle accounts rather than a record of every conflict. This is not merely history but also a statement about God’s faithfulness and the response of this first generation of Israel in the land of promise. This list demonstrates the extent of the towns and their regions that God gave his people, including every part of the land that would become Israel.

12:23 Goyim in Gilgal. Cf. Harosheth Haggoyim (Judg 4:2, 13, 16), perhaps related.

13:1—21:45 The Promised Land Allotted. These chapters provide in much greater detail the allotments for which the summary of ch. 12 sets the background. Chapters 13–21 provide the general order of allotments (east of the Jordan and then overall south to north in the land west of the Jordan). The areas are described with town lists (cities and towns within the tribe) and boundary lists (lines running between towns and features lying on the borders of a tribe). In a document that could be used to settle legal disputes about land ownership, these boundaries and town lists would have been updated as Israel populated the land and built more cities. Interspersed with the allotments are notes concerning specific divine blessings: Caleb’s allotment and family (14:6–15; 15:13–19), the inheritance of Zelophehad’s daughters (17:3–6), the need for more land for the Joseph tribes (17:14–18), mapping and allotting the land for the seven remaining tribes (18:1–10), Joshua’s allotment (19:49–51), the cities of refuge (20:1–9), and Israel’s returning to God a portion of what they have been given in the form of the Levitical towns (21:1–45). Outlined first, however, is the implicit judgment and warning in the form of a list of towns and lands not taken by Israel (13:1–7).

13:1–7 Land Still to Be Taken. Joshua’s old age implies that the rest of the land would remain for a future, faithful generation to acquire control of the whole land. This awaits David’s reign, when God gives Israel the entire promised land.

13:1 had grown old. The same Hebrew expression in 23:1 marks the end of the allotment and the beginning of Joshua’s final charge to Israel and renewal of God’s covenant with Israel (chs. 23–24); the same expression occurs in Gen 18:12, 13; 24:1; 1 Kgs 1:1. In every case the expression follows a major task given to the person to move God’s covenant forward to the next generation.

13:3 Shihor River. Here it is possibly the Wadi el-Arish. Philistine rulers. “Ruler” (Hebrew seren), associated with only Philistines, may relate to “tyrant” (Greek tyrannos), a word for a ruler in the Philistine homeland of the Aegean. Gaza, Ashdod, Ashkelon, Gath and Ekron. The Philistines lived in these five cities in the southwest part of the Holy Land after they arrived in the twelfth century BC (1 Sam 6:17).

13:4 all the land of the Canaanites. What follows describes the Mediterranean coastline north of Philistia to Byblos in northern Lebanon. Amorites. Elsewhere in the Bible, the term Amorites refers generally to the inhabitants of southern Canaan (see note on 5:1). Only here in the Bible does this term refer to the ancient kingdom of Amurru in northern Lebanon that disappeared from history after the thirteenth century BC.

13:5 Baal Gad. See note on 12:7. Lebo Hamath. Cf. Num 13:21.

13:6 Misrephoth Maim. See 11:8 and note. I myself will drive them out. See vv. 1–7 note.

13:8–33 Division of the Land East of the Jordan. These verses describe the allotments Moses made for the tribes that settled east of the Jordan River. Moving from south to north, vv. 9–13 repeat the summary of 12:1–5. Then vv. 16–32 move from south to north with towns allotted to Reuben and their western boundary (vv. 16–23), Gad (vv. 24–28), and the half-tribe of Manasseh (vv. 29–31). Notes within the text repeatedly identify Moses and his acts of leadership as responsible (Num 32:33–42; Deut 3:8–17) for these unusual allotments (vv. 8, 12, 15, 21, 24, 29, 32) that lie outside the promised land (see 1:4 and note). See map.

13:8 Verse 7 ends God’s command to allot the land west of the Jordan to the nine and a half tribes. Verses 8–33 constitute God’s command to allot the land east of the Jordan. The other half of Manasseh. Emphasizes the large size of Manasseh (cf. 17:14–18) and reasserts the unity of Israel both east and west of the Jordan (see 1:2 and note).

13:14, 33 tribe of Levi. Has a special position in relation to God. The Levites did not receive land (Deut 18:1–8), but these interspersed notes within the text anticipate their cities in this region (ch. 21).

13:22 Balaam son of Beor. See Num 22–24. For his death in battle, see Num 31:8.

