Subject Index

abstention 370, 376, 378, 380
advertising 31, 125
See also media
attitude impact 145
black sheep effect 219, 220
campaign 203, 214
competing messages 221–222
duration effects 218, 224
experimental designs 222–224
negative 76, 77, 78, 450–451
negative advertising, vote choice, candidate evaluation 219, 220–221
observational vs. experimental studies 216–217
self-reports 76–77
survey-participant recall errors 76
television 37
voting likelihood, negative advertising 218–220
affect
affect-driven dual process models 155
AMP 156, 161
encoding vs. retrieval effects 157–158
Affect Misattribution Paradigm (AMP) 156, 161
African Americans 324, 326, 329
agendas, forward- vs. backward-moving 356–358
agenda-setting 202, 204, 205–207
See also priming effects
aggression, anger 204
genetic basis 39
study of 28, 29
toward candidates 204
violent TV 202
AIDS 325
American National Election Studies (ANES) 51, 105, 120, 133, 173, 188, 217, 229, 243, 244, 308
American Political Science Association (APSA) 3, 4
American Psychological Association (APA) 502, 505
The American Voter 190
AMP See Affect Misattribution Paradigm
An Inconvenient Truth 204
ANES See American National Election Studies
APA See American Psychological Association
APSA See American Political Science Association
Arrovian social choice theory 353
artifactual field experiment 116
Asian Americans 326, 327–328
Asian Flu Experiment 108
associative network model, cognition 158
ATE See average treatment effect
ATT See average treatment effect for those treated
attitude(s)
campaign advertising effect 145
change 142, 147–148, 323–324
crystallization 45, 48
defined 141–142
direction, extremity 142
experiments, attitude measurement 142–144
explicit 142, 156
expressive behaviors 143
framing conditions 323–324
implicit 142, 156, 158–164
implicit vs. explicit 321, 330
preferences and 142–143
self-report questions 142
unconscious cognition and 155
attrition
downstream effects 504
internal validity 19, 30–31
selective nonresponse 146
automaticity, online evaluations 158
average treatment effect (ATE) 17, 23, 128–129, 234, 445
canvassing 234
defined 23, 445
entire population 128–129
random assignment 17
average treatment effect for those treated (ATT) 23, 122
bargaining process analysis (BPA) 416
Baron-Kenney Mediation Model 509–511
behavioral research
beginnings 73
economics 98
investment game, trust 243–244
racial identity 300–302
Benin 385, 392–393, 394
Berelson, Bernard 273
bias
background conditions and 130
external vs. internal validity 27
gender 290–292
mediation analysis 508
observational studies 121
online studies 83
publication bias 21, 133–134
sampling 75, 82–83
selection bias 36, 83, 121, 122–123, 453–455
subject knowledge of hypothesis 33
subject skepticism 28
treatment effect estimates 46, 123–124
treatment protocol and 34
black sheep effect 219, 220
Blair, Tony 434
BPA See bargaining process analysis
Bradley, Tom 314
Brazil 388
Bush, George H. W. 165, 432
Bush, George W.
face morphing study 80
foreign policy inexperience 432
narrow margin victory 236
9/11 response 434
CACE See complier average causal effect
California 78, 85, 327
campaign effects 224, 229
campaign spending 118–119, 121
candidate divergence models 373–375
candidate policy preferences 373–374
candidates
cognitive process models 193–195
competing messages 221–222
evaluation 187–188
evaluation, vote choice 194, 219, 220–221
home style 195–196
impressions 187
impressions, content 190–193
issue ambiguity 196–197
issue ownership 192, 196
name recognition 124, 125
negative advertising, evaluation, vote choice 219, 220–221
strategic behaviors 195–197
traits 190
voting likelihood, negative advertising 218–220
canvassing
See also Get-Out-The-Vote
difficulties 233–234
influence on turnout 32, 131–132
interpersonal influence 125
social networks 229, 231
types, effects 229–230
capital punishment 323–324
causation
deliberation and 260, 261–262
experimentation 75–78, 527–528
external validity 41, 42, 44
fundamental problem 15–16
internal validity 28, 30
Rubin Causal model and 24
observational studies 188
random assignment and 3, 16–17
social networks 273
trust, social exchange and 253
Center for Advanced Study in the Behavioral Sciences 527
centipede game 98
cheap talk 343
Civic and Political Health of the Nation Dataset 51
Civil Rights Act of 1964 365
Clean Water Action 237
Clinton, Bill 221–222, 238, 432
Clinton, Hillary 144, 188, 296
CNN 84
coalition experiments 353, 354, 355, 356–357, 365–366, 399–400
See also game theory
alternative bargaining protocols 404–406
Baron-Ferejohn model 99, 400–401
Baron-Ferejohn model, testing 401–404
behavior assumptions 92–93
coalition formation 400, 404, 405, 408–409
comparative statics 400, 401, 403
context-rich experiments 406–410
continuation value 400, 402–403
cooperative, noncooperative models 399–400
dictator game 402–403
economics vs. social psychology 409
experimental economics 402, 408
game theory 92–93, 94
laboratory experiments 401, 404
minimal winning 93
ultimatum game 402–403
Wason task/test 409
cognitive process models, candidate evaluation 193–195
memory-based 193, 194–195
online 193, 194–195
coin tosses 178
collective behavior 93
collective-action theory
