Region	Latitude	Frost-free period (Celsius degree-days)	Average temperature of warmest month (oC)	Must minimal potential alcohol required (%)	Maximum permissible chaptalization (% potential alcohol increase)
Ahr	50°50′N	887	17.8	7.5	3.5
Champagne	49°20′N	988	18.3	8.5	2.5
Kairserstuhl	48°10′N	1045	18.8	8.9	2.5
Mâcon	46°20′N	1223	20.0	10.0	2.0

Source: After Becker, 1977, reproduced by permission.

In addition to affecting the distribution of grape culture, climate also has a deciding influence on the potential for fine wine production. For example, most of the well-known wine regions of Europe are in mild to cool climatic zones. The absence of hot weather during ripening favors the retention of grape acidity. This gives the resulting wine a fresh taste and helps limit microbial spoilage. Cool harvest conditions also promote the development or retention of varietal flavors, and reduce the potential for overheating during fermentation. In addition, storage in cool cellars represses microbial growth that could induce spoilage. Finally, cool conditions have required that most vineyards be situated on south- or west-facing slopes, to obtain sufficient heat and light exposure. This incidentally has positioned vineyards on less-fertile, but better-drained sites. These features have restrained excessive vine vigor, while promoting fruit ripening and providing a degree of frost protection.

In contrast, the hot conditions typical of southern regions favor acid metabolism and a rise in juice pH. In addition to producing a flatter taste, the low acidity makes the wines more susceptible to oxidation and microbial spoilage. Although only approximately 0.004% of grape phenols are in a readily oxidized state at pH 3.5 (Cilliers and Singleton, 1990), they are so unstable that oxidative reactions occur readily. Even minor increases in pH can significantly increase the tendency of the wine to oxidize. Thus, protection from oxidation tends to be more critical in warm areas than in cooler regions. In addition, grapes tend to accumulate higher sugar contents under warm conditions. These increase the likelihood of premature cessation of fermentation, along with harvesting and fermentation under warm conditions. By retaining fermentable sugars, the wine is much more susceptible to undesirable forms of malolactic fermentation and microbial contamination. Warm cellar conditions further enhance the likelihood of spoilage.

Although advancements in viticulture and enology have increased the potential to produce a wider range of wine styles, prevailing conditions had a decisive and defining influence on the evolution of regional styles. Cool climates favored the production of fruity, tart, white wines. Such wines normally have been consumed alone, as sipping wines, before or after meals. More alcoholic white wines functioned primarily as food beverages. In warmer regions, red wines have tended to predominate. Here, the higher grape sugar content permitted the production of full-bodied wines, considered well suited to accompany meals. In hot Mediterranean regions, high-sugar and low-acid grapes favored the production of alcoholic wines that tended to oxidize readily. These features encouraged the development of oxidized, sweet, or flavored, high-alcoholic wines, appropriate for use as aperitifs or dessert wines.

Nevertheless, present-day viticultural and enologic techniques now permit the production of almost any wine style in southern regions. Equivalent techniques have not allowed the reverse situation in northern regions – an essentially unavailed opportunity.

Cultivars

In Europe, the cultivation of grape varieties has tended to be highly localized (e.g., Fig. 10.13). This has given rise to the view that cultivar distribution reflects a conscious selection of cultivars, particularly suited to local climatic conditions. At sites where religious orders have produced wine for centuries, empirical trials may have found grape cultivars especially suited to the local climate. In most localities, however, wine was consumed within the year of its production, a situation incompatible with assessing aging potential (the sine qua non of wine quality). Also, varieties were commonly planted more or less at random within vineyards, as well as being harvested and vinified together. Thus, assessment of the relative quality of one cultivar versus another would have been essentially impossible. Finally, there is little documentation that could support, or refute, the continued cultivation of specific varieties in particular regions. Important exceptions are Riesling and Pinot noir, for which documentary information may go back to the 1400s. The best information concerning the development of indigenous cultivars comes from DNA analysis (see Chapter 2). Much of the information supports local evolution and retention. These cultivars probably arose from the incidental, uncoordinated propagation of better local strains, or were the product of accidental crossing with imported cultivars. Most selection would have been for obvious traits, such as compatibility with local climatic and soil conditions, higher sugar content, adequate acidity, better color, and aroma. Subtleties such as aging potential, development of delicate bouquets, and complexity would have been selected fortuitously. Only since the 1700s have conditions become more conducive to the intentional selection of premium-quality cultivars. Current DNA data also provide little information on when current cultivars evolved. Even some famous cultivars, such as Cabernet Sauvignon in Bordeaux, appear to have arisen comparatively recently, having documentary evidence only from the early 1800s (Penning-Rowsell, 1985).

Figure 10.13 Distribution of Cabernet Sauvignon by department in France. (From Moran, 1988, reproduced by permission.)

Viticulture

In Europe, traditional cultivation has varied from dense plantings, with about 5000 to 10,000 vines/hectare, to interplanting with field crops, with trees as supports. In densely planted vineyards, each vine occupied about 1 m², resulting in intervine competition and restrained vigor. This had the effect of reducing the level of pruning and manual labor required. Spacing was also compatible with manual or single, horse- or oxen-drawn equipment. Restrained vigor also resulted from the relegation of most vineyards to poorer soils, where cereal and other food crops would not grow well. This applied equally to sloped sites, which generally were (and are) ill-suited to annual, food-crop production. The relatively dry summer months, combined with dryland farming, equally tended to result in the early termination of vegetative growth. Combined with traditional pruning, fruit production was limited, but promoted early maturity. This had the distinct advantage of permitting an early harvest, important in regions where the onset of cold, rainy, autumn weather could ruin the crop. Hedging, when it became necessary to permit easier access for cultivation, incidentally favored nutrient direction to the fruit. In addition, hedging helped limit fruit shading, thus promoting improved coloration and flavor development.

The previous relegation of most grape culture to poorer or sloped agricultural sites, and the advantages of dense plantings, has regrettably led to the erroneous view that these conditions are necessary for grape quality. That these conditions reduce individual vine size and productivity, and favor fruit maturation, is not in question. However, as noted in Chapter 4, new training systems, involving canopy management, permit the cultivation of widely spaced vines on rich soils, without sacrificing fruit quality. In addition, fruit yield is increased and mechanization facilitated. Some of these techniques are being slowly integrated into standard European vineyard practice.

Enology

In Europe, more variation is probably found in winemaking procedures than in its viticultural practice. The differences reflect the wine styles that have evolved in response to climatic or market demands. In addition, major developments have occurred since the mid-nineteenth century. Previously, long-aging wines were matured in large-capacity wood cooperage. This applied to both white and red wines. Furthermore, red, and occasionally, white wines were produced by fermenting the juice with the seeds and skins for up to several weeks. The resulting wines were often partially oxidized and possessed higher volatile acidity than is now considered acceptable (Sudraud, 1978). Current trends have been to reduce the maceration period for both white and red wines. In addition, shorter maturation in wood is also favored. Premium white wines may receive up to 6 months in small oak cooperage, whereas premium reds often receive up to 2 years. Limited oak exposure may be used to preserve the fresh, fruity aroma of the wine. Greater emphasis is placed on the development of a reductive, in-bottle, aging bouquet than formerly.

Central Western Europe

France

France has the advantage of being the largest of the European nation states, combined with a multitude of climatic zones, and a diverse topography with few homogeneous regions. Most agricultural regions of similar geographic character are comparatively small and specialized in crop production. This multifarious nature is reflected in the country’s localized cultivar plantings and regional wine styles. Although no one soil type or geologic origin distinguishes French vineyards, many regions possess calcareous soils, or cover chalky substrata.

Although the effect of Appellation Control laws has tended to stabilize cultivar plantings in AOC- and VDQS-regions, marked changes in the varietal composition have occurred in nondesignated regions. For example, the proportion of French-American hybrid varieties rose dramatically after the phylloxera pandemic in the late 1800s, but has declined from about 30% in 1958 to less than 5% by 1988 (Boursiquot, 1990). It is supposedly to go to 0% by 2010. Remarkable in terms of worldwide trends is the increase in red cultivar plantings. In France, the hectarage of red V. vinifera cultivars has grown by 9% since 1958, whereas the planting of white cultivars has declined by 7%. White cultivars cover only about 30% of French vineyards. Of these, about 40% of the yield is used in the production of brandies, notably cognac and armagnac.

During the mid- to late-twentieth century, plantings of several well-known white cultivars decreased, whereas others came close to extinction. For example, Sémillon and Chenin blanc plantings declined by about 50%, and Viognier fell to only 82 ha (Boursiquot, 1990). Subsequently, Viognier cultivation has rebounded to over 5000 ha. Chardonnay and Sauvignon blanc are other white cultivars to see significant cultivation increases, now taking second and third spots in white vineyard coverage. The most marked expansion in cultivar plantings has occurred with Syrah, whose hectarage has amplified so much that it is now the third most cultivated red grape in France. Other red varieties with significantly expanded plantings are Cabernet Sauvignon, Cabernet franc, Merlot (currently the most cultivated cultivar in France) and Pinot noir.

Although France is particularly famous for one of its sparkling wines (champagne), the vast majority of French wines are still (about 3 million hL vs. 40 million hL). As in other major wine-producing and -consuming countries, most French wines are red. Only a few sweet or fortified wines are produced. In contrast, vast quantities of brandy are produced.

Although wine is produced commercially in most regions of France, only a few regions are widely represented in world trade, notably Alsace, Bordeaux, Burgundy, Champagne, Loire, and the Rhône. These regions are briefly discussed here, along with the less prestigious, but most important wine-producing region (in terms of volume), the Midi (Languedoc-Roussillon).

Alsace

Alsace is one of the most culturally distinctive regions of France. This reflects its German–French heritage and alternate French and German nationalities. Not surprisingly, wines from Alsace bear a varietal resemblance to German wines, but a stylistic similarity to French wines. It is also the one ‘French’ region where varietal origin is typically and prominently displayed on the label.

Alsatian vineyards run from north to south, along the eastern side of the Vosges Mountains (47°50′ to 49°00′N). The vineyard region possesses three structurally distinctive zones. The zone running along the edge of the mountains has excellent drainage, and benefits from solar warming of its shallow, rocky, siliceous soil. The foothill region is predominantly calcareous and generally possesses the best microclimate for grape cultivation. The soils of the plains are of more recent alluvial origin and possess excellent water-retention properties. Most vineyards occur at an altitude ranging between 170 and 360 m.

Alsace produces predominantly dry white wines, although some sweet and sparkling wines are produced. Yearly production averages about 0.9 million hL. Predominant cultivars are Gewürztraminer (20%), Pinot blanc (18%), Riesling (20%), and Silvaner (21%), with small plantings of Chasselas, Muscat, Auxerrois, Pinot gris, and Pinot noir.

Because of the coolish climate, grapes are often harvested high in acidity and the wines treated to promote malolactic fermentation. Local strains of lactic acid bacteria may be involved in generating some of the distinctive regional flavor found in many Alsatian wines.

Bordeaux

Bordeaux is the largest of the famous French viticultural regions (44°20′ to 45°30′N). It runs southeast for about 150 km along the banks of the Gironde, Dordogne, and Garonne Rivers. The vineyards cover about 112,000 ha, and annual production averages more than 6 million hL.

The Bordeaux region, located near the mouth of the Aquitaine Basin, is trisected by the junction of the Dordogne and Garonne Rivers to form the Gironde. These zones are divided into some 30 variously sized AOC areas. The best-known are those on the western banks of the Gironde (Haut Médoc) and the Garonne (Graves and Sauternes), and the eastern bank of the Dordogne (Pomerol and Saint-Émilion). Although Bordeaux is best known for its red wines, about 40% are white. White wines are produced primarily in Graves and Entre-Deux-Mers. The best vineyard sites are generally on shallow slopes or alluvial terraces adjacent to the Gironde, or low-lying regions along the Garonne and Dordogne Rivers at altitudes between 15 and 120 m.

Geologically, Bordeaux shows relatively little diversity. The bedrock is predominantly composed of Tertiary marls or sandstone, intermixed with limestone inclusions. The substrata are usually covered by alluvial deposits of gravel and sand of Quaternary origin, topped with silt. The soils are generally poor in humus and exchangeable cations. This is partially offset at better sites by the soil depth, often 3 m or more. Deep soils also provide vines with access to water during periods of drought, and good drainage in heavy rains.

The presence of extensive forests to the east and south protects Bordeaux vineyards from direct exposure to cool winds off the Atlantic. Nevertheless, proximity to the ocean and rivers provides some protection from rapid temperature changes, but limits summer warmth. Wet autumns occasionally cause difficulty during harvest, causing fruit to split, encouraging bunch rot, and diluting the sugar and flavor content of the grapes. Soil depth and drainage, along with local microclimate, appear to be more significant to quality than soil type or geologic origin (Seguin, 1986). This is not too surprising in a region of variable rainfall, where avoiding water logging and drought are problems and irrigation prohibited.