14:1–5 Division of the Land West of the Jordan. This introduction emphasizes how the Israelites follow God’s instruction for dividing the land and allotting it to all the tribes. See map.

14:1 Eleazar the priest. A son of Aaron (Exod 6:23, 25; 28:1; Lev 10:6, 12, 16; Num 3:2) who became chief priest following the deaths of his brothers (Num 3:4, 32). heads. Cf. Num 34:18–29.

14:2 lot. May be the Urim and Thummim (see 7:14 and note), indicating that God makes the decision (Prov 16:33). A distinction is drawn between the three tribes of Judah, Ephraim, and Manasseh and the other tribes. The first group has already taken possession of their territory. The other tribes still have to take possession of their land; this is why it is allotted to them by lot.

14:3-4 Levites . . . Levites. See note on 13:14, 33.

14:4 Manasseh and Ephraim. Joseph’s sons adopted by Jacob as his sons (Gen 48:5) and thus two separate tribes. Because Jacob had elevated Joseph to firstborn status, Joseph receives a double portion of the inheritance.

14:6–15 Allotment for Caleb. Caleb and Joshua were the only two of the twelve spies sent from Kadesh Barnea who believed that God would give Israel the promised land (Num 13:30). God promised them that they, unlike the rest of their generation, would enter the land (Num 14:24, 30, 38; 26:65; 32:12). The inheritances of Caleb and Joshua (19:49–50) frame the allotments west of the Jordan.

14:6 Kenizzite. Of uncertain origin (Num 32:12); perhaps related to Kenites, a group of people who lived at Arad, south of Hebron (Judg 1:16; cf. 4:11, 17; 5:24). If so, Caleb was not a full Israelite but a member of his father-in-law’s tribe.

14:7-10 forty . . . forty-five . . . eighty-five. If Israel was in the wilderness for 40 years (5:6; Exod 16:35; Num 14:33, 34; 32:13; Deut 8:2, 4), then Israel had been in the promised land about five years when Caleb took control of Hebron, demonstrating that God preserved Caleb for this task (cf. 13:1; see note there).

14:8, 9, 14 followed the LORD . . . wholeheartedly. This threefold repetition emphasizes Caleb’s commitment to God. Wholehearted faithfulness applies only to Joshua and Caleb (Num 32:12; Deut 1:36). Contrast Solomon (1 Kgs 11:6).

14:12 Anakites. See note on 11:22.

14:13 Hebron. About 25 miles (40 kilometers) south of Jerusalem on the watershed of the central hill country.

14:15 Kiriath Arba. Means “town of Arba,” which might mean “town of four” (quarters or districts). But Arba here is a proper name. As the burial place of Abraham, Sarah, and other patriarchal figures, it is significant that Israel takes possession of the land (Gen 23). rest from war. This ends Caleb’s battles (cf. 11:23).

15:1–63 Allotment for Judah. A complete boundary description (vv. 1–12) is followed by lists of towns in 11 districts of Judah (vv. 20–63), with a note about the allotment of Hebron and Kiriath Sepher to Caleb and his family (vv. 13–19) bridging the two sections. This is the first, the most complete, and the most detailed of the allotments. It suggests a special recognition of Judah as blessed by God (Gen 49:8–10) and anticipates Judah’s role in the line of David and Jesus Christ (Mic 5:2). This land has already been taken, perhaps reflecting Judah’s commitment to God. Throughout Joshua and Judges the tribe of Judah is portrayed in a largely positive light, preparing for the appointment of David as king over Israel. See map.

15:8 Jebusite. See note on 9:1.

15:13–19 See 14:6–15 and note.

15:14 Anakites. See note on 11:22. Sheshai . . . Talmai. Northern names.

15:16-19 Aksah . . . upper and lower springs. Cf. Judg 1:12–16. For Aksah approaching a member of her family, making a request, and obtaining something, compare Rebekah (Gen 24:55–67). Aksah’s inheritance (cf. Zelophehad’s daughters, 17:3–6) forms part of her dowry and remains in the family of Caleb and Othniel, and it witnesses to God’s ongoing blessing for Caleb’s faith.

15:17 Othniel. Links the generation of Joshua (and Caleb) with the period of the judges; Othniel, the first judge, continues the faith and courage of his father-in-law (Judg 3:7–11).

15:21–32 Many of these southern towns already taken by the tribe of Judah are later allotted to Simeon (19:1–9).