bargaining models 400–401, 402
baseline CPR experiments 344, 346–347
baseline PG experiments 342–345
cheap talk 343
collective-action problems 339
communication 342–344
CPRs 339, 340, 344, 345–347
ethnic diversity, PC provision mechanisms 348
field experiments 347–349
MPCR 342
observational studies 341
PD 340
PG 339, 340, 341–342
political leadership 344–345
sanctioning 346–347
social norms, cultural variability, CPRs 347, 349
Trust Game experiments 341
Ultimatum Game 341
VCM 340, 342
voting 346
“College Sophomores in the Laboratory” (Sears) 42
Color-Blind Experiment 112, 308
Common Knowledge (Neuman, Just, Crigler) 201, 203
common-pool resources (CPRs) 339, 340, 344, 345–347
competitive solution concept, game theory 93
compliance, compliers, noncompliers 24–25, 54, 126–129
complier average causal effect (CACE) 128, 499
computer-assisted interviewing 103
question sequencing 103–104
randomized experiments and 104
COMROD See Cooperative Measures to Reduce the Depletion of the Ozone Layer
Condorcet loser, winner 375–377
confederates 36
confounds, confounding
defined 188
observational research vs. experiments 317
prejudice, candidate choice 313
symbolic racism 311
constituency opinion, legislative behavior 125
control group 16
convenience sample 7
conventional lab experiment 116
cooperative game theory 91–94
See also game theory
Cooperative Measures to Reduce the Depletion of the Ozone Layer (COMROD) 422
coordination, three-candidate elections 375–376
core outcomes, game theory 92, 353, 355–356
corruption, democracy and development 388
costs, cost-benefits 7, 74–75
counter-argument technique 109
covariates, covariate balance
common uses, potential abuses 460–461
defined 24, 460
distribution, samples 45
experimental use 460
observational work 122
precision enhancement 460–461
random imbalance adjustments 461
Rubin causal model 121
statistics use 18
student samples 51
subgroup analysis 461
CPRs See common-pool resources
crime, racial coverage 78–79
crime script 78–79
cross-cultural experiments
experimental design 90
social desirability response bias 142
trust 250–251
web-based 85–86
cross-cultural trust 250–251
crowding out, monetary incentives 64–65
data generating process 46–47, 50
deception 65–67, 68
deliberation 59–60
causal inference, experimental control 260, 261–262
consensus 260
decision making 259–260
decision-making process 260
definitions 259
deliberative polls 260, 262–263, 277
democratic systems and 260
effects categories 259–260
experiment examples 262–267
experiments’ role 258, 260–262
external validity 268
face-to-face treatments 264–265
framing 263, 265–266
grand treatment 263, 266
Healthcare Dialog project 263
mediating variables 258, 260
methodological issues 266–267
online deliberation 262, 263–264
quasi-experiments 259, 261, 262–263
random assignment 261, 267
social networks 277
deliberative polls 260, 262–263, 277
democracy and development 384
Benin 385, 392–393, 394
Brazil 388
clientalism 387
corruption 388
DfID 386
ethics, election experiments 393–394
external validity 391–393
field experiments, collaboration with NGOs 385–387
field experiments, collaboration with politicians 387
future directions 394
gender quotas 387–388
India 386, 390, 392
Indonesia 391
internal validity 389–391
International Finance Corporation 386
International Rescue Committee 386
intervention, treatment 390
lab, lab-in-the-field experiments 388–389
Liberia 386, 389, 391
Mexico 386, 388, 391
natural experiments 386, 387–388
Nicaragua 392
Nigeria 386
research protocol compliance 388, 390
Rwanda 125, 388, 389, 390, 391
Sarathi Development Foundation 390
Uganda 116, 125, 386, 389, 391
Democrat Party 144
Department for International Development (DfID), UK 386
Deukmejiana, George 314
DfID See Department for International Development, UK
discrimination vs. prejudice 103–104
Dole, Robert
don't know response 144, 175–177
downstream effects 7, 31, 38
always-takers 497
analysis in practice 500–502
attrition 504
CASE 499
challenges 502–505
compliers 497
defiers 497
ethics 495, 504–505
High/Scope Perry Experiment 500–501
internal validity 504
LATE 496–500
methodological challenges 502–503
mobilization 496, 501
MTO program 502
natural experiments 501
never-takers 497
practical challenges 503–504
randomized experiments 495–496, 501
RCM 496–500
voter mobilization 501
drop-in samples 83–84
dual process theories, information processing 331–332
dual samples 54
DuBois, W. E. B. 306
Dukakis, Michael 76, 165
duration effects 218, 224
Dynamic Process Tracing Methodology 189, 194
Dyson, James 74
economic journals 65
economics vs. psychology experiments 29–30, 58
deception in experimental economics 65–67
monetary incentives 61–65
preferences control 62–63
problems 64–65
rewarding accuracy/reducing noise 62
scale 63–64
social preferences measurement 62, 63
stylization 59–61
subject pool 63, 66
use of deception 65–68
effect size 21
Eighteen-Nation Disarmament Conference 416
Eisenhower, Dwight 432
Eldersveld GOTV experiment 4
Election Day institutions, election administration 125
encoding vs. retrieval effects, affect 157–158
encouragement designs 17
endogenous agendas 363–364
engagement, subject 28
equilibrium 60, 62–63
See also Quantal Response Equilibrium