Unlike the wines of some French viticultural regions, Bordeaux wines typically are blends of wines produced from two or more cultivars. Depending on the AOC, the predominant cultivar can vary. In the Haut Médoc, the prevailing variety in red wines is Cabernet Sauvignon, whereas in Pomerol, it is Merlot. This partially results from Cabernet Sauvignon being more herbaceous on the clay soils of Pomerol, but less so on the sandy and gravelly soils of the Haut-Médoc. Maturing somewhat earlier and reaching a higher °Brix, Merlot is also more forgiving of the slower warming of the clay soils in Pomerol.

The presence and percentage of each cultivar in a vineyard often varies considerably among estates. In addition, the proportion used in any blend can vary annually. This flexibility permits the winemaker to compensate for yearly deficiencies in the base wines. Wine not incorporated into the premier blend may be bottled under an alternate (second) label, or sold to negotiants for use in preparing non-estate-bottled blends. The standard red cultivars are Cabernet Sauvignon, Merlot, Cabernet franc, Petit Verdot, and Malbec. The first three constitute about 90% of red cultivar planting in Bordeaux. Although Cabernet Sauvignon is the best-known Bordeaux grape, and grown particularly in the Haut-Médoc, the related Merlot constitutes about 60% of the red grapes grown in Bordeaux. Petit Verdot and Malbec constitute only a small proportion of the hectarage.

White bordeaux also tends to be a blend of wines, based from two or more cultivars. In most areas, the predominant cultivar is Sauvignon blanc, with Sémillon coming in second. The 2:1 proportion of these cultivars is reversed in Sauternes and Barsac, in which sweet, botrytized, wines tend to be produced. In contrast to German botrytized wines, those from Bordeaux tend to be high in alcohol content (14–15%). Other permitted white cultivars are Muscadelle, Ugni blanc, and Colombard.

Because of good harbor facilities, proximity to the climate-moderating ocean, and a long-established association with discriminating, wine-importing countries, Bordeaux was well positioned to capitalize on the benefits of many winemaking developments. It was one of the first regions to initiate the modern practice of estate bottling and in-bottle aging (ceasing the practice of transporting wine in barrels). It also influenced the shift from tank to barrel maturation of wine. Except for some white wines, Bordeaux wines are tank- or vat-fermented, rather than in-barrel fermented, as in Burgundy. This situation reflects the relatively large size of many Bordeaux estates (châteaux), and their considerable production volume, in contrast to the plethora of small Burgundy producers. Most Bordeaux vineyards cover 5–20 ha, with some encompassing 40–80 ha.

Burgundy

Burgundy is often considered to include several regions beyond the strict confines of Burgundy proper (the Côte d’Or). The ancillary regions include Chablis, to the northwest, and the more southern areas of Challonais, Mâconnais, and Beaujolais. Their total production averages about 1.5 million hL/year.

For all its fame, the Côte d’Or consists of just a narrow strip of land, seldom more than 2 km wide. The strip runs about 50 km from Chagny to Dijon (46°50′ to 47°20′N), in a northeasterly direction along the western edge of the broad Saône Valley. Although the vineyards are in a river valley, the Saône River is too distant (≥20 km) to have a significant effect on vineyard microclimate. A major physical feature favoring viticulture in the region is the southeasterly inclination of the valley wall. The porous soil structure and 5–20% slope promote good drainage and favor early-spring warming of the soil. Sites located partially up the slope, at an altitude between 250 and 300 m, are generally preferred (Fig. 10.14). Wine produced from grapes grown on higher ground or on the alluvial soils of the valley floor are generally regarded as inferior.

Figure 10.14 Geological cross-section of the vineyard regions of Vosne-Romanée (Côte de Nuits) and Puligny-Montrachet (Côte de Beaune) in Burgundy. The Jurassic structure of the Côte: 1, crinoidal limestone (Bajocian); 2, Ostrea acuminata marl (Upper Bajocian); 3, Prémeaux stone; 4, white oolite, oolite and bioclastic limestone (Middle Bathonian); 5, Comblanchien limestone with, in the south, Pholasomya bellona marl (Middle Bathonian); 6, Dalle nacrée (pearly flagstone) (Callovian); 7, limestone marl and Pernand marl (Middle Oxfordian); 8, Pommard marl (Upper Oxfordian); 9, Nantoux limestone (Upper Oxfordian); 13, marly intercalations between 4 and 5. Infilling of the Bresse Graben: 10, conglomerate, limestone, and clay (Oligocene); 11, marl, sand, and gravel (Plio-Pleistocene). Cover: 12, alluvials and silt cover; 14, colluvials and limestone scree. (From Mériaux et al., 1981, reproduced by permission.)

The Côte d’Or is divided into two subregions, the northern Côte de Nuits and the southern Côte de Beaune. Although there are exceptions, the Côte de Nuits is known more for its red wines, whereas the Côte de Beaune is more renowned for its white wines. This difference is commonly ascribed to the steeper slopes and limestone-based soils of the Côte de Nuits versus the shallower slopes and marly clays of the Côte de Beaune. Whether this is a case of mistaken correlation with causation is unknown.

The predominant cultivars planted in the Côte d’Or are both early maturing – Pinot noir and Chardonnay. These cultivars produce some of the best-known wines in the world. The cool climate slows ripening, a factor often considered to limit the loss of important varietal flavors, especially with Pinot noir.

Pinot noir can produce delicately fragrant, subtle, smooth wines of great quality under ideal conditions. Regrettably, optimal conditions occur notoriously rarely, even in Burgundy. Climatic factors seem to influence the flavor characteristics of Pinot noir wines more than other varieties (Miranda-Lopez et al., 1992). In addition, there is the infamous clonal diversity of Pinot noir. Further complicating an already difficult situation is the multiple ownership of most of the vineyards. Individual owners frequently possess a few rows of vines at numerous sites scattered throughout the region. Thus, grapes are fermented in small lots (to maintain site identity) by producers whose technical skill and equipment are highly variable. The wines are usually fermented and matured in older, small, oak cooperage. New oak is not considered the quality feature here that it is in Bordeaux.

Although Pinot noir matures early, it is not intensely pigmented. Thus, to improve color extraction, part of the crop may be subjected to thermovinification. However, the trend is a return to the tradition of cold maceration before fermentation. Frequent punching down of the cap during fermentation is usually necessary. Because of the onerous nature of punching down, considerable interest has been shown in using small-capacity (~50-hL) rotary fermentors. They frequently and automatically mix the pomace with the fermenting juice.

White wine is primarily produced from Chardonnay grapes, although some comes from Aligoté. If so, its presence must be designated on the label. Most white wines are fermented in barrels or small tanks. In the region of Macon, about 5–10% of the Chardonnay clones possess a muscat character. These are considered to give the region’s wines its distinctive aroma. Some rare, pink-skinned Chardonnay clones are grown in the northern part of the Côte d’Or.

Because of the cool climate, chaptalization is commonly required to reach the alcohol content considered typical (12–13%). Malolactic fermentation is promoted for its beneficial deacidification effect. As a consequence, the wines usually are racked infrequently. The associated long contact with the lees (sur lies maturation) tends to influence the character of Burgundian wines. It is also thought by some that the accumulation of yeasts and tartrate on the insides of the barrel limits an excessive uptake of oak flavor.

Except for a few large estates under single control, most sites in Burgundy are under multiple ownership. This leads to a bewildering variety of wines from a single appellation. Combined with limited production, relative to demand, this means that high prices abound despite often lackluster quality.

Chablis is a delimited region some 120 km northwest of the Côte d’Or (47°48′ to 47°55′N), just east of Auxerre. The region is characterized by a marly subsoil topped by a limestone- and flint-based clay. Sites located on well-exposed slopes (15–20%) are preferred to achieve better sun exposure and drainage. This is especially important because the region frequently suffers severe late-spring frosts. To further enhance protection against frost damage, the vines are trained low to the ground. Cordon de Royat and short-trunk double Guyot training systems are common (Fig. 10.15). Shoot growth seldom reaches more than 1.5 m above ground level. Thus, the vines remain close to heat radiated from the soil. The wines typically have little (subtle) fragrance and are more acidic than equivalent wines from central Burgundy. Chardonnay is the only authorized cultivar in Chablis. Yield varies from approximately 50,000 to 100,000 hL from 1500 ha planted with vines.

Figure 10.15 Training of vines low to the ground in Chablis to provide protection from frost damage in late spring or early fall. (A) Pinot noir before pruning to Cordon de Royat training; (B) Chardonnay before pruning to Chablis training. (From Dovaz, 1983, reproduced by permission.)

Beaujolais is the most southerly region in Burgundy (45°50′ to 46°10′N). It runs approximately 70 km as a broad strip of hilly land from just north of Lyon to just south of Mâcon. Most vineyards are located on slopes that are part of the eastern edge of the Massif Central. Here, the subsoil is deep and derived from granite and schist. The soil has considerable clay content and may be admixed with calcareous and black-shale deposits.

The most distinctive feature of Beaujolais has been its retention of an old production technique, closely resembling what is termed carbonic maceration (see Chapter 9). The procedure can generate wines that are pleasantly drinkable within weeks of production. It also results in the development of a distinctively fresh, fruity fragrance. A light style became very popular in the late 1960s – beaujolais nouveau. The red cultivar grown in the region, Gamay noir, responds well to carbonic maceration. Nevertheless, the technique can also yield wines that age well. These come predominantly from several villages in the northern portion of Beaujolais. Possibly to distance themselves stylistically from nouveau wines, most producers in these villages (crus) avoid mentioning Beaujolais on their labels. Beaujolais produces approximately 1 million hl wine/year, with more than 60% going into beaujolais nouveau.

Champagne

Champagne is probably France’s best-known wine, so much so that its name has been adopted as a synonym for sparkling wines, both to their benefit and chagrin.

The designated region of Champagne is quite large, covering about 30,000 ha (3% of French vineyard hectarage). The annual production of approximately 3 million hL is largely, but not exclusively, used for the production of sparkling wine. Most of the region lies east-northeast of Paris, spanning out equally on both sides of the Marne River for about 120 km. The other main section lies to the southeast, in the Aube département. Nevertheless, the greatest concentration of vineyards (~50%), and the sites most highly regarded, occur within the vicinity of Épernay (49°02′N). Here lie two prominences (falaises) that rise above the valley floor. The Montagne de Reims creates steep south- and east-facing slopes along the Marne River, and more gentle slopes northward toward Reims, some 6 km away. The Côte des Blancs, just south of Épernay, provides steeply sloped vineyard sites facing eastward. Soil cover is shallow (15–90 cm) and overlies a hard bedrock of chalk. Because of the slope, the topsoil needs to be periodically restored.

All three authorized grape cultivars are planted in the Épernay region, but the pattern of distribution varies among regions. The north and northeastern slopes of the Montagne de Reims are planted almost exclusively with Pinot noir, whereas along the eastern and southern inclines, both Pinot noir and Chardonnay are cultivated. On the eastern ascent of the Côte des Blancs essentially only Chardonnay is grown. The best vineyards are considered to lie between 140 and 170 m altitude (about halfway up the slopes) and possess eastern to southern orientations. Pinot Meunier may be grown on the falaises as well, but it is primarily cultivated along the Marne Valley and other delimited regions. In the valley, soils are more fertile and less calcareous than those of the falaises, but the area is more susceptible to frost damage. Although the cultivar is less preferred, about 48% of Champagne plantings are Pinot Meunier, with the rest divided about equally between Pinot noir and Chardonnay.

In Champagne, the most northerly French vineyard region, the vines are trained low to the ground. As previously noted, the best sites are on slopes that direct the flow of cold air away from the vines, and out onto the valley floor. The inclination of the sites can also provide conditions that enhance spring and fall warming. Although the slopes tend to be shallow, solar gain is still better than on level sites. Surprisingly, some excellent Pinot noir vineyards face northward, possibly improving winter survival by retaining more snow cover. In Champagne, optimal color development in the grapes and phenol synthesis are not essential to wine quality. The limited anthocyanin content simplifies the extraction of uncolored juice from red grapes. In addition, delayed fruit ripening probably aids the harvesting of healthy grapes – a prerequisite for producing white wines from red grapes. Pinot noir becomes very susceptible to bunch rot at maturity. With maturation delayed, the fruit remains relatively resistant to Botrytis infection. The significance of this is accentuated due to infection-favoring precipitation occurring predominantly in the late summer and fall.

That grapes are harvested somewhat immature is not the disadvantage it would be with other wine styles. It favors the production of wines low in alcohol content (~9%). This facilitates the initiation of the second, in-bottle fermentation, so integral to champagne production. If the acidity is excessive, deacidification can be achieved with malolactic fermentation or blending. Although training vines close to the ground makes mechanical harvesting impossible, this is acceptable because red varieties must be handpicked to avoid berry rupture. Mechanical harvesting would unavoidably result in some berry rupture, and the associated diffusion of pigment into the juice. Manual harvesting also permits the selective removal of diseased fruit before pressing.