15:33 foothills. Lying between the Philistine coast and the hill country of Judah, these towns would exchange hands during the Philistine wars before David’s kingship. Dan receives some of the towns (19:41–43).

15:48 hill country. The watershed area from Jerusalem south to the region of Hebron.

15:61 wilderness. The desert region west of the Dead Sea. Sekakah. Probably Khirbet Qumran, where the community that produced the Dead Sea Scrolls was later located.

15:63 could not dislodge the Jebusites. The first of several notes at the end of specific allotments about towns and areas not captured in the hill country (16:10; 17:12). Although commanded to take the whole land (see 1:2–4 and notes), the tribe of Judah does not succeed in Joshua’s lifetime. Jerusalem is temporarily captured in Judg 1:8, but only under David would it become a permanent part of Israel (2 Sam 5:6–9).

16:1—17:18 Allotment for Ephraim and Manasseh. Moving north from the key southern tribe, Judah (ch. 15), one reaches Ephraim (16:5–10) and then Manasseh (17:1–13) as the two central tribes of the north. This concerns Manasseh’s (half) tribal area west of the Jordan. For the half-tribe of Manasseh east of the Jordan, see 13:8–33 and note. See map. Ephraim and Manasseh were both sons of Joseph. This land is largely taken by these tribes, but not as fully as that of Judah. Given that Joshua is an Ephraimite, we might have expected to see Ephraim taking the lead in seizing the land. This is not the case however.

16:4 See 14:3–4 and note on 14:4.

16:5 Ephraim. The lead tribe before the time of David’s kingship. However, there are cracks already beginning to appear regarding their leadership in the time of Joshua (an Ephraimite). Shiloh, the location of the first permanent temple, is located in the tribal region of Ephraim (v. 6; 18:1–10).

16:10 Gezer. See note on 10:33. forced labor. A “tax” of human labor for building and other projects enacted under David and Solomon (2 Sam 12:31; 1 Kgs 4:6; 9:15, 20–21).

17:1 Although Manasseh was Joseph’s firstborn, Jacob chose Ephraim as firstborn when he adopted the two brothers as his own sons (Gen 48:14, 19).

17:2–3 Manasseh’s allotment does not appear to preserve any town lists. However, all the clans listed in v. 2 (except Hepher) and all the daughters in v. 3 represent towns (vv. 5–6) named in the Samaria ostraca, receipts from the eighth century BC found at the Israelite capital of Samaria. In contrast to Judah (see 15:1–63 and note), the difficulty of settlement (vv. 12–18) may have extended the time of occupying the land.

17:3 Zelophehad . . . had no sons. Normally a daughter received a dowry as her inheritance when she moved (away from her parents’ land) to her husband’s family. But when a man had no sons, daughters could inherit (cf. 15:16–19 and note), as Moses decreed for Zelophehad’s daughters (Num 27:1–11; 36:1–13). This would preserve the land, God’s gift to each family of Israel for their livelihood, and prevent it from going to another tribe.

17:5 ten tracts of land. Distributed to the clans of Manasseh and to Zelophehad’s daughters (see vv. 2–3 and note).

17:13 forced labor. See note on 16:10.

17:15 hill country of Ephraim. Reached into Manasseh’s territory as well but retained the name Ephraim, perhaps due to Jacob’s choice of Ephraim over Manasseh (see v. 1 and note). clear land. Israel exploited forested hill country by removing the Mediterranean scrubland vegetation and building terraces to retain the topsoil. The appearance of up to 300 villages in this region (ca. 1200 BC) attests to the success of this process. It set the stage for the dominant Israelite village and agricultural life found in the accounts of Judges, Ruth, and 1 Samuel. The villages were spaced so as to provide adequate farmland and grazing land. Terrace upkeep required significant labor and contributed to the value placed on large families (Ps 127:3–5). Perizzites. See note on 9:1. They may have inhabited some of the villages. Rephaites. See note on 12:4.

17:16, 18 chariots fitted with iron. Likely iron axles that provided support for the chariot wheels (see note on 11:4).

17:18 you can drive them out. Although chariot warfare was confined to the lowlands, God provided a secure Israelite base in the hill country so that Israel, by trusting in God, could win battles against their more powerful enemy (Deut 20:1). Israel experienced both failure (Judg 1:19) and success (Judg 4:3–16) in their faith and in their battles.