errors, Type I and II 209
ESP See Experimental Study of Politics
“Ethical Principles of Psychologists and Code of Conduct” (APA) 502, 505
ethics 21–22
downstream effects 495, 504–505
election experiments 393–394
field experiments 129–130
social networks 278–281
subject recruitment 41
exclusion restriction 24
Experiential Economics 7
experiment norms 7, 9
experiment subjects 7, 32–34
engagement/disengagement 28
participation 7
recruitment, ethical challenges 41
students 42–44, 45–53
subject pool 63, 66
experimental control 59, 61, 66
experimental demand 77
minority populations 330–332
experimental designs
advertising 222–224
between-subjects 30
block design 30
campaign advertising 222–224
candidate impressions, evaluations 189–190
cross-cultural experiments 90
encouragement designs 17
external validity and 149
framing, permissive designs 108
internal design, formal models 90
internal validity and 28
longitudinal designs 146, 147
manipulative designs, survey experiments 106–107
multilevel populations 487–489, 490–491
observational studies 144–147
one-shot design, information, information processing 189
permissive designs, survey experiments 107–108
Post-test-Only Control Group Design 148
Pre-test–Post-test Control Group Design 147
Pre-test–Post-test Multiple Experimental Condition Design 147, 148
pseudoexperimental 32
realism, competition, over-time designs 330–331
Repeated Cross-Section Design 145
survey experiments 106–108, 109
Twin Studies 251–252
weaknesses 148–149
within-, between-subjects design 17–18, 30, 372
The Experimental Journal of Politics 4
experimental logic 102–105
experimental research 16–17, 74–75
racial identity 303–305
experimental scholars collaboration 6
Experimental Study of Politics 4
experimental treatments, political predispositions 109–112
interactions 111
null hypothesis 110
experiments 527–528
causal inference and 3
cooperative game theory and 91–94
discrimination vs. prejudice 103–104
laboratory vs. field 42
meta-analysis 21, 124
noncooperative game theory and 94–99
psychological vs. economic approaches 7
replication 21
statistical power and 21
theoretical development and 3
experiments, examples
Asian Flu Experiment 108
Color-Blind Experiment 112, 308
CPRs 339, 340, 344, 345–347
Eldersveld GOTV experiment 4
Gold Shield Coffee study 280
High/Scope Perry Experiment 500–501
Laid-off Worker Experiment 111
List Experiment 107–108
Milgram obedience experiment 35–36, 68
MTO study 283, 502
Multi-Investigator Project 105
New Haven experiment 117–118, 119, 124
Regardless of Race Experiment 112, 308–309
SAT Experiment 110
Six Degrees of Separation 279
Stanford Prison Experiment 277
TESS 105
Trust Game 341
Ultimatum Game 341
Vietnam Draft Lottery 117
experiments, political science
application diversity 5–6, 7
benefits 9
context, setting 6
costs, cost-benefits 7
downstream benefits 7
experimental methods diversity 6–8
experimental scholars collaboration 6
field experiments 7
formal theory testing and 5
history 4–5, 73–75, 102–106, 112–113, 117–121
methodological challenges 6–7
observational research and 5
policymakers and 5–6, 9
subfield examples 6
subjects participation 7
topics 15
experiments, types See field experiments, laboratory experiments , natural experiments , observational studies
external interference 36
external validity
assessment 53
concepts and 43
concerns for researchers 19
cross-cultural experiments 250
deliberation and 268
democracy and development 391–393
downstream analysis, effects 31, 38
evaluation 44–45
experimental design and 19–20, 149
field experiments 131
generalizability 34–35
improving 37–38
internal validity, balance 38–39
laboratory election experiments 374, 381
observational studies 146
replication 34–35, 37
setting 210
social networks 277, 278
student subjects 42–44
subjects, settings, context, times, operationalizations
survey experiments and 7
threats to 35–37
eye tracking 39
Facebook 278
face-to-face (FTF) interactions 205
facial appearance 191, 192–193
attractiveness 166
morphing study 80–81
similarities, voter preferences 79–81
facilitation vs. inhibition effect 159
factor analysis 173
Fahrenheit 9/11 204
fairness, nonordinal considerations 364–366
Federal Election Commission (FEC) 118
Feinstein, Dianne 78
field experiments 278–283
artifactual 116
bias, background conditions 130
block design 30
challenges 126–131
collaboration with NGOs 385–387
collaboration with politicians 387
collective-action theory 347–349
cost 130
defined 17, 115–116
ethics 129–130
external validity 131
framed 116
history 117–121
intellectual context 117–121
internal validity 132–133
legality 236
minority populations 326–328
natural 116
realism and 7, 116
spillover effects 130–131
subject noncompliance 32
Field Institute 314
fMRI See functional magnetic resonance imaging
foreign policy decision making
See also negotiation, mediation
frames, expectations 434–436
individual preferences aggregation, government decisions 436–439
PD 434
predispositions, preferences, decisions 431–433
prospect theory 435
student samples 434, 438, 439
formal models
See also game theory
best practices 89
debate 89
internal design 90
political science 89
Fox News 84
framing
attitude change 323–324
campaigns 201, 203