Although many wines are ranked relative to their vineyard origin, champagnes are rarely vineyard designated. Champagnes are usually a blend of wines from different sites and vintages, to generate consistent house styles. Each champagne firm (house) creates its own proprietary style(s). The procedure also helps cushion variations in annual yield and quality, and tends to stabilize prices. In exceptional years, vintage champagnes may be produced. In vintage champagnes, at least 80% of the wine must come from the stated vintage.

Loire

The Loire marks the northern boundary of commercial viticulture in western France (~47°N), a full degree latitude south of Champagne. This apparent anomaly results from proximity and access of the Loire Valley to cooling winds off the Atlantic Ocean. The region consists of several distinct subregions, stretching from the mouth of the Loire River near Nantes, to Pouilly sur-Loire, some 450 km upstream. Most regions specialize in varietal wines produced from one or a few grape cultivars. Loire vineyards cover some 61,000 ha and annually produce approximately 3.5 million hL of wine.

Nearest the Atlantic Ocean is the Pays Nantais. It produces white wines from the Muscadet (Melon) and Gros Plant varieties. About 100 km upstream is Anjou-Saumur. Here, Chenin blanc is the dominant cultivar. Although Chenin blanc usually produces dry white wines, noble-rotted fruit produce sweet wines high in alcohol content (~14%). Rosés are also a regional speciality, coming from the Cabernet franc and Groslot varieties. In the central district of Touraine, light-red wines are derived from Cabernet franc and Cabernet Sauvignon (Chinon and Bourgueil), and white wines from Chenin blanc (Vouvray). In Vouvray, dry, sweet, (botrytized), and sparkling wines are produced. The best-known upper-Loire appellations are Sancerre and Pouilly sur-Loire. Their wines come primarily from Sauvignon blanc, although some wine is also made from Chasselas.

In the Loire Valley, vineyard slope becomes significant only in the upper reaches of the river, around Sancerre and Pouilly sur-Loire. Here, chalk cliffs rise to an altitude of 350 m. In most regions, moisture retention, soil depth, and drainage are the most significant factors influencing the microclimate (Jourjon et al., 1991).

Southern France

Progressing south from the union of the Saône and Rhône Rivers, just below Beaujolais, the climate progressively takes on a Mediterranean character. Total precipitation declines, and peak rainfall shifts from the summer to winter months. The average temperature also rises considerably. Here, red grapes consistently develop full pigmentation. Not surprisingly, red wines are the dominant type produced. Because of the longer growing season, cultivars adapted to such conditions predominate.

Syrah is generally acknowledged to be the finest red cultivar in southern France. Syrah has shown a marked increase in cultivation, following a decline associated with and following the phylloxera devastation of the 1870s. A similar fate befell many other cultivars, such as Roussanne, Marsanne, Viognier, and Mataro (Mourvèdre). They are also showing renewed cultivation. The fruitfulness of French-American hybrids, developed initially to avoid the expense of grafting in phylloxera control, induced further displacement of the indigenous varieties during much of the twentieth century. The shift of vine culture from cooler highland slopes to the hotter, rich plains resulted in overcropping and a reduction in wine quality. Thus, wines from southern regions, ranked as highly as Bordeaux in the mid-1800s, are little known today.

Generally, the best-known regions are those in the upper Rhône Valley. In regions such as the Côte Rôtie (45°30′N) and Hermitage (45°N), the best sites are on steep slopes. In the Côte Rôtie, ‘Syrah’ is often cofermented with 10% Viognier. This adds a distinctive fruitiness from the white cultivar. In some areas, the slopes are terraced, for example Condrieu. One exception is Châteauneuf-du-Pape (44°05′N). It is in the center of the lower Rhône Valley and situated on shallow slopes. The Rhône Valley possesses approximately 38,000 ha of vines and produces about 2 million hL wine/year.

In the upper Rhône, most of the wines are produced from a single cultivar. Progressing southward, the tendency shifts to the blending of several to many cultivars. Also, the predominant cultivar changes from Syrah in the upper Rhône, to Grenache in the lower Rhône, to Carignan in the Midi (primarily Languedoc and Roussillon).

With a tendency for long, hot, dry summers in the south, vegetative growth ceases early, producing short sturdy shoots. This, and the value of fruit shading, have promoted the continued use of Goblet training. Its bushy form was presumed to minimize water loss by ground shading. However, data from van Zyl and van Huyssteen (1980) counter this view. The system also obviates the need for a trellis and yearly shoot positioning. In addition, the short vine stature and sturdy shoots are less vulnerable to the strong, southerly, mistral winds, common in the lower Rhône and Rhône Delta (Fig. 10.16). Windbreaks are a common feature in the area.

Figure 10.16 The lower Rhône Valley and associated Mediterranean regions prone to influence by strong mistral winds. (From Rougetet, 1930, reproduced by permission.)

Although the upper Rhône Valley, and to a lesser extent the lower Rhône, produces several wines of international reputation, this is rare in the Midi. Only some sweet wines, such as Banyuls, appear to have gained an international clientele. Much of the nearly 33 million hL production is sold in bulk or converted to industrial alcohol. Grapes are the single most important crop in the region.

Improvement in wine quality in the Midi will depend on planting better cultivars, eliminating overcropping, and adopting mechanized winemaking equipment and techniques. However, this is difficult to achieve in an economically depressed area, where most vineyards are small and too often owned by poorly trained producers. The situation is not aided by a mentality accustomed to subsidized prices for wine destined largely for distillation into industrial alcohol. Amazingly, this regrettable situation is not due to a lack of research facilities. One of France’s premier centers for studying wine is located in Montpellier. Access to, and application of, knowledge are not synonymous.

Germany

Germany’s reputation for quality wines far exceeds its significance in terms of quantity. It produces only about 3% of the world’s supply. However, much of the international repute comes from a small quantity of botrytized and drier Riesling Prädikat wines. Nevertheless, much fine wine comes from the lesser-known cultivar Muller-Thurgau. The reputation of German wines, despite the high latitude of its vineyards, partially reflects the high technical skill of its grape growers and winemakers, and the assistance provided by the many excellent research facilities throughout the country.

The high latitude of Germany’s vineyard regions (47°40′ to 50°40′N), and the resulting cool climate and relatively short growing season, favor the retention of fruit flavors and refreshing acidity. The ‘liability’ of low °Brix levels has been turned into an asset by producing naturally light, low-alcohol wines (7.5–9.5%). With the advent of sterile filtration in the late 1930s, crisp semi-sweet wines with fresh fruity and floral fragrances could be produced consistently and in quantity. These wines ideally fit the role they have often played in Germany, namely, light sipping wines consumed before or after meals. The botrytized specialty wines have for centuries been favorite dessert replacements. As befits their use, more than 85% of all German wines are white. Even the red wines come in a light style, often more resembling a rosé than standard red wines. Although most German wines generally are not considered ideal meal accompaniments, several producers are developing dry versions to meet the growing demand for this style in Germany.

German viticultural regions reflect the typical European regional specialization with particular cultivars. Nevertheless, in only a few regions does one cultivar predominate. In addition, modern cultivars are grown extensively. For example, Müller-Thurgau is the most extensively grown German cultivar (24%), ahead of the more well-known Riesling (21%). Nearly half the vineyards are planted with varieties developed in the ongoing German grape-breeding programs. Their earlier maturity, higher yield, and floral fragrance have made them valuable in producing wines at the northern limit of commercial viticulture. Both new cultivars, and clonal selection of established varieties, have played a significant role in raising vineyard productivity, without resulting in a loss in wine quality. Of red cultivars, the most frequently planted are Spätburgunder (Pinot noir) and Portugieser.

One of the most distinctive features of German viticulture is the high proportion of vineyards on slopes (Fig. 10.17). This has meant that viticulture did not compete with other crops for land. Most of the famous sites are on valley walls, unsuitable for other crop cultivation. Although steep inclinations may produce favorable microclimates for grape growth, they were incompatible with most mechanized vineyard activities until recently. Thus, to facilitate viticulture, vineyard consolidation has been encouraged in several regions, as well as structural modification to produce terraces suitable for mechanization (Luft and Morgenschweis, 1984).

Figure 10.17 Proportion of German vineyards on land within different slope ranges in 1977. Note: Angles of 10° and 20° correspond to inclines of 18% and 37%, respectively. (From Anonymous, 1979, reproduced by permission.)

Formerly, vines were trained on short trunks (10–30 cm), as is still common in northern France. This has changed to trunks between 50 and 80 cm high. Not only is cultivation and harvesting easier with taller trunks, but the vines are less susceptible to disease, due to better air circulation and surface drying of the fruit and foliage. Trellising also helps position shoot growth and leaf production for optimal light exposure. This is important because long summer days (≥16.5 h) and abundant precipitation promote rapid development of a large photosynthetic assimilation area. In addition, by locating shoot-bearing wood low on the vine, and directing shoot growth upward, grapes are kept as close as possible to heat radiated from the soil. Only on particularly steep slopes, notably along the Mosel–Saar–Ruwer, are vines still trained to individual stakes with two arched canes.

On all but the steepest inclines, narrow-gauge tractors permit many vineyard activities to be mechanized. In addition, small tractors are required if they are to pass amongst densely planted vines.

Although German vineyard regions have a cool, temperate climate, the southernmost viticultural portions of Baden possess warmer and wetter conditions than elsewhere in Germany. They occur on the windward side of the Black Forest, across from Alsace. The Baden region consists of a series of noncontiguous areas spanning 400 km, from the northern shores of Lake Constance (Bodensee) (47°40′N) to the Tauber River, just south of Würzburg (49°44′N). Most of the vineyards occur in the 130-km stretch between Freiburg and Baden-Baden. The most favored sites are located on the volcanic slopes of the Kaiserstuhl and Tuniberg.

Spätburgunder (Pinot noir) is often grown on the well-drained south-facing slopes of Baden, and produces about 90% of Germany’s Spätburgunder wines. On heavier, loamy soils, Müller-Thurgau, Ruländer, and Gutendal (Chasselas) tend to predominate. Gutendal is especially well adapted to the more humid portions of the region. Wine production is largely under the control of several large, skilled cooperatives. The region has been particularly active in vineyard consolidation and terrace construction.

Directly north of Alsace, on the western side of the Rhine Valley, is the Rheinpfalz. It continues as the Rheinhessen to where the Rhine River turns westward at Mainz. Combined, these regions possess almost one-half of all German vineyards (48,000 ha), and produce most of the wine exported from Germany. The region consists largely of rolling fertile land at the northern end of the Vosges (Haardt) Mountains. Liebfraumilch is the best-known regionally exported wine. The regions span latitudes from 49° to 50°N.

As with other German wine regions, the best vineyard sites occupy south- and east-facing slopes, and are planted primarily with Riesling. Occasional black basalt outcrops, as found around Deidesheim, are thought to improve the local microclimate and provide extra potassium. The longer growing cycle of Riesling demands the warmest, sunniest microclimates to reach full maturity. In the Rheinpfalz, Riesling constitutes the second most commonly cultivated variety (17%), whereas in the Rheinhessen, it covers only 7% of vineyard hectarage. In both regions, Müller-Thurgau is the dominant cultivar, covering about 22% of vineyard sites. Many new cultivars are grown and add fragrance to the majority of wines produced. Soil type varies widely over both regions. Combined, the regions are up to 30 km wide and together stretch about 150 km in length.

At Mainz, the Rhine River turns and flows southwest for about 25 km until it turns northwest again past Rüdesheim (~50°N). Along the northern slope of the valley are some of the most famous vineyard sites in Germany. The region, called the Rheingau, possesses approximately 3000 ha of vines. The soil type varies along the length of the region and up the slope. Along the riverbanks are alluvial sediments. Further up, the soil becomes more clayey, and finally changes to a brown loess. The soil is generally deep, well-drained, and calcareous. Although soil structure is important, factors such as slope aspect and inclination, wind direction and frequency, and sun exposure are of equal or greater importance. Because the river widens to 800 m in the Rheingau section, it significantly moderates the climate. Mists that arise from the river on cool autumn evenings, combined with dry sunny days, favor the development of noble-rotted grapes (edelfäule). This development is crucial to the production of the most prestigious wines of the region.

Riesling is the predominant cultivar grown in the Rheingau (82%), followed by Spätburgunder (6.7%). The latter is cultivated almost exclusively on the steep slopes between Rüdesheim and Assmannshausen, where the course of the river turns northward again. On less-favored sites, new cultivars such as Müller-Thurgau, Ehrenfelser, and Kerner may be grown.