18:1–10 Division of the Rest of the Land. From the strategic position of Shiloh in the central hill country, Joshua gathers all of Israel for the allotments of the remaining tribes (vv. 1–3, 5, 7). These tribes have yet to take possession of any territory at the time of the allocation. This explains why lots are used. This was not the case with Judah, Ephraim, and Manasseh. The repeated references to God’s gift of the land (v. 3) and Joshua’s casting lots in the Lord’s presence (vv. 6, 8, 10) permeate the text with faith and divine guidance. Like the earlier tribal divisions, these are not uniform but follow the land’s topography and allocate its resources by sometimes tracing the boundaries of earlier Canaanite city-states. See map.

18:1 Shiloh. About ten miles (16 kilometers) northeast of Bethel, this sanctuary was close to the center of Israel’s people and land in the tribal territory of Ephraim. God’s tabernacle remained there until Eli died and Israel lost the ark (1 Sam 4).

18:6, 8, 10 cast lots. See 7:14; 14:2 and notes. Joshua may have supervised Eleazar the priest in casting the lots (19:51).

18:11–28 Allotment for Benjamin. Benjamin was the only full brother of Joseph (Gen 35:24), the father of Ephraim and Manasseh. Their territories had been allotted (chs. 16–17). Benjamin means “son of the right hand,” where “right” is south and “left” is north in Hebrew directions. Thus, Benjamin’s territory borders the Joseph tribes to their south. Situated between Judah to the south and Ephraim and Manasseh to the north, Benjamin plays a key role in Israel’s history both before the monarchy (chs. 1–9; Judg 3:13–27) and during it (Saul was from the tribe of Benjamin, 1 Sam 9–31).

19:1–9 Allotment for Simeon. While some towns of Manasseh were in other tribal territories (17:11), Simeon had no contiguous territory, only towns in southern Judah (see 15:21–32 and note). Gen 49:5–7 prophesies that Simeon and Levi (Exod 32:26–29) would be warriors. Simeon may have defended the southern border of Judah and of all Israel.

19:10–16 Allotment for Zebulun. This territory lay in the southwest Galilean highlands around the fruitful Beit Netofah valley.

19:15 Bethlehem. Beit Lāḥem, not the Bethlehem of David and Jesus.

19:17–23 Allotment for Issachar. This territory included much of the strategically important and fertile Jezreel Valley, where Canaanite cities made settlement difficult.

19:24–31 Allotment for Asher. This territory lay along the Mediterranean coast and included the important harbor at Akko.

19:32–39 Allotment for Naphtali. Other than Zebulun in the southwest, Naphtali had most of the Galilean highlands.

19:40–48 Allotment for Dan. This territory included towns lying west of Benjamin to Joppa on the Mediterranean.

19:47 Powerful Canaanites along the coast (see 17:15–18 and notes), as well as Amorites (Judg 1:34), possessed these towns. Philistine expansion may have also presented problems. See Judg 18 for the Danite migration and brutal destruction of Leshem (called Laish in Judg 18:29).

19:49–51 Allotment for Joshua. Caleb (see 14:6–15 and note; 15:13–19) and Joshua are the first recipients of allotments to clans and families within the tribal allotments. All of Israel’s clans and families will receive an inheritance, but Joshua and Caleb are the only representatives of the previous generation who were faithful and whom God promised would come into the land and enjoy its blessings (Num 14:30; 26:65; 32:12). Unlike Caleb, whose son-in-law Othniel has a role in the next generation, Joshua has no named heir.

19:50 Timnath Serah. May be Khirbet Timnah, 16 miles (25.5 kilometers) southwest of Shechem.

19:51 by lot. See 7:14; 14:2; 18:6, 8, 10 and notes.

20:1–9 Cities of Refuge. Exod 21:12–14; Num 35:6–34; Deut 4:41–43; 19:1–14 (see notes) identify the purpose and places for the cities of refuge, as summarized here. Someone who kills another person unintentionally is not subject to the death penalty (Exod 21:12–13; Num 35:31) but nevertheless may face a vendetta from the victim’s family (Num 35:27). Laws and customs elsewhere require the killer to flee the country. However, the land of Israel is God’s gift to his people, and their lives should be there with him. Therefore, God uniquely provides for sanctuary within the promised land for those who are innocent.