choice behavior, environments 61
deliberative theory 263, 265–266
field experiments 116
financial incentives 62
first generation experiments 106
permissive designs 108
racial priming 320
study of 207
Framingham Heart Study 275
Franken, Al 236
FTF See face-to-face interactions
functional magnetic resonance imaging (fMRI) 39, 248
game theory
bargaining models 400–401, 402
centipede game 98
coalition behavior assumptions 92–93
coalition formation 92–94
comparative statics 400, 401, 403
competitive solution concept 93
contributions 98–99
conventional lab experiment vs. artifactual field experiment 115, 116
cooperative 91
cooperative vs. noncooperative 91
core outcomes 92, 353, 355–356
deception, political psychology 67
dictator game 402–403
economics experiments 66
games vs. 340
history 91
interpersonal interactions 91
investment game 99, 243, 245
minimal winning coalitions 93
monetary incentive 63, 65
Nash Equilibrium 94, 246
noncooperative 91
payoffs 93–94
PD 91–92, 340, 434
persuasion 96
preferences 92–93
punishment in 59–60, 251–252
repeated games 371, 401
solution concepts 92
trust and 245–246, 251, 253
ultimatum game 402–403
GATT See General Agreements on Tariffs and Trade
gender 83, 175, 191
bias, stereotypes 290–292
elective office type, level 292–293
future research directions 295–296
gender quotas 387–388
issue competence and 291–292
media effects 293–294
observational studies 289–290
party affiliation and 291, 294–295
General Agreements on Tariffs and Trade (GATT) 414
General Social Survey (GSS) 243, 244
generalization
background conditions 130
external validity 19–20, 28, 34–35, 36, 38
field experiments 116
field vs. lab experiments 22
issue of 81–85
from a single study 328–329
student subjects 41–42
Get out the Vote! 124
Get-Out-The-Vote (GOTV)
campaign contact 234
early field experiments 117
external validity 236
future experiments 331
global warming 143, 145, 147
Gold Shield Coffee study 280
GOTV See Get-Out-The-Vote
graduation reciprocation in tension reduction (GRIT) 416
Gregoire, Christine 236
GSS See General Social Survey
Hawthorne effects 36, 68
health care 179–180
Healthcare Dialog project 263
heterogeneity
canvassers, callers 234
examining techniques for 230
study samples 53–54
heuristic trial and error (HTE) 416, 418
heuristics 29, 324–326
High/Scope Perry Experiment 500–501
home style 195–196
hot cognition hypothesis 163
House Rules Committee 354
HTE See heuristic trial and error
Human Relations Training Laboratory 416
IAT See Implicit Association Test
ideal point
agendas 357–358
fairness, nonordinal points 364–365
financial compensation 354–355
uncovered set 359–362
of voters 95, 370
identity See race, racial prejudice
IE See implicit-explicit model
Implicit Association Test (IAT)
enhancing validity 39
implicit attitudes 156
response competition 161
strengths, weaknesses 161–163
implicit-explicit (IE) model, racial priming 206–207
India 386, 390, 392
Indonesia 386, 391
Indonesian Kecamatan Development Program 386
Induced Value Theory 51, 371
information, information processing
conscious vs. unconscious 155–158
dual process theories, minority populations 331–332
Dynamic Process Tracing Methodology 189, 194
laboratory experiments 369–370, 372–373
memory-based 204
one-shot design 189
online 204
online, memory-based 150–151, 157
selective exposure/elaboration 149
System 2, System 1 156
INS See Inter-Nation Simulation
Institute for Social Research (ISR) 104
institutional review board (IRB) 235–236
“Institution-Free Properties of Social Choice” (McKelvey) 363
institutions 91, 94, 99
instrumental variables 31–32, 117, 118, 216
intent-to-treat (ITT) effect
ATT vs. ATE 126, 127–129
campaign contact 234
defined 24
internal validity threats 30
multilevel populations 484–485
interactions, experimental treatments, political predispositions 111
interethnic tension/prejudice reduction 125
internal validity 18–19, 41, 44
attrition 19, 30–31
downstream effects 504
experiment design and 28
experimental economics comparisons 29–30
experimental vs. mundane realism 28
external validity, balance 38–39
field experiments 132–133
formal models 90
improving 34
noncompliance and 19
observational studies 145, 146
threats to 30–34
Inter-Nation Simulation (INS) 419, 422
International Finance Corporation 386
International Rescue Committee 386
Internet samples 36
Internet sampling 324
interpersonal trust 243, 244–245
investment game 99
ISR See Institute for Social Research
issue ownership 192, 196
ITT See intent-to-treat effect
John Q. Public (JQP) model 159
journals, economics 65
journals, political science 74
JQP See John Q. Public model
jury decision making 96–98
Kahneman-Tversky risk aversion studies 108
Kerry, John 80
Knowledge Networks
competing ad campaigns study 221
online research panel 84
political knowledge survey 173, 174
race, immigration study 311, 312
study follow-up 225
laboratory experiments
abstention 370, 376, 378, 380
attitude change 148, 149
candidate divergence models 373–375
candidate policy preferences 373–374
coalition experiments 401, 404
Condorcet loser, winner 375–377
coordination, three-candidate elections 375–376
defined 17, 116
external validity 374, 381
field experiments vs. 42