Vineyards continue to be planted along the slopes of the Rhine and its tributaries up to Bonn, as the river continues its flow toward the Atlantic. Red wines from Spätburgunder and Portugieser are produced along one of the tributaries, the Ahr. Heat retained by the volcanic slate and tufa of the steep slopes may be crucial in permitting red wine production in this northerly location (50°34′N). However, most of the region, called the Mittelrhein, cultivates Riesling along its steep banks. As in the more southerly regions of the Nahe and Neckar valleys, most of the wine is sold locally and seldom enters export channels.

A major artery joining the Rhine at Koblenz is the Mosel River. Along the banks of the Mosel are vineyards with a reputation as high as those of the Rheingau. The Mosel-Saar-Ruwer region stretches from the French border to Koblenz (49°30′ to 50°18′N) and has 13,000 ha of vines. Although the overall orientation is northwest, the Mosel snakes extensively for 65 km along its middle section. This section possesses many steep slopes (Plate 10.1) with southern aspects between the Eifel and Hunsruck mountains. This stretch of the river, and its tributaries, the Saar and Ruwer, are planted almost exclusively with Riesling. The central section, called the Mittelmosel, is blessed with a slate-based soil that favors heat retention. Thus, not only does the soil possess excellent drainage, but it also provides frost protection and promotes grape maturation. The Mittelmosel contains most of the region’s most famous vineyards.

The final German river valley, particularly associated with viticulture, is the Main. The Main flows westward and joins the Rhine at Mainz, the eastern beginning of the Rheingau. Vineyards in the Main Valley are upstream and centered around Würzburg (~49°N). The region, called Franken, is noted for Silvaner wines and its squat green bottle, the bocksbeutel. Franken is notable in its minimal use of slim wine bottles. Although best known for Silvaner wines, Franken’s has a continental climate more suited to the cultivation of the newer, earlier maturing cultivars, such as Müller-Thurgau. The latter covers almost half of the 5500 vineyard hectarage in Franken, whereas Silvaner covers only about 20%.

Switzerland

Although a small country, Switzerland has vineyards covering approximately 15,000 ha, with an annual wine production of close to 1.0 million hL. The ethnic diversity and distribution of its inhabitants are reflected in the wines it produces. Along the northern border, Switzerland produces light wines resembling those in neighboring Baden. In the southwest, wines are more alcoholic, similar to those across the frontier in France. In the southeast, the Italian-speaking region specializes in producing full-bodied red wines.

Although the southern vineyard regions of Switzerland parallel the Côte de Nuits (~46°30′N), the higher altitude, between 400 and 800 m, produces a cooler climate than its similar latitude with Burgundy might suggest. Consequently, most vineyards are on south-facing slopes, adjacent to lakes or river valleys. The southwestern vineyards of the Vaud and Valais hug the northern slopes of Lake Geneva and the head of the Rhône River, whereas those of the west occur along the eastern slopes of Lake Neuchâtel and associated tributaries. In northern Switzerland, the vineyards congregate around the Rhein, Rheintal, and Thurtal river valleys and the south-facing slopes of Lake Zürich. In the southeast (Ticino), vines embrace the slopes around Lakes Lugano, Maggiore, and their tributaries. All of the regions are associated with headwaters of three great viticultural river valleys, the Rhine, the Rhône, and the Po. As in Germany, the use of steep slopes has avoided competition with most other agricultural uses.

Because of frequent strong winds, the shoots are tied early and topped to promote stout cane growth in most Swiss vineyard regions. Abundant rainfall has fostered the use of open canopy configurations to favor foliage drying and minimize fungal infection. Soil management typically employs the use of cover crops or mulches to minimize the need for herbicide use and for erosion control. There is increasing interest in the use of several French-American hybrids. Their greater disease resistance is compatible with the growing popularity of organically produced wines (Basler and Wiederkehr, 1996).

The moist, cool climate usually necessitates chaptalization if standard alcohol levels are to be achieved. Malolactic fermentation is used widely to reduce excessive wine acidity. The short growing season requires the cultivation of early-maturing varieties, such as Müller-Thurgau in the north and Chasselas doré in the southwest. There has been a recent trend to replace Chasselas with other indigenous cultivars, such as Petit Arvine, Cornalin, Armine, and Humagne Rouge. Although many white cultivars are grown, there is a shift toward red wine production. The demand has resulted in a marked increase in the planting of Pinot noir in the north and both Pinot noir and Gamay in western regions. In the southeast, Merlot is the dominant red cultivar.

Czech Republic and Slovakia

The former Czechoslovakia covers a primarily mountainous region, divided along most of its length by the Carpathian Mountains to the east and the Moravian Heights and Sumava in the west. The latter separate the small northern vineyard area of Bohemia (50°33′N) from the warmer, more protected, southern regions of Moravia and Slovakia (~48°N).

In Bohemia, the vineyards are located on slopes along the Elbe River Valley, about 40 km northwest of Prague. Low altitude and the use of a variety of rootstocks differentially affecting bud break help to cushion the influence of the cool and variable climate of the region (Hubáčková and Hubáček, 1984). The predominant cultivars are Riesling, Traminer, Müller-Thurgau, and Chardonnay. The small size of the viticultural region, and its proximity to Germany, probably explain the resemblance of the cultivars and wine styles to those of its neighbor to the west.

In the south-central portion of the Czech Republic, most vineyard sites are positioned on the slopes of the Moravia River valley, north of Bratislava. The Moravian vineyards (12,000 ha) cultivate primarily white varieties, such as Riesling, Traminer, Grüner Veltliner, and Müller-Thurgau, similar to their Austrian neighbors. Small amounts of red wine are produced from Portugieser, Limberger, and Vavřinecké.

Most of the Slovakian vineyards (35,000 ha) adjoin the Danube basin, along the southern border of the country. In common with adjacent viticultural regions, most of Slovakia’s wines are white. Although many western European cultivars are grown, the junction of the region with eastern Europe is equally reflected in the cultivation of eastern varieties. This is particularly marked in the most easterly viticultural region. The area is an extension of the Tokaj region of Hungary. Here, the varieties Furmint and Hárslevelű are the dominant cultivars. The wines are similar in style to those of the adjacent Hungarian region.

Austria

The mountains of the region restrict the 48,000 ha of Austrian vineyards to the eastern flanks of the country. Much of the wine-growing area is in low-lying regions along the Danube River and Danube basin to the north (~48°N) and the Hungarian basin to the east. A small section, Steiermark, is located across from Slovenia (~46°50′N).

The best-known viticultural regions are the Burgenland (Rust-Neusiedler-See), Gumpoldskirchen, and Wachau. The Burgenland vineyards adjacent to the Neusiedler See (47°50′N) occur on rolling slopes at an altitude between 150 and 250 m. The shallow, 30-km-long lake creates autumn evening mists that, combined with sunny days, promote the development of highly botrytized grapes and lusciously sweet wines. Here, Riesling, Müller-Thurgau, Muscat Ottonel, Weissburgunder (Pinot blanc), Ruländer, and Traminer predominate. Vineyards located north and south of Vienna produce light dry wines. These are derived primarily from the popular Austrian variety Grüner Veltliner. Other varieties grown are Riesling, Traminer, and in Gumpoldskirchen, south of Vienna, the local specialities Zierfändler and Rotgipfler. Most of the vineyards in the latter region are positioned on southeastern slopes at an altitude between 200 and 400 m. About 65 km west of Vienna is the Wachau region. Vineyards in Wachau lie on steep, south-facing slopes of the Danube, just west of Krems. They occur at altitudes of between 200 and 300 m. The predominant cultivar is Grüner Veltliner. Although most Austrian wine is white, some red wine is produced. The most important red cultivar is the new variety Zweigelt (Mayer, 1990).

Austria annually produces approximately 2.5 million hL wine, but only a small proportion is exported. Most of the production is consumed early and locally. As in Germany, the wines usually have the varietal origin and grape maturity noted on the label. The designations from Qualitätswein to Trockenbeerenauslese are the same, except that the requirements for total soluble solids (Oechsle) are higher than in Germany.

United Kingdom

Although the United Kingdom is not a viticulturally important region on the world scene, UK vineyards indicate that commercial wine production is possible up to 54°45′N. The extension of wine production further north than German vineyards results from both the moderating influence of the Gulf Stream and the cultivation of early-maturing varieties, notably Müller-Thurgau and Seyval blanc. Other potentially valuable cultivars are Auxerrois, Chardonnay, Madeleine Angevine, and several new German cultivars. Improved viticultural and enologic practices have also played an important role in reestablishing winemaking in England. The cooling of the European climate in the thirteenth century (Le Roy Ladurie, 1971), combined with French-speaking Norman rule, which also controlled Bordeaux and its vineyards, probably explain the demise of English viticulture during this period.

Southern Europe

Although French and German immigrants were seminal in the development of much of the wine industry in the New World, the basic practices used in Central Europe were originally introduced from Southern Europe. During the Classical period, Greece and Italy were considered, albeit by themselves, to be the most famous wine-producing countries. With the fall of these civilizations, economic activity languished for almost a millennium. The result was a marked reduction in both the quantity and quality of wine production throughout Europe.

At the end of the medieval period, the rebirth of centralized governments and improved economic conditions north of the Alps favored the renewed production of fine wine. In contrast, grapes continued to be grown admixed with other crops in much of southern Europe. In Italy, this occasionally followed an old technique used in Roman times, where vines were trained up trees, intermingled amongst field crops (Fregoni, 1991). In the absence of monoculture, yield control as well as fruit quality were neither possible, nor seemingly of importance. Subsistence farming was incompatible with the exacting demands of quality viticulture. In addition, lack of a large, discriminating, middle class provided little incentive for the production of much more than minimal quality wines for washing down food. Only in those parts of Italy, associated with the rebirth of trade, and eventually the Renaissance, did the production of better wine again begin to become lucrative. Regrettably, political division at the local scale, associated with the rise of aggressive nation-states in Central and Western Europe, resulted in the periodic return to economic stagnation, social devastation, political turmoil, and disruption in quality wine production.

In Greece, repeated invasion by oppressive foreign regimes severely restricted the redevelopment of a vibrant wine industry, as in much of eastern Europe. Although Spain and Portugal avoided similar fates, their initial colonial prowess did little to produce lasting economic benefits at home, at least in enology and viticulture. The absence of a growing, prosperous, middle class may explain why wine skills languished in much of southern Europe until recently.

Mediterranean wines tended to be alcoholic, oxidized, and low in total acidity, but high in volatile acidity. Inadequate temperature control often resulted in wines with residual sugar contents favorable to spoilage. In contrast, wines produced north of the Alps tended to be more moderate in alcohol, fresh, dry, flavorful, and more microbially stable.

With the subsequent growth and spread of technical skill, the standard of winemaking has improved dramatically throughout all of southern Europe. Regrettably, implementation of many advances was limited because the economic returns were, until comparatively recently, insufficient to support major improvements. Better-known regions, producing wines able to command higher prices, were those best and first able to benefit from technical advances.

Italy

Italy and France often exchange top ranking in terms of grape and wine produced. Annual production has fallen considerably over the past 30 years, and now stands at about 45–50 million hL, but still accounts for about one-fifth of world production. Italy’s vineyard area is about the same as France’s (868,000 vs. 887,000 ha), but a higher proportion involves table grapes in Italy than in France (7% vs. 2%).

Italian vineyards are predominantly exposed to a Mediterranean climate, receiving most of the rain during the winter months. Nevertheless, nearly one-third of Italy (the Po River valley and the Italian Alps) possesses a more continental climate, without a distinct dry summer season. Also, the Apennines running down the middle of the Italian Peninsula, provide a cooler, more moist climate along leeward slopes of the mountains. The mountains in Italy produce considerable variation in yearly precipitation, from more than 170 cm on some slopes to less than 40 cm in southern areas. The predominantly north–south axis of Italy results in coverage of over 10° latitude, from 46°40′N, parallel with Burgundy, to 36°30 N, parallel with the northern tip of Africa. Nonetheless, a common feature of the country, apart from mountainous regions, is a mean July temperature of between 21 °C and 24 °C. Combined with a wide range of soil types and exposures, Italy possesses an incredible variety of viticultural microclimates.

In addition, Italy possesses one of the largest and oldest collections of grape varieties, plus about a 2600-year-old history of wine production. Thus, it is not surprising that Italy produces an incredible range of wine styles. Many regions produce several white and red wines in dry, sweet, and slightly sparkling (frizzante) versions. Although this may give confusion to those outside the region, it supplies a diverse range of styles desired by the local clientele. Many regions also produce limited quantities of wine, using distinctive, often ancient, techniques not found elsewhere.

The diversity of wine styles found in many Italian regions has probably hindered their acceptance internationally. Also confusing to many consumers is a lack of consistency in wine designation. In some regions, the wines are varietally designated, whereas in others by geographic origin, producer, or by mythological names. This situation may be explained by the long division of Italy into many separate city-states, duchies, kingdoms, and papal dominions, and the all-too-frequent incursion of foreign powers. The difficulty of land transport within a divided Italy, combined with a stagnant economy and limited middle class, impeded wine shipments throughout the country. As a consequence, improvements in viticultural and enologic practice, and the development of a uniform wine-designation system, came only recently.