20:3, 5, 9 avenger of blood. A close relative responsible for protecting the life and memory of the family members (see Num 35:21; Deut 19:6 and notes) and their inheritance (called “guardian-redeemers” [Ruth 2:20; 3:9–13; 4:1–8; see notes on Ruth 2:20; 3:9, 10; 4:3–8]).

20:4-9 state their case . . . standing trial. The elders functioned as judges (“the assembly” [v. 6]) for capital and other cases (Num 35:24–25).

20:7 Kedesh . . . Shechem . . . Hebron. Found in the land from north to south. If Israel fully obeyed and God enlarged their territory, then they would set aside three more cities (Deut 19:8–9).

20:8 Bezer . . . Ramoth . . . Golan. Listed from south to north.

20:9 Israelites or any foreigner. There is no distinction between persons in God’s concern for justice (Exod 22:21; Lev 19:34; 24:22; Num 15:15; Deut 1:16; 10:18).

21:1–45 Towns for the Levites. This apportionment fulfills God’s command (Num 35:1–8; 1 Chr 6:54–81). The Levites had no inheritance in the land, but God provided for them. As with the Sabbath (Exod 20:8–11; 31:14–15; Deut 5:12–15) and firstfruits offerings (Exod 23:19; Num 28:26; Deut 26:2, 10), a token of God’s blessing is returned to him to acknowledge God as the giver. Here it is a token of the land. Located in many previously Canaanite cities and in border towns, these towns would function as teaching centers where the Levites would carry out the priestly duties (Lev 10:10–11) of teaching God’s instruction and covenant faith (cf. Acts 2:42–47; Rom 15:26–27; Phil 4:10–18). A concluding summary (vv. 43–45) reemphasizes the fulfillment of God’s promises in giving Israel the land.

21:2 Shiloh. See note on 18:1.

21:10 descendants of Aaron. The priests (Num 18:1–6), whose towns were in the south near the later Jerusalem temple.

21:20–26 The Kohathites transported the ark and tabernacle furniture and held Levitical towns in the central hill country (Num 3:30–31; 4:15–20; 7:9) near Shiloh (see 18:1 and note).

21:27–33 The Gershonites transported the tabernacle textiles and received towns in the north (Num 3:25–26; 4:24–26).

21:34–40 The Merarites transported the tabernacle structures and received towns in Zebulun and Transjordan (Num 1:47–53; 3:33–37; 4:29–33).

21:43 the LORD gave Israel all the land. God has given all to Israel, and no one could withstand them. Yet Israel was not altogether faithful (chs. 7; 9), and land remained to be taken (13:1–7; 15:63; 16:10; 17:12). God graciously gave the gift but it remained necessary for Israel to receive fully what had been given. Divine sovereignty does not eliminate human responsibility.

22:1—24:33 Israel United to Serve God in the Promised Land. Throughout the book, God gave the promises and commands and then led Israel with miraculous signs (chs. 6; 8; 10; 11) and divine guidance through casting lots (chs. 7; 13–21). In every case, Israel was called to respond in faith. With some of the land taken and all of the land allotted, Israel must proceed by faith. Ch. 22 examines Israel’s response in terms of unity and worship, and chs. 23–24 challenge the nation to a life of continuing faithfulness. The deaths of Joshua and Eleazar mark the end of the generation that saw God begin the process of giving all of the land to Israel, and the question of how Israel will respond is yet to be answered.

22:1–34 Eastern Tribes Return Home. The loyalty of the tribes east of the Jordan was examined in 1:12–18. Their oaths and subsequent service (4:12) confirmed their faith, but the land Moses gave them was not in the promised land (ch. 13). As these eastern tribes were the first group separated from all Israel in ch. 1, they become the last group examined before all Israel comes together in the final chapters. Ch. 22 addresses what is essential to the unity and holiness of Israel (properly worshiping God with an altar in the promised land) and what is peripheral (living in the promised land).

22:2-4 all that Moses . . . commanded . . . return to your homes. See 1:12–15 and notes.

22:5 love . . . obedience. For the love of God as loyal service, see Deut 6:5 and note.

22:8 divide the plunder . . . with your fellow Israelites. Foreseen by Moses (Num 31:25–27), God gave Israel the plunder of Ai (8:2, 27) and that of its subsequent enemies (11:14). Equal sharing enhanced Israel’s unity.

22:10 Geliloth. Probably near the Jordan (see 18:17; perhaps Araq ed-Deir). imposing altar. Placed prominently west of the Jordan, it would also be visible east of the Jordan.