game theory, repeated game effects 371
history 73, 369–371
ideal point 370
incentives 90, 365, 371
Induced Value Theory 371
information 369–370, 372–373
information, information processing 369–370, 372–373
lab, lab-in-the-field experiments 388–389
Mean Voter Theorem 372–373
methodological issues 244, 246
methodology 276–278, 369–372
observational studies vs. 371
payoffs 376
randomizing 369–370
sequential voting 376–378
strengths/weaknesses 380–382
student subjects 6, 148
Swing Voter Curse 379
treatment effects 209–210
turnout experiments 378–380
utility function 369, 370–371
voter preferences 369–370, 374, 375, 376
voting rules 374, 376
Laid-off Worker Experiment 111
Latinos
California, population vs. electorate demographics 228
candidate ethnicity importance 326
coethnic contacts, participation 327
Lausanne Peace negotiations 424
learning 207
legislative behavior
constituency opinion and 125
lobbying and 125
voter knowledge 125
legislative instability, field work limitations 353–354
legislative voting, cycling
agendas, forward- vs. backward-moving 356–358
Arrovian social choice theory 353
coalitions 353, 354, 355, 356–357, 365–366
endogenous agendas 363–364
fairness, nonordinal considerations 364–366
House Rules Committee 354
ideal point 354–355, 357–358, 359–362, 364–365
legislative instability, field work limitations 353–354
majority rule 353–354
majority rule instability, preference-based constraints 358–363
monopoly agenda control 358
negotiation, psychological literature 364
parallelism 364
procedural rules, structure-induced equilibrium 356
spatial voting models 354–356
uncovered set, backward-looking 360
uncovered set, testing 360–363
Liberia 386, 389, 391
List Experiment 107–108
lobbying, legislative behavior 125
local average treatment effect (LATE)
local news coverage, racial cues 78–79
The Logic of Collective Action (Olson) 339
longitudinal designs 146, 147
long-term follow-ups 31
Los Angeles 82, 322
Los Angeles Times 314
Lowell, A. Lawrence 3
majority rule 353–354
majority rule instability, preference-based constraints 358–363
manifest effect 459–462
manipulative designs, survey experiments 106–107
marginal per capita return (MPCR) 342
math problems, SAT scores 178–179
McCain, John 144
Mean Voter Theorem 372–373
measurement 123, 131, 133
media effects 203
bias 201
entertainment 204
framing research and 207
gender and 293–294
hard vs. soft news 204
interethnic tension/prejudice reduction 125
mass media campaigns 125
message processing 207–208
minimal effects 202–203
new media 204–205
news 203–204
priming 81, 124, 125, 151, 190, 205–207, 322–323
television news 203, 526
mediation analysis
Baron-Kenney Mediation Model 509–511
bias estimates 508
bias, nonexperimental analyses 509–512
conventional practices defenses 517–518
experimental methods 512–514
limits 512–516
nonexperimental 516
in political science 509
research agenda 516–517
treatment manipulations 516–517
variables 20
MESOs See multiple equivalent simultaneous offers
message processing 207–208
meta-analysis 21, 124, 219
Mexico 386, 388, 391
microcredit loans 245, 246, 249, 250
Milgram obedience experiments 35–36, 68, 82
minimal group paradigm 60
minority populations
See also race, racial prejudice
African Americans 324, 326, 329
AIDS 325
Asian Americans 326, 327–328
attitude, change 323–324
attitude, framing conditions 323–324
attitudes, implicit vs. explicit 321, 330
capital punishment 323–324
dual process theories, information processing 331–332
general observations, future directions 328–332
GOTV 326–328, 331
Internet sampling 324
Latinos 228, 327
media priming 322–323
pre-testing measures 329–330
racial cues, heuristics 324–326
realism, competition, over-time designs 330–331
single study, generalizing 328–329
survey experiments 322–324, 326, 328, 331
theory, design integration 331–332
treatment effect 323, 328, 330
vote choice extensions 326
mobilization
See also voters, voter mobilization
current research focus 125, 126
direct/indirect 449
experiments on 120, 447
modality effect 207, 209
moderation 20, 54
mediation vs. 45, 46
monetary incentives
crowding out 64–65
economics vs. psychology experiments 61–65
game theory 63, 65
laboratory election experiments 365, 371
preferences control 62–63
problems 64–65
rewarding accuracy, reducing noise 62
scale 63–64
social preferences measurement 62, 63
monopoly agenda control 358
monotonicity 25
Montreal Protocol 414
motivations 62–63, 64
MoveOn.org 236
Moving to Opportunity (MTO) study 283, 502
MPCR See marginal per capita return
MTO See Moving to Opportunity study
Multi-Investigator Project 105
multilevel populations
campaign advertising 483
empirical tests, spillovers, ITT estimation 486, 489–490
experiment design 487–489
future research, experimental design recommendations 490–491
instrumental variables 483, 489, 490, 491
ITT 484–485, 486, 489–490
limits, best practices 490
multilevel context identification 485–487
spillover effects 482–484, 486, 489–490
SUTVA 482
treatment 481–482
multiple equivalent simultaneous offers (MESOs)
mundane realism 75, 81–82
NA See Negotiator Assistant
NAFTA See North Atlantic Free Trade Agreement
NALEO See National Association of Latino Elected and Appointed Officials