For many centuries, poverty in most Italian regions resulted in subsistence farming. Only in a few regions, such as northwestern Italy and Castelli Romani in central Italy, was pure viticulture practiced. Today, the old polyculture has essentially vanished, and Italian viticulture is similar to other parts of the world. There is, however, a remarkable range of training systems in practice, many used only locally. In several areas, high pergola or tendone training is used, either to favor light and air exposure for disease control, or to limit sun- and wind-burning of the fruit. Low training is more common in the hotter, drier south. This may minimize water stress and promote sugar accumulation, desirable in the production of sweet fortified wines. Irrigation may be practiced in southern regions, where protracted periods of drought occur during the hot summer months.

In most regions, enologic practice is now modern. It has had a profound effect on improving wine quality. Modernization is also affecting a shift from the traditional long maturation in large wooden cooperage (≥5 years) to shorter aging in smaller cooperage (≤2 years). There is considerable debate concerning the relative merits of oak flavor in Italian wine. Nevertheless, several unique and distinctive winemaking styles are practiced. Regrettably, most have been little investigated scientifically. Hopefully, they will be studied adequately before they potentially fall victim to standardized winemaking practices.

Northern Italy

Much of the Italian wine sold internationally, except for that sold in bulk, comes from northern Italy. Most of the regions involved are situated on the slopes of the Italian Alps, or along the North Italian Plain (Fig. 10.18). These regions possess a mild continental climate, without a distinct drought period. The arch of the Alps, which forms Italy’s northern frontier, usually protects the region from cold weather systems coming from the north, east, and west.

Figure 10.18 The major natural regions of Italy. (From Shackleton, 1958, reproduced by permission.)

The most northerly area is Trentino-Alto Adige. Although the vineyard area covers only about 13,000 ha, and annually produces approximately 1.5 million hL wine, production in Trentino-Alto Adige constitutes almost 35% of Italy’s total bottled-wine exports. The region also leads in the proportion of DOC appellations. Unlike most Italian wines, the label usually indicates the name of the grape variety used, associated with its regional origin.

Trentino-Alto Adige contains a wide diversity of climatic and soil conditions. The climate ranges from Alpine in the north to subcontinental, and finally sub-Mediterranean along the coast. Soils equally vary considerably, depending largely on the slope and altitude. Along the valley floor, the soil is generally alluvial and deep, shifting to sandy clay-loam on the lower slopes. On the steeper, upper slopes, the soil is shallow with low water-holding capacity.

The vineyards in the northern half of the Trentino-Alto Adige often line the narrow portion of the Adige River valley on steep slopes, at altitudes between 450 and 600 m. The region called Alto Adige (South Tyrol) stretches 30 km, both north and south from Bolzano (46°31′N). The considerable German-speaking population of the region is reflected in the style and care with which the wines are produced. The region produces many white and red wines. Whites may be produced from cultivars such as Riesling, Traminer, Silvaner, Pinot blanc, Chardonnay, and Sauvignon blanc. The regions red wines are frequently derived from distinctively local cultivars, such as Schiava and Lagrein, or French cultivars, such as Pinot noir and Merlot.

In contrast to Alto Adige, Trentino covers a 60-km strip of gravelly alluvial soil on the valley floor that widens 20 km north of Trento (46°04′N). Here the vineyards are no higher than 200 m in altitude. The most famous wine of the region comes from the local red cultivar Teroldego. The vines are trained on supports resembling an inverted L (pergola trentino). This is designed to increase canopy exposure to light and air. Many different white and red wines are produced, primarily from the same varieties cultivated in Alto Adige. In addition to standard table wines, the region produces a vin santo (see Chapter 9) from the local white cultivar Nosiola, and considerable quantities of dry sparkling wine (spumante) from Pinot noir and Chardonnay.

Veneto is the major wine-producing region adjacent to Trentino, where the Alps taper off into foothills and the broad Po Valley. The vineyard area in Veneto covers some 80,000 ha and annually produces approximately 8 million hl wine. Internationally, the best-known wines come from the hilly country above Verona (45°28′N), where the Adige River turns eastward. The dry white wine Soave comes primarily from the Garganega grape, cultivated on the slopes east of the city. The vineyards producing the grapes used in Valpolicella are situated north and east of Verona, whereas those involved in making Bardolino are further west, along the eastern shore of Lake Garda. Both red wines are produced primarily from Corvina grapes, with slightly different proportions of Molinara and Rondinella. Negrara may also be part of the Bardolino blend. Grapes for Valpolicella are generally grown on higher ground (200–500 m) than those for Bardolino (50–200 m), and produce a darker red wine. The most distinctive Valpolicellas come from specially selected, and partially dried grape clusters, using the recioto process (see Chapter 9). During vinification, fermentation may be stopped prematurely to retain a detectable sweetness, or continued to dryness to produce an amarone.

Two other regions in Veneto are also fairly well known internationally. These are Breganze, 50 km northeast of Verona, and Conegliano, 50 km north of Venice. Although Breganze produces both red and white wines, it is most famous for a sweet white wine made from the local cultivar Vespaiolo. The grapes are processed similarly to those used to produce red recioto wines. In Conegliano, another local white cultivar, Prosecco, is used to produce still, frizzante, and spumante wines. The frizzante and spumante wines may contain some Pinot bianco and Pinot grigio. In addition to regional cultivars, Conegliano also cultivates several widely grown Italian and French varieties.

Although fine wines are produced in Friuli-Venezia Giulia and Lombardy, provinces to the east and west of Veneto, respectively, Piedmont in the northwest is the most internationally recognized region. The largest and best-known of Piedmontese wine areas are centered around Asti (44°54′N), in the Monferrato Hills. This subalpine region receives abundant rainfall, with moderate precipitation peaks in the spring and autumn. The latter is often associated with foggy autumn days at lower altitudes. The area is famous for full-bodied reds, sweet spumante, and bittersweet vermouths. As a whole, Piedmont possesses a vineyard area of about 60,000 ha (mostly on hillsides) and yields almost 4 million hL wine/year.

The most renowned red wines of the region come from the Nebbiolo grape, grown north and south of Alba (44°41′N). They are especially associated with the villages of Barbaresco and Barolo. In both appellation regions, the best sites are located on higher portions of either east- or south-facing slopes. Those associated with Barolo are generally at a higher altitude, and less likely to be fog-covered in the fall than the slopes around Barbaresco. Nebbiolo is grown in other areas of the Piedmont, notably the northwest corner, and in northern Lombardy. In both areas, regional names such as Spanna and Chiavennasca predominate. Many Nebbiolo wines are named after the town from which they come, without mention of the cultivar.

Lombardy’s Nebbiolo region (Valtellina) occurs on steep, south-facing slopes lining the Adda River, where it leaves the Alps and flows westward into Lake Como. The vineyards along this 50-km strip often occur on 1–2 m wide, constructed terraces. Owing to the strong westerly winds, the canes of the vines are often intertwined. In addition, the vines are trained low to gain extra warmth from the soil and garner protection from winter storms. Recioto-like wines are occasionally produced in Valtellina, where they are called Sfursat or Sforzato.

Most Piedmontese wines are produced from indigenous grape varieties. Most are red, such as Barbera (about 50% of all production), Dolcetto, Bonarda, Grignolino, and Freisa. Some white wines are produced, primarily from cultivars such as Moscato bianco, Cortese, Chardonnay, and Arneis. Moscato bianco is used primarily in the production of the sweet, aromatic, sparkling wine, Asti Spumante. Cortese is commonly used to produce a dry still white wine in southern Piedmont, but it is also employed in the production of some frizzante and spumante wines.

Pure varietal wines, rather than blends, are the standard in Piedmont. Modern fermentation techniques are common. However, for some wines – notably those from Nebbiolo – aging in large oak casks for several years is still common. Extensive experimentation with barrel aging is in progress. Carbonic maceration is used to a limited extent to produce vino novello wines, similar to those of beaujolais nouveau.

Piedmont is also the center of vermouth production in Italy. The fortified herb-flavored aperitif was initially produced from locally grown Moscato bianco grapes. However, most Moscato grapes are now used in the production of Asti Spumante. The majority of the wine used in producing vermouth currently comes from further south.

Central Italy

Although wine is produced in all Italian provinces, chianti is the wine most commonly associated with Italy in the minds of many wine consumers. Chianti is Tuscany’s (and Italy’s) largest appellation. It includes seven separate subregions that constitute about 70% of the 83,000 ha of Tuscan vines. These cover a 180 km-wide area in central Tuscany. The most famous section, Chianti Classico, incorporates the central hilly region between Florence and Siena (~43°30′N). Vineyards grow mostly Sangiovese. Sangiovese makes up between 75 and 90% of the blend. Canaiolo and Colorino are the two other red varieties. Wine from two white cultivars (Trebbiano and Malvasia) may also be employed. Addition of must from white cultivars improves color development by supplying missing phenolic compounds involved in copigmentation.

The total region encompassed by Chianti includes a wide range of soils, from clay to gravel, although most of the region is calcareous. Slopes in this predominantly hilly zone vary considerably in aspect and inclination, with altitudes extending mostly from 200 to 500 m. These geographic differences, combined with the flexibility in varietal content, and occurrence of many clones, confer on chianti the potential for as much variation in character as bordeaux. There is a tendency to increase vine density (from the standard 2000–2500 vines per hectare to some 5000 vines per hectare) and to shift from the outdated Guyot system to spur-pruned cordons.

Although most versions of chianti are made using standard vinification techniques, several winemakers are returning to the ancient governo process (see Chapter 9). It is particularly advantageous when making light, early-drinking wines (Bucelli, 1991) – the features that initially made Chianti famous. A similar technique is also used by several producers in Verona.

In addition to chianti, several other Tuscan red wines are made from the Sangiovese grape. These wines may involve the use of non-Italian grape varieties, such as the inclusion of Cabernet Sauvignon in Carmignano, or the production of a pure Sangiovese wine, such as Brunello di Montalcino. Although Sangiovese is the most common name for the variety, vernacular names such as Brunello and Prugnolo may also be employed. Superior clones, such as Sangioveto, have also been individually named.

On the eastern side of central Italy are several wine producing regions. The most well known, due to its expensive exports of Lambrusco wine, is Emilia-Romagna. Although shunned by critics, the bubbly, semi-sweet, cherry-fruit-like fragrance of this red wine is highly appreciated by millions of consumers. A well-made wine, without fault, that sells widely should be considered a success. Not everyone wants, or can afford, to drink a liquid art object.

In addition to Lambrusco, the regions of Emilia-Romagna, Marche and Abruzzi possess a wide range of indigenous cultivars. Their potential is largely unknown. Until vintners with sufficient capital seriously study their potential, they will continue to languish in possibly undeserved ignominy. All one has to think of are the difficulties producers still have with Pinot noir. How would it have faired had it occurred in the backwaters of some landlocked valley in Italy, rather than under the hands of rich monasteries in Burgundy?

Southern Italy

Southern Italy produces most of the country’s wine, much of it going into inexpensive Euroblends or distilled into industrial alcohol. The application of contemporary viticultural and enologic practices is gradually increasing the production of better wines, bottled and sold under their own name. Examples of local cultivars producing fine red wines are Aglianico in Basilicata and Campania, Gaglioppo in Calabria, Negro Amaro, Malvasia nera and Primitivo in Apulia, Cannonau in Sardinia, and Nerello Mascalese in Sicily. Several indigenous cultivars, such as Greco, Fiano, and Torbato, also generate interesting dry white wines. It is far better that these regions concentrate on the qualities of local cultivars than produce another variation-on-a-theme of Cabernet Sauvignon, Merlot, or Chardonnay.

Reflecting the hot dry summers in southern Italy, sweet and fortified wines have long been the best wines of the region. These can vary from dessert wines made from Malvasia, Moscato, and Aleatico, to sherry-like wines from Vernaccia di Oristano, to marsala produced in Sicily.

Spain

Along with Portugal, Spain forms the most westerly of the three major Mediterranean peninsulas, the Iberian Peninsula. It is the largest and consists primarily of a mountain-ribbed plateau averaging 670 m in altitude. The altitude and the mountain ranges along the northern and northwestern edges produce a long rain shadow over most of the plateau (Meseta). With its Mediterranean climate, most of Spain experiences hot, arid to semiarid conditions throughout the summer.