22:12 gathered at Shiloh to go to war. The one God should have one altar, located at that time at Shiloh (see 18:1–10 and note on 18:1; Deut 12:4–14 and note on 12:5). Disobedience in this crucial matter meant war (Deut 13:12–18).

22:13 Phinehas. A priest was responsible for the altar and worship (Lev 1–7; Num 5:25–26; 1 Sam 2:28).

22:17 sin of Peor. The previous apostasy by all Israel; Phinehas stopped it (Num 25:1–9).

22:20 Achan . . . was not the only one who died for his sin. Verse 18 anticipates that, like the fate of Achan’s family (7:24–25), all Israel will experience God’s anger, especially if it knows of sin and does nothing (Deut 13:6–15).

22:22 The Mighty One, God, the LORD! Can also be translated “The LORD, the greatest God.” Its repetition signals the strongest of oaths.

22:26-27 an altar . . . to be a witness. Most often a witness is someone who gives testimony (Exod 23:1), but stone heaps were sometimes used as witnesses between two people or groups to confirm the taking of an oath (Gen 31:44–48). Although these tribes live outside the promised land, this witness guarantees that they are united with Israel in worshiping God.

22:28 replica. The same Hebrew word as the “pattern” God showed Israel of the tabernacle they were to build (Exod 25:9, 40); it points to (but does not replace) the true altar and the true worship at Shiloh.

22:34 A Witness Between Us. See v. 27; see also note on vv. 26–27.

23:1–16 Joshua’s Farewell to the Leaders. Like Jacob (Gen 48–49) and Moses (Deut 1–33), this faithful leader gives his final testament to God’s people. Most of what Joshua says can be found in the Pentateuch, especially Deuteronomy. God has fulfilled his promises, as Israel witnessed. They must choose to continue to serve him.

23:1 After a long time. If Joshua died at 110 (24:29) and Caleb was 80 at the time of Israel’s entrance into the promised land (see 14:7, 10 and note), then Joshua was also likely nearly the same age when he entered the land. So about 30 years have elapsed. the LORD had given Israel rest. See 1:13, 15; 11:23; 14:15. “Rest” involves the absence of any threat from neighbors and looks forward to (but does not replace) the promised rest of God’s people with him (Heb 4:8; see Introduction: Theological Themes [The Gift of the Promised Land]). very old man. See 13:1 and note.

23:4-5 I have allotted . . . The LORD your God himself will push them out. Joshua oversaw the allotment (see 13:1—21:45 and note; 14:1–5 and notes). But Judges describes how much work remains for Israel to secure the land and live there.

23:6 Be very strong. See 1:5b–9 and note. be careful to obey. See 1:7–8 and notes; 8:31.

23:7 do not invoke the names of their gods. The fundamental command against idolatry (Exod 20:3–6; Deut 5:7–10) becomes Israel’s test of obedience to God’s covenant.

23:11 love the LORD your God. For this recurring concern, see 22:5 and note.

23:13 until you perish from this good land. The context provides blessings for obedience (Lev 26:1–13; Deut 28:1–14) and curses for disobedience (Lev 26:14–46; Deut 28:15–68). Worshiping other gods leads to banishment from the land (vv. 15–16; 2 Kgs 17:7–8; 2 Chr 7:19–20).

24:1–28 The Covenant Renewed at Shechem. As Moses did at the end of his life (Deut 1–33), so Joshua at the end of his life renews God’s covenant with Israel. These covenants (23:1–16; 24:1–28) closely resemble the vassal treaty structure used in the fourteenth and thirteenth centuries BC and preserved among the Hittites. The overlord makes a treaty with a vassal king and people. God transforms this medium to define his relationship (as the overlord) with his people (as the vassal). These second-millennium BC treaties always had five parts: (1) Title. Identifies the great king (v. 2b: “This is what the LORD, the God of Israel, says”). (2) Historical Prologue. Reviews the faithfulness of the great king in past relationships (extending back for generations) in order to motivate the vassal to future loyalty (vv. 2c–13). (3) Stipulations. Defines the relationship in terms of laws that the vassal must obey (vv. 14–21, 23). Most often these emphasize exclusive loyalty to the overlord. (4) Witnesses. Deities of both the overlord and vassal enforce the treaty when the overlord is not present with the vassal. Israel has one God, and he cannot be witness because he is the overlord. Instead, Israel itself and a large stone under the oak at Shechem are witnesses (vv. 22, 26–27). (5) Curses and Blessings. Results of disobedience and obedience (v. 20).