NARAL See National Abortion and Reproductive Rights Action League
Nash Equilibrium 94, 246
National Abortion and Reproductive Rights Action League (NARAL) 237–238
National Association of Latino Elected and Appointed Officials (NALEO) 327
National Institutes of Health 74, 75
National Opinion Research Center (NORC) 104
National Public Radio (NPR) 84
National Science Foundation (NSF) 4, 74, 75, 105
NATO See North Atlantic Treaty Organization
natural experiments 22, 453
democracy and development 386, 387–388
downstream effects 501
natural field experiment 116
negotiation, mediation
bargaining environment 416–417
BPA 416
COMROD 422
distributive bargaining 415–417
electronic mediation 423–424
experimental method 414–415
experiments as value-added knowledge 425–426
flexibility 422–423
frameworks 422
GRIT 416
HTE 416, 418
information exchange 419
INS 419, 422
integrative bargaining 417–421
integrative bargaining, strategies 418–419
international context 413–414
Kennedy experiment 416
laboratory complexity 421–424
logrolling 417, 419
mediator credibility 420
MESOs
multimethods 424–425
NA 423–424
offer strategies 415–416
problem solving in situ 420–421
problem solving orientation 419–420
PSS, SOS 417, 420
psychological literature 364
settlement orientation 417, 420
simulations, cases in training 425
simulations vs. cases 424–425
situational levers 422–423
threshold adjustment 416
Negotiator Assistant (NA) 423–424
New Haven experiment
extensions from 231
impact of 124, 229, 232
literature prior to 117–118, 119
New York Times 67, 203, 394
news
entertainment, hard vs. soft news 204
television 203
News That Matters (Iyengar, Kinder) 75
NGOs See nongovernmental organizations
Nicaragua 392
Nigeria 386
noncompliance
active vs. passive 31
defined 19, 24–25, 446
measured/unmeasured 447–450
noncooperative game theory
experiments and 94–99
jury decision making 96–98
Nash Equilibrium concept 94
Nash-Harsanyi-Selten 91
spatial voting models 94, 95
voter confidence 94–96
nongovernmental organizations (NGOS)
field experiments, collaboration 385–387
NORC See National Opinion Research Center
norms 7, 9
North Atlantic Free Trade Agreement (NAFTA) 414
North Atlantic Treaty Organization (NATO) 413
Northwestern University 525
NPR See National Public Radio
NSF See National Science Foundation
Nuffield Centre for Experimental Social Sciences 86
null hypothesis, experimental treatments, political predispositions 110
Obama, Barrack
attitude change studies 142
foreign policy experience 432
implicit attitudes 159
primaries, strategic concerns 144
observational studies 16, 116, 117
bias 121
candidate gender 289–290
collective-action theory 341
design 144–147
estimation method 126
experimental studies vs. 3, 16–17
external validity 146
internal validity 145, 146
measurement 123
methodological difficulties 215–218
shortcomings 188–189, 202
social networks 273–276
surveys 76, 120, 123, 134, 299, 302
unmeasured confounding problem 18
online deliberation 262, 263–264
online evaluations, automaticity 158
online information processing 157–158
online studies
benefits 85
cross-national research 85–86
drop-in samples 83–84
gender, gender gaps 83
group dynamics, interpersonal influence 85
participants pool expansion 83–84
sampling problem 84–85
selection bias 83
whack-a-pol 83–84, 85
open-ended recall questions 173
Organization for Security and Cooperation 414
OT See oxytocin
oxytocin (OT) 248
Palin, Sarah 296
parallelism 364
Partial Nuclear Test Ban Treaty 416
partisanship
campaign exposure 77
candidate affiliation 189–190, 223
effect on political attitudes 124
face morphing study 79, 80
partisan political campaigns 124
payoffs 376
payoffs, game theory 93–94
PCL See Political Communication Laboratory
PD See prisoner's dilemma
People's Choice (Lazarsfeld, Berelson, Gaudet) 273
permissive designs, survey experiments 107–108
Perry, Rick 235
persuasion 96, 149
PG See public good
The Philadelphia Negro (DuBois) 306
physiological measures 29, 39
pivotal voter 97
policymakers 5–6, 9
policy-specific information 180–181
Polimetrix 85
political communication
causal inference 75–76
field experiments 124
observational studies 216
student samples, external validity 42–43
voter turnout and 120
Political Communication Laboratory (PCL) 83–84
political documentaries 204
political institutions, policy outcomes, legitimacy 125
political institutions, trust, social exchange 251–253
political knowledge 171–175, 208
political participation, social pressure 125
political science
behavioral revolution 73
journals 74
Powell Amendment 354
power, statistical 21
predisposition, survey experiments 102
preferences
attitudes 142–143
control 62–63
game theory 92–93
social preferences measurement 62, 63
voter 79–81
prejudice See race, racial prejudice
pre-testing measures 329–330
pre-testing measures, minority populations 329–330
pre-treatment effect 43, 446, 450–451
priming effects
agenda setting 205–207
defined 81
entertainment media 204
experimental difficulties 202
media influence on politics 124, 125, 190
media priming 322–323
media trust factor 151
racial priming 206–207, 304, 316–317, 320–323
Sequential Priming Paradigm 159
principle surrogates 31
prisoner's dilemma (PD) 91–92, 340, 434