Climatic conditions have markedly influenced Spanish viticultural practice. Because of a shortage of irrigation water, most vines are trained with several low trunks or arms (≤50 cm), each pruned to two short spurs. Where irrigation is feasible, recent experimentation has shown that yield can be increased while maintaining grape quality (Esteban et al., 1999). The short, unstaked bushy vines may limit water demand and shade the immediate soil, where most surface roots are located. Vine density is kept as low as 1200 vines/ha in the driest areas of the Meseta (La Mancha) to ensure sufficient moisture during the long hot summers. Daytime maxima of 40 to 44 °C are not uncommon. In areas with more adequate and uniform precipitation, such as Rioja, planting densities average between 3000 and 3600 vines/ha. In most of Europe, planting densities of 5000 to 10,000 vines/ha may occur. Thus, although Spain possesses more vineyard area than any other country (~1.2 million ha), it ranks third in wine production (~43 million hL/year). Its yield per hectare is about one-third that of France, currently averaging about 36 hL/ha.

In the northern two-thirds of Spain, table wines are the primary vinous product, whereas in the southern third (south of La Mancha), fortified sweet or sherry-like wines are produced. In the past, wine production in most regions was unpretentious. Although the wines were acceptable as an inexpensive local beverage, they had little broad appeal, except for use in blending. They often supplied the deep color and alcohol lacking in many French wines, a practice now banned except for Euroblend wines. Reminders of ancient practices are evident in the continuing but diminishing use of tinajas. These large-volume, amphora-like, ceramic fermentors are occasionally employed in southern Spain (Valdepeñas and Montilla-Moriles). The Penedés region, south of Barcelona, is a major center for enologic and viticultural innovation. Nevertheless, traditional centers of wine excellence, such as Rioja in the north, and the Sherry region in the south, are involved in considerable experimentation and modernization. Modern trends also affect grape and wine production in the major producing areas of central Spain, and have begun to provide wines that can compete internationally under their own appellations.

Although the reputation of fine Spanish wines is based largely on indigenous cultivars, such as Tempranillo, Viura, and Palomino, most wines are produced from the varieties Airen and Garnacha. So widely are these grown that they were, and may still be, the two most extensively cultivated varieties in the world.

Rioja

Rioja has a long tradition of producing the most highly regarded table wines in Spain. The region spans a broad 120-km section of the Ebro River valley and its tributaries, from northwest of Haro (42°35′N) to east of Alfaro (42°08′N). The upper (western) Alta and Alavesa regions are predominantly hilly and possess vineyards mostly on slopes rising nearly 300 m above the valley floor. The altitude of the valley floor drops steadily eastward, from 480 m in the west to about 300 m at Alfaro. The lower (eastern) Baja region generally possesses a rolling landscape with many vineyards on level expanses of valley floor.

The south-facing slopes of the northern Sierra Cantábrica possess a primarily stony, calcareous, clayey soil, whereas the south side of the valley and the north-facing slopes of the southern Sierra de la Demanda possess a calcareous subsoil, overlaid by stony ferruginous clay or alluvial silt. The parallel sets of mountain ridges that run east and west along the valley help shelter the region from the cold north winds and hot blasts off the Meseta to the south.

The western portions of Rioja generally yield more delicately flavored wines than the eastern region. This probably results from the cooler climate generated by the higher altitude. The altitude also produces a higher and more uniform annual precipitation (Fig. 10.19). In contrast, the eastern Baja region possesses a more distinctly Mediterranean climate, with precipitation averaging about 60% that of Haro in Rioja Alta. Differences in varietal composition in the regions also affect wine characteristics. In the upper Rioja, Tempranillo is the predominant red cultivar, whereas in the Baja, Garnacha (Grenache) is dominant. Soil and microclimatic differences between the southern and northern slopes in the upper Rioja may explain the presence of more Graciano, Mazuelo (Carignan), and Garnacha in the Alta, and more Viura in the Alavesa.

Figure 10.19 Vineyard areas in the Rioja region of Spain. (From de Blij, 1983, reproduced by permission.)

The wines of Rioja are generally blends of wines from several cultivars and vineyards. Tempranillo is the predominant cultivar in red wines, with various amounts derived from the other red cultivars, and occasionally the white Viura. Most traditional white wines are blends of Viura and Malvasia, with small quantities of Garnacha blanco. Modern white wines are nearly pure Viura.

In the past, vineyards were planted in the proportions desired for the finished wine. The grapes were also picked and fermented together. The present trend is to separate the different cultivars in the vineyard, to permit each variety to be picked at its optimal maturity. Separate fermentation of each variety also permits blending based on the distinct properties of each wine.

In the blend, each cultivar is considered to add a component deficient in the others. For red wines, Tempranillo provides the acid balance, aging potential, and its traditional, distinctive fragrance, Graciano donates additional subtle flavors, Mazuelo adds color and tannins, whereas Garnacha confers alcoholic strength. With white Riojas, Viura provides a light fruitiness and resistance to oxidation, whereas Malvasia donates fragrance, color, and body.

Vinification procedures often vary considerably among bodegas (wineries). For red wines, traditional procedures involve a form of carbonic maceration (see Chapter 9). Whole grape clusters are placed in lagars (open concrete or stone vats) for fermentation. Large bodegas may employ a semicarbonic maceration process, where the grapes are stemmed before being added uncrushed to fermentation vats. The recent tendency is to employ what is now considered standard degrees of stemming and crushing, before fermentation of the must in wooden vats or stainless steel tanks. The latter permit easier temperature control, keeping the fermenting must below 25 °C.

Traditionally produced white wines involve maceration on the skins for several hours before pressing. Usually fermentation occurs at warm temperatures (25 to 28 °C). Modern white wines are separated from the skins shortly after crushing and fermented at cool temperatures (14 to 18 °C).

The preferred method of maturation varies considerably. The traditional procedure for both white and red wines is prolonged lees contact, associated with infrequent racking, and several years in oak barrels (225 liters). American oak is preferred and used repeatedly to avoid pronounced new-oak flavors. During aging, the wines mellow, acquire a distinctive vanilla flavor, and develop a complex, slightly oxidized bouquet. In contrast, the present-day trend is to use shorter aging, a higher proportion of new oak barrels, and proportionately longer in-bottle aging before release.

Penedés

Catalonia, in northeastern Spain, possesses several viticultural regions along its coast. In the past, Catalonia was known largely for its alcoholic, dark-red wines, added to weaker French wine. It also produced a special, sweet, oxidized red wine that often exhibited what was termed a rancio odor – Priorato from Tarragona. However, Penedés, located just southwest of Barcelona, is now the most productive and important wine-producing region in Catalonia.

Despite its relatively small size, Penedés (~41°20′N) annually produces about 1.5 million hL from 25,000 ha. In the late 1800s, a transformation began that has made Penedés the world’s largest producer of sparkling (cava) wine. In addition, innovations begun by Bodega Torres in the 1960s have resulted in a break with tradition. Considerable commercial success followed the introduction of cold-fermented white wines. Red wines with limited barrel maturation are also produced in increasing quantities. Penedés now produces a greater range of wines, from both indigenous and foreign cultivars, than any other Spanish region.

Although Penedés consists of a narrow strip of land along the Mediterranean coast, it shows considerable climatic variation across its 30-km width. Penedés changes westward from a hot coastal zone to cool slopes in the Catalonian Mountains. Most of the traditional red cultivars, such as Monastrell, Ull de Llebre (Tempranillo), Cariñena, and Garnacha, are grown on the coastal plain. However, most newer vineyards are located along the more temperate central zone, at an altitude of 200 m. The majority of grapes are traditional cultivars, such as Xarel-lo and Macabeo (Viura). Nevertheless, several foreign red cultivars are grown in the region, notably Cabernet Sauvignon. The cava-producing facilities use most of the local white grape harvest. The mountainous foothills further west have an even cooler, more moist environment. This favors the growth of local cultivars, such as Parellada, and foreign varieties, such as Chardonnay, Sauvignon blanc, Riesling, and Pinot noir. This region possesses slopes ranging in altitude from 500 to 800 m above sea level.

Although most growers still favor Goblet training, commonly used throughout Spain, the trunks are often higher, with the first branches allowed to originate 50 cm above ground level. Nevertheless, most foreign cultivars are trained using trellising systems common throughout most of western central Europe. Because of the above average precipitation in much of Penedés, vine density is higher (4000–5000 vines/ha) than usual in Spain. Yield per hectare is correspondingly considerably above the national average.

Sherry

Sherry is produced in southwestern Spain, where the lowlands of the Guadalquivir River Valley meet the Atlantic Ocean. The region encompasses an area 60 km in diameter, centered around Jerez de la Frontera (36°42′N). The preferred sites are mostly aggregated in the north and northwest, from around Jerez to the coastal town of Sanlúcar de Barrameda. The area contains 19,000 ha of vines and annually produces approximately 1.2 million hL wine.

The most significant factor influencing the quality and stylistic features of sherry is the fractional-blending maturation system (solera) (see Chapter 9). Depending on the relative duration and form of solera blending (biological vs. oxidative), fino, amontillado or oloroso styles are produced. Nonetheless, microclimatic features influence the quality of the base wine used in sherry production.

One of the more significant vineyard factors involves the soil’s microclimatic modification. Albariza sites, possessing a high chalk content (30–60%), exhibit several desirable properties. The soils are highly porous and permit the rapid uptake of the winter rains. Under the hot summer sun, the soil forms a hard, noncracking crust. This enhances water available by restricting evaporation from the soil surface. Because the water-holding capacity of the soil is only 35% by weight, soil depth is important to sustained water supply throughout the typically long summer drought. Level land and low hills tend to limit excessive water loss by drainage. Because of the low latitude (36°42′N), vineyard slope and aspect are relatively unimportant. Proximity to the Atlantic Ocean has an important moderating influence on the climate. As a consequence, both winters and summers are comparatively mild, with the maximum temperatures rarely rising above 37 °C (vs. 45 °C and above on the Meseta). Ocean breezes also increase the region’s relative humidity. Although albariza soils generally possess desirable properties, they also have drawbacks. It is low in fertility and susceptibility to nematode infestation can limit fruit yield.

The predominant cultivar grown is the fino clone of Palomino. It has the advantage of higher yield than standard clones. Other cultivars, such as Pedro Ximénez and Moscatel, are grown in limited amounts, especially on poorer sites. The latter is used only for a varietally designated sweet wine. The main advantages of Palomino are its tough skin, disease resistance, and low varietal aroma. The disadvantages of late maturity are partially offset by the heat and light reflected from the white albariza soil.

Because of the dry climate, vines are spaced about 1.2 m apart in rows 2.3 m wide. This generates a relatively low planting density (3775 vines/ha). Most vines are trained low, with two support wires, about 0.5 and 1 m above ground level. The vines are spur pruned.

Portugal

Portugal produces an amazing range of wines for a comparatively small country. In addition, wine production is largely limited to the northern half of the country. Nonetheless, it annually produces about 7.5 million hL wine from 250,000 ha of vines. Thus, Portugal ranks among the top 10 wine-producing countries. Among the wines produced are possibly what was the world’s most popular wine (Mateus rosé), some of the most aromatically intricate wines (porto), distinctive and delicately effervescent white wines (vinho verde), dark tannic long-aging red wines (bairrada and dão), and a complex baked wine (madeira, from the island of the same name). All are produced almost exclusively from indigenous Portuguese cultivars, rarely planted elsewhere, even in neighboring Spain. Although producing some of the most skillfully blended wines for mass distribution, Portugal has retained much of its vinous heritage unaffected by outside influences.

The Upper Douro

The eastern portion of the Douro River Valley is the origin of Portugal’s most prestigious wine, porto. Port is produced in what was one of the most inaccessible and inhospitable parts of Portugal. The delimited port region stretches nearly 120 km along the banks of the Douro and its tributaries, from Barqueiros in the west to Barca d’Alva near the Spanish border. The region roughly parallels 41°N latitude. Although the present area has expanded extensively eastward from its original delimitation in 1761 (Fig. 10.20), most of the 34,000 ha of vines are still centered around Pêso da Régua. The region produces about 2 million hL wine annually, of which only about 40% is used in port production.

Figure 10.20 Map showing present-day and 1761 boundaries of the port wine area (within the larger Upper Douro), indicating the major subdivisions of the region. (Data from Stanislawski, 1970, and Instituto de Vinho do Porto.)

Because of the steep mountainous terrain through which the Douro River passes, slopes along the valley may possess inclinations of 60°. More that 70% of the vineyards are on slopes>30% (17°). Because of the slopes and prevailing dry conditions, little soil has accumulated. Thus, most vineyards are a series of constructed terraces held by stone retaining walls (Plate 10.2). Many are less than 2.5 m wide and possess a single row of vines. The soil itself consists primarily of schist. Although high in potassium, the rocky soil is low in phosphorus and organic material. These deficiencies were once offset by the addition of manure, usually from the animals used to work the vineyards. Because most old terraces are too steep to permit mechanization, many new and some old terraces have been graded to permit partial mechanization.

As a wine style, port evolved as British shippers catered to an increasingly discriminating market back home. Thus, quality very early became an important aspect in port ontogeny. This culminated in a highly detailed and critical vineyard analysis. Each vineyard is now assigned to one of six quality categories, based on features affecting microclimate, soil conditions, and vine characteristics. Of a maximum of 1680 points, about two-thirds reflect environmental features, whereas the remaining third concerns viticultural practices. More points may be subtracted for negative influences than are granted for desirable features.