24:1 Shechem. Joshua had renewed the covenant at nearby Mount Ebal (8:30–35; see note on 8:30), also associated with Israel’s first generations. Some identify the “fortress temple” found at the archaeological site (Tell Balatah) with the place of Joshua’s covenant renewal (cf. Judg 9). It becomes Joseph’s burial place (v. 32; Gen 49:26).

24:2 Terah . . . worshiped other gods. Gen 11 assumes polytheism, but it is not explicit.

24:3 I took your father Abraham. Abraham’s faith and Israel’s history are all God’s initiative (Gen 12).

24:12 the hornet. Cf. Exod 23:28 (see note); Deut 7:20. A symbol of the fear that God brings against Israel’s enemies.

24:14 fear the LORD and serve him. Contrast “the hornet” to bring fear in v. 12. As the key response for God’s people, “serve” (whether as a verb or in its noun form, “service, work”) appears 16 times in ch. 24 out of 40 occurrences in Joshua. Throw away the gods. Harran (Gen 11:31; 12:4) was an ancient tribal center where images of gods were brought from other regions. Egypt possessed many gods (Exod 12:12). At Shechem, Jacob buried the images that his family brought with them after fleeing from Laban (Gen 35:4).

24:15 choose . . . as for me. To emphasize the decisive nature of this moment, Joshua gives Israel a choice and makes his own decision public. As a leader, he chooses first.

24:17 out of Egypt. This was God’s historic act of redemption (see 2:9–11 and note).

24:19 You are not able . . . He will not forgive. God’s grace (Exod 34:6) cannot condone apostasy, whether among the Canaanites or the Israelites. The point is not that obedience is impossible in principle (Deut 30:11–14), but that before a God who is both holy and jealous, a cavalier attitude to obedience is an invitation to disastrous condemnation and judgment. A later biblical writer clarifies that what was “wrong” with the old covenant was not so much an intrinsic weakness within the covenant as that God “found fault with the people” (Heb 8:7–8). holy God. See Lev 11:44 and note. jealous God. See Exod 20:5 and note.

24:23-24 throw away the foreign gods . . . We will serve the LORD. Joshua resembles Jacob at Shechem when Jacob commanded his family to rid themselves of pagan images (see note on v. 14; Gen 35:2). Jacob’s family did so immediately (Gen 35:4), but Israel’s response is to repeat their oath of loyalty. They never dispose of their gods. Words without actions are ominous (Jas 2:14–16); they anticipate the apostasy of Judg 2:11–13.

24:26-27 large stone . . . a witness. See 4:3, 9; 7:26; 8:29; 10:18, 27; 22:26–27 and notes.

24:26 the Book of the Law of God. The law of Moses (1:8; 8:31–35; Neh 8:1, 3), especially as found in Deuteronomy. The “law” refers to instruction or teaching. Joshua adds the covenant found in this chapter.

24:29–33 Buried in the Promised Land. Joshua’s burial closes the story of the book of Joshua. Joseph’s burial connects the generation that left the promised land for Egypt with the one that entered the promised land. Eleazar’s burial makes way for Phinehas, the only member of the next generation identified. Verses 29–31 are repeated in Judg 2:7–9, which continues the account into the next generation.

24:29 servant of the LORD. As with Moses (Deut 34:5), first used here of Joshua at his death (cf. 1:1; see note there). a hundred and ten. Cf. Joseph’s age (Gen 50:26). In Egypt this was an ideal lifespan. Unlike Joseph, none of Joshua’s descendants are named (contrast Eleazar, v. 33). Nevertheless, there was expectation that future leadership should come from the tribe of Ephraim (as reflected, e.g., in Judg 12:1–6 when the Ephraimites assume that they should take the lead). The book of Joshua hints at and the book of Judges confirms that the waywardness of the Ephraimites results in their rejection as the “firstborn” tribe.

24:32 Joseph’s bones . . . buried. See Gen 50:25; Exod 13:19. Hamor. Cf. Gen 33:19–20; 34:2–26 (see notes).

24:33 Eleazar. Cf. Exod 6:23, 25. His final role was overseeing Israel’s allotments (14:1; 17:4; 19:51; 21:1). Phinehas. The priesthood would continue in a lineage (Exod 29:9).