problem-solving style (PSS) 417, 420
procedural rules, structure-induced equilibrium 356
processing models See cognitive process models, candidate evaluation
Progresa Conditional Cash Transfer program 386, 388
PSS See problem-solving style
psychological realism 44
psychology 29, 33, 39
public good (PG) 339, 340
public opinion 203, 204
publication bias 21
QRE See Quantal Response Equilibrium
Quantal Response Equilibrium 98
quasi-experiments 202, 210, 453–454
deliberation 259, 261, 262–263
question wording, sequencing 103–104, 144, 308
don't know response option 144
The Race Card (Mendelberg) 206
race, racial prejudice
African Americans 301–302
associations, political issues 164
black-white divide, U.S. 312–313
candidate choice and 313–317
causal inference 76
Color-Blind Experiment 112, 308
defined 306
experimental studies 303–305
framing 320
immigration 312
implicit bias 161–163
Laid-off Worker Experiment 111–112
linked fate 301
local news coverage 78–79
media, interethnic tension/prejudice reduction 125
minimal group paradigm 300
nonracial policy preferences 311–312
political behavior research 300–302
political ideology 311, 315–316
political science literature 306–313
prejudice vs. discrimination 103–104
priming effects 206–207, 304, 316–317, 320–323
racial cues, heuristics 316–317, 324–326
racial policy preferences 307–311
Regardless of Race Experiment 308–309
skin color 249
stereotypes 191–192
symbolic racism 307
Rajasthan 387–388
randomization, random assignment
balance assessment, graphs, tests 462–464
balance test, p values 467–468
benefit 115–116, 261
clinical research 117
covariance, adjusted for other variables 471–474
covariates, random imbalance adjustment 468–477
covariates uses, potential abuses 461
defined 16–17
deliberation study 267
downstream effects and 495–496
graphic model of assessment 465
group selection 122, 446
internal validity 30, 32
laboratory election experiments 369–370
linear models, adjustment 469–471
political science experimentation 3–4
poststratification, blocking and design 469
precision enhancement strategies, before assignment 462–464
public opinion experiments 111
random sampling vs. 17–18
regression-based adjustment, best practices 477
scientific aims 477–478
statistical inference and 461–462
statistical inference, linear regression tables 474–477
subject sampling 46–47
RCM See Rubin Causal Model
realism 77, 116
experimental vs. mundane 28, 36, 44–45
mundane 75, 81–82, 208
psychological, experimental 208
realism, competition, over-time designs 330–331
Regardless of Race Experiment 112, 308–309
relative reasoning 108
RENEW See Republican Network to Elect Women
replication
experimental advantage 21
external validity 27–28, 34–35, 37
publication process 133–134
Republican Network to Elect Women (RENEW) 294
Republican Party 144
research paradigms
AMP 156, 161
IAT 39, 156, 161–163
Lexical Decision Task 161
Sequential Priming Paradigm 159
SOA 159–161
Rio Declaration on Environment and Development 414
risk aversion studies, Kahneman-Tversky 108
Rubin Causal Model (RCM) 23–25
average treatment effect 445
downstream analysis 497
noncompliance 31, 448–449
treated/untreated states 122, 481
treatment outcome notation 121
Rwanda, media study 125, 388, 389, 390, 391
SALT See Strategic Arms Limitations Talks
samples, sampling
campaign experiments, during vs. outside 224
convenience 7, 41
drop-in 83–84
dual 54
experiments, limitations 246
Internet 36, 324
online studies 84–85
random 46–47
representativeness 36, 37, 38, 149, 189, 224, 246
sampling bias 36, 75, 82–83
snowball sample 278
student subjects 223–224, 246
students, statistical framework 50–53
students vs. other subjects 50–53, 189
trade-offs 54–55
Sarathi Development Foundation 390
SAT Experiment 110
school voucher programs 453–455
Schwarzenegger, Arnold 188
Scioli, Frank 74
selection 446
selective elaboration 149
selective persuasion 149
self-reports
advertising 76–77
attitudes 142
measurement error 229
response bias 143
September 11, 2001 434
Sequential Priming Paradigm 159
sequential voting 376–378
settlement-oriented style (SOS) 420
simulations 41, 50
Six Degrees of Separation 279
snowball surveys, social networks 278
SOA See Stimulus Onset Asynchrony
social context 446
social identity theory 60, 299–300
social networks
baseline attitude measurement 280
causation 273
communication flow control 282
conformity effect 274, 276
cross-sections 273–274
deliberation 277
deliberative polls 277
external shocks 278, 281
external validity 277, 278
Facebook 278
Framingham Heart Study 275
Gold Shield Coffee study 280
logistics, ethical concerns 278–281
MTO study 283
network analysis 275–276
network randomization 276–277, 282–283
observation studies 273–276
panel studies 274–275
role-playing 277
Six Degrees of Separation 279
small groups 277–278
snowball surveys 278
Stanford Prison Experiment 277
strategy convergence 276
subject attrition 283
social pressure 125
social roles 175
SOS See settlement-oriented style
spatial voting models 94, 95, 354–356
spillover effects 482–484
defined 130–131
survey experiments 54
treatment, control groups 482–484
split ballot, survey experiments 102–103
SRC See Survey Research Center
stable unit treatment value assumption (SUTVA)