Many of the factors indicated in Table 10.4 reflect the importance assigned to regional temperature and moisture conditions. For example, the Upper Douro is divided into five geographic subregions, of initially increasing rank moving eastward. This mirrors the higher temperatures and lower precipitation in the upper regions of the valley. The most easterly subregion, beyond the watershed dividing the Tua and Vilariça rivers, often receives insufficient rainfall to offset the baking summer drought. Because the grapes may raisin before harvest, the wines rarely possess the characteristics deemed appropriate for port production. The bias for low altitude in site ranking also reflects the general desirability of warmer, drier conditions near the valley floor, versus the cooler, wetter conditions of the upper slopes. Schistose soils are preferred to granitic soils, possibly because of the fractured structure of the former. Schist more readily permits rain and root penetration, features vital to a steady and sufficient supply of water throughout the summer drought. The narrow sections of fertile alluvial deposits on the valley floor are given 600 demerit points, almost assuring that grapes grown there will be excluded from use in port production. The aspect and degree of slope are calculated into the ranking, but they are considered of minor importance.

Table 10.4

Apportionment of Points to Features Considered Important to the Quality of Grapes for Port Elaboration

Trait	Penalty points	Award points	Spread	Percentage of spread
Primary importance
Low productivity	−900	150	1050	20.6
Altitude	−900	240	1140	22.4
Physical nature of soil	−400	100	500	9.8
Locality	−50	600	650	12.8
Type of training	−500	100	600	11.8
Subtotal	−2750	1190	3940	77.4
Secondary importance
Cultivars used	−400	200	600	11.8
Degree of slope	−1	101	102	2.0
Subtotal	−401	301	702	13.8
Tertiary importance
Site aspect	−30	100	130	2.6
Vine spacing	−50	50	100	2.0
Soil texture	0	80	80	1.6
Vine age	0	60	60	1.2
Shelter	0	80	80	1.6
Subtotal	−80	370	450	8.8
Total	−3231	1861	5092	100.0

Source: Data from Instituto do Vinho do Porto, Ministério da Agricultura, Porto, 1992, personal communication.

Of viticultural features, the training system is considered of the greatest importance, earning up to 12.1% of the possible points. The highest number of points is assigned for single-cane Guyot training. It has the advantage of restricting vine vigor on nutrient poor soils. Another traditional system is spur pruned, Vertical Shoot Positioning (VSP). Results with a double cordon system, with upward and downward curtains (LYS 2/3) appear encouraging (Queiroz et al., 2008). Arbors are discouraged by being penalized 500 demerit points. In contrast, cultivar composition is awarded only a maximum of 150 points. Although some cultivars, such as Touriga Nacional, Tinta Francisca, Tinta Cão, Tinta Roriz, Mourisco, and Bastardo, are considered finer than others, the granting of only 6.1% of points for cultivar composition is revealing. It acknowledges the need for the grower to be able to adjust vineyard cultivar composition to the demanding and variable conditions of the region and site. It also acknowledges the contribution of the varietal mix to quality. Although almost as many white cultivars are permitted as red, most ports are red. Thus, although some white port is produced, most white grapes are used in the production of table wines.

Depending on vineyard ranking, and the market for port at the time, port officials set the quantity of wine permitted from each vineyard category. For example, vineyards in category A can normally sell up to 700 liters/100 vines to port shippers, whereas those in category F seldom can sell any wine for port production. Each ranking, commencing at 1200 points for category A, is separated by a 200-point differential. This explains why little more than 40% of the wine produced in the Upper Douro is used for port elaboration. The remainder usually goes into Douro table wine, or the production of aguardente, the distilled wine spirits used to fortify port.

Vinho Verde

Vinho Verde is the largest appellation in Portugal, located just west and north of the port region. It produces about 15% of the country’s wine. The region’s five subregions, crossed by five of the countries largest rivers, lie between 41 and 42°N latitude. Although the borders of the Vinho Verde appellation extend beyond the limits of Minho province in northwestern Portugal, most of the vineyards lie within its boundaries. Vineyards cover an estimated 71,000 ha and yearly produce about 2 million hL wine.

In contrast to the Upper Douro, where schistose soils are predominant, granite forms the soil substratum in Minho. Although rich in potassium, the soil is deficient in phosphorus. Depending on the region, vineyards receive between 120 and 160 cm precipitation per year. The weather becomes progressively drier and warmer as one moves from the eastern highlands to the narrow western coastal belt. Although the rainfall is higher than typical for the Iberian Peninsula, the distribution is distinctly Mediterranean, peaking in the winter and becoming minimal during the summer.

Legal impositions, designed to prevent competition with Upper Douro producers and increases in population density, led to the removal of most vines from fertile sites during the mid-1700s. Vines were largely relegated to polyculture, in association with field crops on terraced sites, or were planted to grow up and between trees along roadsides and in fields. The latter method, although complicating grape harvest, freed land for food crop production. Unintentionally, the change in viticultural practice may have favored the production of the wine style for which the region is now known. Because the growth habit limited sugar accumulation and malic acid respiration, grapes were often harvested high in acidity and low in sugar content. In contrast, grapes trained on the horizontal T trellises being used in newer vineyards are more likely to reach standard sugar and acidity levels by harvest.

Due to cool winter conditions, malolactic fermentation generally occurred in late winter or spring in unheated wine cellars. Because the wine historically was stored in sealed barrels or casks, the carbon dioxide released by malolactic fermentation was trapped in the wine. The slight fizz, combined with the low alcohol content (8–9.5%), produced a light, refreshingly tart wine. Aromatic substances released during malolactic fermentation may also have contributed to the distinctive fragrance of the wine. Under the demands of commercial success, large producers rarely depend on malolactic fermentation for the pétillance. Instead, they use carbonation just before bottling. This replaces the carbon dioxide required to produce the perfectly clear wine demanded in modern commerce, and unavoidably lost during clarification and fining.

As in port elaboration, most vinho verdes are blends of wines derived from several grape cultivars. Only rarely are varietal vinho verdes produced. An exception is the vinho verde produced from Alvarinho grapes in Monção, across from Spanish Galicia. The wine is usually less effervescent than most vinho verdes and has traditionally been trained on low arbors.

Although most vinho verdes are red (~70%), the white version is almost exclusively the style exported. Thus, most exported vinho verde comes from the northern Monção and southern Penafiel regions, areas specializing in white varieties. Alvarinho cultivation is mainly centered in Monção, whereas other white varieties, such as Loureiro, Trajudura, Azal, Avesso, Bataco, and Pedernã, occur throughout Minho.

Setubal

Setubal is an oxidized dessert wine coming from a delimited region south of Lisbon, in the Setubal Peninsula. The vineyards are planted primarily on lime soils on north-facing hillsides. This provides some protection from the hot drying sun and permits more flavor development in the primary cultivar grown, Muscatel de Setúbal. Other cultivars grown in smaller amounts are the local white cultivars Arinto, Boais, Rabo de Ovelha, Ovelha, Roupeiro, and Tamarez. These constitute no more than 30% of the wine going into the production of setubal. Condensed humidity from the Tagus River Basin is considered important in diminishing vine water demand in the hot Mediterranean climate.

Vinification starts with fermentation in contact with the pomace, being subsequently arrested by fortification with wine spirits. The final alcohol content is about 18%. The wine remains in contact with the pomace for approximately 5 months. After pressing, the wine continues its maturation in tank for about 2 years, followed by further maturation for many years in oak cooperage. The residual sugar content of the wine is initially about 9–10%, but slowly increases during aging due to evaporative loss. This is estimated at about 4%/year (Franco and Singleton, 1984). The content of nonflavonoid phenolics also increases, due both to the concentrating effect of vapor loss and prolonged maturation in oak. Most of the wine’s characteristic orange-brown color probably comes from the oxidation of these phenolics.

Madeira

Grape cultivation occurs over much of the island, but is principally concentrated in the south, near the capital Funchal. Recently, there has been expansion in the northern parts of the island. Madeira is the largest and most significant of three volcanic islands in the Madeira Archipelago, situated about 640 km off the western coast of Morocco. Its latitude, 32°40′N, gives Madeira a subtropical climate, moderated by the surrounding Atlantic Ocean. Its ancient volcanic peak, rising to a height of 1800 m, induces sufficient precipitation to favor luxurious plant growth. Despite most of the rainfall occurring during the winter months, it possesses a humid climate with frequent mists. These conditions favored decimation of the vine population when powdery mildew and phylloxera reached the island in the late 1800s. This partially explains the displacement of many traditional grape varieties with French-American hybrids, such as Jacquez. With modern chemical control and phylloxera-resistant rootstock, traditional cultivars have regained vineyard area lost over a century ago. The smaller island of Porto Santo, without significant highlands, is considerably hotter and drier. No grapes appear to be grown on the smallest island of Desertas.

The steep slopes of Madeira have required the construction of a tiered series of narrow terraces (poios) (Plate 10.3). These are located up the slopes of the ancient volcano. They are often wide enough for but a single row of vines. Thus, as in the Upper Duoro, viticulture is largely manual, being incompatible with mechanization. Traditional training can vary from trellises with overhead wires to pergolas (Plate 10.4), based on Guyot (e.g., Sercial and Malvasia) or cordon (e.g. Boal and Verdelho) systems. Individual vineyards tend to be small, with 2500 to 4000 vines/ha. The volcanic ash that forms most of the soil is clay-like and rich in potassium, phosphorus, and nitrogen. Although much of the island is cultivated, vineyards are largely restricted to the lower and mid altitudes. Of traditional varieties, Malmsey (Malvasia) is concentrated closest to the shore, generally at altitudes up to 300 m; Verdelho is usually cultivated between 300 and 600 m; Bual (Boal) is planted between 400 and 1000 m, but down to the coast on the north side; Tinta Negra is generally grown between 300 and 1000 m; and Sercial cultivation is limited mostly to between 800 and 1100 m.

Greece

Greece occupies the most easterly of the three major Mediterranean peninsulas. Although Greece produces approximately 3.8 million hL wine from 130,000 ha of grapes, its major importance comes from its role in the dispersal of winemaking throughout the western Mediterranean.

In ancient times, highly regarded wines were produced in northern Greece, notably Thrace and the island of Thásos (40°41′N), and especially the Aegean islands of Khios (38°20′N), and Lemnos (39°58′N) off the coast of Turkey. Today, only Samos, a Muscat-based dessert wine from the island of Samothráki (40°23′N), reflects the former vinous glory of the Aegean Islands.

Some Greek wines (retsina) still use an ancient wine preservation/flavoring technique – the addition of resin (principally 1,1-dimethyl hydrazine). Its addition during fermentation gives the wine a terpene-like character. The preferred resin comes from the Aleppo pine (Pinus halepensis). It grows south of Athens in central Greece. Various pitch resins, such as terebinth (Pistacia atlantica), sandarac (Tetraclinis articulata), and myrrh (Commiphora myrrha) were also used to flavor and preserve wines in antiquity (Hayes, 1951). Most retsinas (~85%) are produced from the Savatiano and Rhoditis cultivars, which produce white and rosé retsinas, respectively. Although retsinas have maintained broad popularity in Greece, the appreciation of this style has not spread significantly. The other distinctive Greek wine commonly seen internationally is a red fortified dessert wine made from Mavrodaphne. The appellation of the same name comes from Patras (38°15′N), on the northern coast of Peloponnesus.

Similar to Portugal, Greece produces the vast majority of its wines from indigenous, probably ancient cultivars. Greece retains a wealth of grape varieties whose merits in most cases are largely untapped and unknown internationally. For example, Rhoditis can produce a delicate and uniquely flavored dry white wine. The loss of political independence and its economic base for almost two millennia, combined with prolonged Ottoman oppression, robbed Greece of the potential vinous excellence inherent in its climate and early winemaking expertise. One can only hope that the future may see a resurgence of its former glory and its due recognition.

Eastern Europe

The viticulturally important countries of eastern Europe include Hungary, Romania, Bulgaria, the former states of Yugoslavia, and the western regions of the former Soviet Union. The area incorporates two major arched mountain chains, the Carpathians and the Dinaric Alps. Together, they form the Hungarian and Romano-Bulgarian basins. Unlike the Alps, the mountains seldom rise above 1500 m, and have rounded, tree-covered tops. The region also includes the lowlands north of and between the Black and Caspian Seas.

With the exception of the Dalmatian coast, the entire region has cold winters. Hot summers occur everywhere except in the high mountains. Along the Dalmatian coast, precipitation averages over 100 cm per year, and summer drought is experienced. Moving eastward, rainfall declines to less than 50 cm north of the Black Sea, but occurs primarily in the spring and summer months.