compliers, treatment effects 25
defined 24, 445
ITT effect 484
social transmission 482
Stanford Prison Experiment 277
START See Strategic Arms Reductions Talks
statistics 21
documenting, reporting 20–21
mediating variables 20
moderation and 20
stereotypes 175, 191–193
gender 290–292
traits 290, 291–292
trust, social exchange 248–250
Stimulus Onset Asynchrony (SOA) 159–161
Stony Brook University (SUNY-Stony Brook) 74, 194
Strategic Arms Limitations Talks (SALT) 413
Strategic Arms Reductions Talks (START) 413
student subjects 42
external validity and 42–44
other samples vs. 50–53
statistical framework 45–50
stylization 59–61
subliminal primes See unconscious stimuli
subliminal tests 39
survey experiments
counter-argument technique 109
defined 17
design classification 106–109
difficulties 76, 123
experimentation vs. 134
external validity and 7
facilitative designs 108–109
GSS 243, 244
history 102–106, 112–113
majorities vs. counter-majorities, equilibrium conditions 111–112
manipulative designs 106–107
minority populations 322–324, 326, 328, 331
participant recall errors 76
participation causes 120
permissive designs 107–108
political knowledge survey 173, 174
predisposition and 102
racial identification 331
relative reasoning 108
snowball surveys 278
spillover effects 54
split-ballot 102–103
SRC 103
voter choices 326
WVS 243, 244
Survey Research Center (SRC) 103
SUTVA See stable unit treatment value assumption
Swing Voter Curse 379
television advertising 37
television news 526
TESS See Time-Sharing Experiments in the Social Sciences
theoretical development 3
Thomas, Clarence 324
Time-Sharing Experiments in the Social Sciences (TESS) 105
treatment effects
ATT 17, 122
average 16–17, 48
bias 46
compliance, compliers, noncompliers 446, 447–450
convenience sample 41
defined 23–24
ecological heterogeneity 453–455
heterogeneity 50, 53–54, 446–447
homogeneity 46, 129
internal, external validity 455–456
laboratory experiments 209–210
manifest effect and 459–462
minority populations 323, 328, 330
multilevel settings 481–482
noncompliance and 25
pre-treatment 43, 446, 450–451
selection 446
self-selection 451–453
social context 446
student sample, statistics 45
treated/untreated groups 121–122
voter contact 232
voter turnout 120
trust, social exchange 98, 99
biological, neural mechanisms 246, 248, 251, 253
causality and 253
correlates 247–248
cross-cultural 250–251
encapsulated trust 245
game theory 245–246, 251, 253
genetics 248
in government vs. interpersonal 244
individual characteristics 247–248
interpersonal 243, 244–245
investment game 245
methodological issues 246–247
microcredit loans 245, 246, 249, 250
OT hormone and 248
physiological measures 248
political institutions 251–253
reciprocity 243, 245
religion and 247
research challenges 243
risk tolerance and 247–248
social capital 249, 250
social networks and 253
socioeconomic status 247
stereotypes 248–250
twin studies 248
turnout experiments 378–380, 449
Uganda, studies
ethnic cooperation 116
ethnic diversity, public goods 389, 391
legislators’ attendance 125
NGOs, ex-combatant reintegration 386
ultimatum game 29, 341
UN Security Council 414
unconscious stimuli 164–166
uncovered set, backward-looking 360
uncovered set, testing 360–363
United States–Japan Administrative Agreement 420
unmeasured confounding 18
U.S. Air Force Academy 432
utility function 369, 370–371
validity See external validity, internal validity
VCM See Voluntary Contribution Mechanism
Vienna Academy of Diplomacy 423
Vietnam Draft Lottery experiment 117
Voluntary Contribution Mechanism (VCM) 340, 342
vote choice extensions 326
Voter News Service 313
voters
behavior, causal modeling 187
competence 177–179
confidence 94–96
knowledge, legislative behavior 125
negative advertising, voting likelihood 218–220
preferences 369–370, 374, 375, 376
preferences, facial similarities and 79–81
uninformed 171–175
vote choice 194
vote margin 117, 118–119
voters, turnout
advertising 218
campaign mobilization 119–121
instrumental variables 32
negative advertising 31, 219–220
social pressure 125
voter contact study 117
voters, voter mobilization
ANES 229
citizen lobbying 236, 238
civic participation 237–238
downstream effects 496, 501
extensions to first experiments 230–232
field experiments, ethical concerns 235–236
field experiments, external validity 234–235
field experiments, implementation problems 232–234
field experiments, legality 236
new technologies 236–237
observational studies 228–232
pioneering experiments 229–230
social psychological theories 231–232
voter choice 237
voter files 234
Voting (Berelson, Lazarsfeld, McPhee) 273
voting rules 374, 376
Warsaw Pact 413
Washington Post 124, 125
Washington Times 124, 125
WashingtonPost.com 84
WashingtonPost.com-PCL collaborative experiments 84
Wason selection task 60–61
Wason task/test 409
WebTV 84
welfare policy 181
West Bengal 387–388
whack-a-pol online experiments 83–84
Willie Horton advertisement 76, 165
Wilson, Pete 78
within-subjects design 17–18, 30, 371
women candidates, political representation 289–290, 294
See also gender
World Bank 386
World Values Survey (WVS) 243, 244
WVS See World Values Survey
Zurich Program in the Foundations of Human Behavior 86