Because the region has served as a gateway between western Europe and Asia, it has borne the brunt of repeated incursions from both east and west. Repeated invasions frequently forced much of the population out of the plains, to seek refuge in the mountains. The vinous effect was a severe retardation in viticultural development and wine production for centuries. The least affected was Hungary, the region most distant from Turkey. It was the last country invaded by the Ottomans, and the first freed from its rule.

The lack of significant resources of coal, iron, and water power for rapid industrial development also favored the continuance of subsistence farming. It persisted throughout much of the region, far longer than in other parts of Europe, and still exists in some regions. Wines produced locally functioned as an unsophisticated, inexpensive, but safe food beverage.

In the past, the comparative isolation from western Europe resulted in wine production being based on indigenous cultivars. Thus, eastern Europe contains a wonderfully complex collection of local varieties. How many diamonds-in-the-rough that occur among these varieties is little known, at least outside of their particular regions. Among the vast collection of cultivars, it is reasonable to expect some to be of equal quality as those of western Europe. It is hoped that their cultivation will not be supplanted by western cultivars, in a rush to appease the international bias for recognized cultivar names. The world is already more than amply supplied with indistinguishable Cabernet Sauvignon, Merlot, Chardonnay, and Riesling wines. The area also possesses the largest assortment of freely growing wild V. vinifera. These may constitute a valuable genetic resource for future cultivar improvement.

Because of the major vineyard-expansion program following the Second World War, by the early 1990s, eastern Europe had become a major wine producer. The former Soviet Union was fifth in world ranking, with 18 million hL, whereas Romania, Hungary, and the former Yugoslavia were in tenth, eleventh, and twelfth position, respectively. Regrettably, quantity, not quality, was the main concern. This situation has changed considerably since, with production declining markedly, but quality on the upswing.

Hungary

Hungarian vineyards cover only 2% of the cultivated land mass and are dispersed throughout the country. The total vineyard area is 88,000 ha. It produces approximately 4 million hL of wine annually.

The northern latitude (45°50′ to 48°40′N) and cold winters are reflected in the primary cultivation of white cultivars. However, the warm summers often permit the grapes to develop high °Brix values, permitting the frequent production of slightly sweet white wines, high in alcohol content (13–14%). These apparently suit the Hungarian preference for spicy food. Although most wines are intended to be consumed with meals, some dessert wines are produced. The most famous of these is the wine from Tokaj.

The majority of wine (60–70%) comes from the sandy Hungarian basin in the south-central portion of the country. Most of the production is consumed locally. Higher-quality wine, coming from the slopes bordering the basin, is what is usually exported. Examples of some of the better sites are Pécs and Vilány from the southwest, Lake Balaton to the west, Sopron and Mór from the northwest, and Eger and Tokaj in the northeast.

Tokaji comes from an ancient volcanic region in the hilly, northeast corner of the country, across from eastern Slovakia (Tokaj-Hegyalja). Vineyards occur on the sandy loam of southeast-facing slopes, bounded by the Szerencs and Bodrog rivers (48°06′N). They cover about 275 km², at altitudes roughly between 100 and 300 m. The region is characterized by an extended warm autumn, associated with humid evenings. The wine usually comes from a blending of several cultivars. The dominant varieties are Furmint (60–70%) and Hárslevelű (15–20%), with small plantings of Sárga Muskotály (Yellow Muscat; Muscat Lunel) and Zéta. Additional cultivars possibly still grown are Leányka, Traminer, and Wälschriesling. Although the sweet, botrytized aszú styles are the most renowned (see Chapter 9), dry and sweet versions (Szamorodni) are made from nonbotrytized grapes.

One of the red wines frequently seen internationally is Egri Bikavér. The wine comes from Eger (47°53′N), about 100 km southwest of Tokaj and northeast of Budapest. It is produced from a blending of several varieties, including Kadarka, the most significant Hungarian red cultivar. Also potentially included are Merlot, Pinot noir, and Oporto.

Other wines occasionally seen internationally come from the northwestern slopes of Lake Balaton (46°46′ to 47°00′N). In the central zone, vineyards are scattered over the steeper hills that rise between 150 and 200 m above the shoreline. The lake moderates rapid climatic change and reflects light up into the canopy. Some protection from north winds is derived from the Bakony Forest, which reaches a maximum altitude of 700 m. The sandy slopes drain well and warm early in the season. The wines are almost exclusively white, alcoholic (13–15%) and frequently semisweet. Several endemic cultivars are grown, such as Kéknyelű and Zöldszilváni, as well as foreign cultivars, such as Pinot gris (Szürkebarát), Muscat Ottonel, and Wälschriesling (Olaszrizling). Wines coming from the plains are produced from a wide variety of cultivars, the most common being Olaszrizling and Ezerjo.

Republics of the Former Yugoslavia

Combined, the states that formerly composed Yugoslavia show a superficial resemblance to Italy, their neighbor across the Adriatic. Both are elongated along a northwest–southeast axis, have mountainous regions along the northern frontiers, and are divided along the length by mountain ranges. However, the extended eastern connection of the region (41° to 46°50′N) with the land mass of Eurasia permits ready access of continental climatic influences. Thus, most of the area experiences cold snowy winters and hot moist summers. The Mediterranean influence is limited to the western (Dalmatian) coastline, between the Adriatic Sea and the Dinaric Mountains. Even here, rainfall is higher than is typical for most Mediterranean regions.

Except where the Hungarian Basin extends into northeastern Croatia, there is very little lowland. Most of the region is mountainous and generally above 400 m in altitude, with extensive areas above 1000 m. Because of this feature, most vineyards are arranged around the edges of the former country, namely, the Dalmatian coast and associated islands, the Hungarian basin in the northeast, and the Morava-Vardar corridor in the southeast. Combined, the Yugoslav states used to annually produce about 5 million hL wine. This is now down to 3.5 million hL. Because of the highly diverse climatic, topographic, and ethnic divisions, it is not surprising that the wine styles produced are equally varied.

Partially due to the proximity of Slovenia to Austria and Italy, and its once being a part of the Austro-Hungarian Empire, its wines and grape varieties are similar to those of its neighbors. Graševina (Wälschriesling), Silvaner, Sauvignon blanc, Traminer, Šipon (Furmint), and the indigenous Plavać are the most common varieties. The Adriatic moderates the alpine climate, and the region benefits from milder winters and temperate summers. The best-known wine region is situated around Ljutomer, in the northeast (46°25′N).

The wines of Croatia fall into two groups, those from the Hungarian basin and the mountains north of Zagreb, and those from the Dalmatian coast. The highlands in the northeast, adjacent to Slovenia, continue to show an Austrian influence. The dominance of white cultivars continues in the Hungarian basin lowlands. However, on the plains, the prevalence of Wälschriesling reflects a similar dominance of the cultivar in the neighboring Hungarian region. In contrast, the Dalmatian coastal region produces predominantly red wines. It cultivates primarily indigenous varieties. The most distinctive of these is the dark red Plavać mali. The most extensively grown red cultivar in much of the region is Prokupac. Endemic white cultivars favored are Plavać, Maraština, Grk, Vugava, and Zilavka. The Istrian Peninsula in the northeast reflects in its varietal plantings a strong historical association with Italy.

Serbia has been the main region for bulk-wine production. Most of the production is red and comes from Prokupac. Smederevka is the main white variety. However, there is a trend to replace native cultivars with those from Western Europe, presumably to gain easier acceptance in foreign markets.

Although Macedonian vineyards were decimated during the Ottoman domination, and subsequently by phylloxera in the last century, they were reestablished after the Second World War. Most of the cultivars chosen were domestic cultivars, including red varieties such as Prokupac, Kadarka, and Stanusina. There are also smaller plantings of white cultivars, notably Žilavartea and Smederevka.

Romania

Romania is another eastern European country that has most of its vineyards distributed around its periphery. The eastern curved arch of the Carpathian Mountains divides the country in two. Mountains reach up to 2400 m and enclose the central Transylvanian plateau (~600 m).

The 239,000 ha of vineyard in Romania are divided equally between red and white cultivars. From these, the country produces approximately 5.5 million hL wine annually. Extensive plantings of both native and western European cultivars occurred following the Second World War. The better, local white cultivars appear to be Fetească alba, Grasă de Cotnari, Tămîioasa romînească (Muscat blanc), and Frîncuşa. The most well known red varieties are Fetească neagră and Babeasca neagră. As with other indigenous cultivars, their evaluation elsewhere might expand the variety and interest of wines produced worldwide. This will also require a change in the eurocentic bias of wine critics and producers.

Few Romanian wines are well known internationally. This partially relates to most trade having been conducted with its eastern European neighbors. The most highly regarded of Romanian wines, at least historically, are those coming from around Cotnari and Grasă (47°27′N), along the lower slopes of the Carpathian Mountains in the northeast.

Bulgaria

As in so many other eastern European countries, Ottoman domination brought wine production in Bulgaria to a virtual halt for several centuries. Viticulture was reestablished following the First World War, but the vineyards were extensively destroyed during the Second World War. The major replanting that followed, combined with an emphasis on export to Western markets, help explain the extensive use of western cultivars. Bulgaria currently exports over 60% of its wine. Production often reaches 2.5 million hL, from 100,000 ha of vines.

Because winery facilities also had to be reconstructed, the wine industry is comparatively modern. The emphasis on quantity, however, has been at the expense of fine-wine production. The vineyards lie largely between latitudes 41°45′ and 43°40′N, on land ideally suited to viticulture.

Of the native cultivars, approximately 8000 ha are devoted to Dimiat, a grape commonly used for the production of sweet wines. The Georgian cultivar Rkátsiteli is the dominant white cultivar. It is used extensively in wines sold in eastern Europe. Native red cultivars are Pamid, Shiroka Melnishka Losa, and Mavrud.

Russia, Moldova, Ukraine and Other Former Soviet Union States

The states that formed the western portion of the Soviet Union lie on an immense plain. The east European (Russian) plain stretches from the Caucasus 2400 km north to the Arctic Ocean and an equal distance eastward to the Ural Mountains. Without moderation by large bodies of water, or mountains to deflect air flow, continental weather systems move largely unimpeded across the region. Thus, summers may be very hot and winters bitterly cold, with marked and rapid changes in temperature throughout much of the year. Precipitation falls off moving eastward, especially north of the Black Sea. These climatic influences limit commercial viticulture primarily to the more moderate climates along the northern edges of the Black Sea, Moldova, Georgia, and the southern portions of the Ukraine and Russia. Other Russian vineyards, and those of Azerbaijan, are found along the eastern edges of the Caspian Sea.

Due to a decision taken in the early 1950s, the Soviet Union embarked on a massive vineyard-expansion program. Vineyard area increased from nearly 400,000 to over 1.1 million ha by the 1970s. This propelled the Soviet Union from tenth position, in terms of vineyard hectarage, to second in importance worldwide. Annual wine production of about 18 million hL placed the region fifth globally in terms of wine production. The disparity between vineyard area and wine production reflected the hectarage devoted to table grape and raisin production.

About 50% of the vineyard area was located in the European section of the country, near the Black and Caspian seas; 30% was positioned in the Transcaucasian zone, between the Black and Caspian seas, with the remainder occurring in south central Asia. In the Asian region, the production of raisins and table grapes was, and is, the main viticultural activity.

Some 70 foreign cultivars are grown throughout the former Soviet Union. Nevertheless, they constitute only approximately 30% of its plantings. Some 100 indigenous varieties occupy most of the remaining hectarage. Over 200 additional varieties are cultivated, but only in limited quantities. The most extensively grown white cultivar was Rkátsiteli, which used to cover 250,000 ha. This made Rkátsiteli second only to Airen as the most extensively cultivated white grape variety. Other commonly grown local cultivars are Mtsvane, originally coming from Georgia, and Fetească. Popular red cultivars include Saperavi, Khindogny, and Tsimyansky. Many western cultivars, such as Traminer, Riesling, Aligoté, and Cabernet Sauvignon are grown in Moldova and the southern Ukraine. There is renewed interest in the cultivation of local varieties in the Crimea. These include Kefessia, Soldaia, Savy Pandas, White Kokur, and Jevet Kara (Rybintsev, 1995).

Although the Soviet Union was a major wine-producing region, only about 2.5% of the annual production was exported. Vineyard coverage has declined considerably from its high in the early 1980s, due both to policies taken by the Soviet government (to curtail alcoholism), and the economic turmoil following its transition to a free market economy. Of the now-independent states, Moldova has the largest wine production, consistent with its possessing the most extensive vineyard area, approximately 150,000 ha. Vineyard area in Azerbaijan has fallen precipitously, from about 130,000 ha in the early 1990s to 8000 ha. The Ukraine, including the Crimea, possesses about 100,000 ha of vines, whereas the vineyard area in Russia covers almost 70,000 ha. Although possessing smaller total vineyard areas, Georgia (64,000 ha) and Armenia (13,000 ha) are important in the production of fine wines.

The earliest evidence of grape use in Georgia, close to the presumed origin of wine production, goes back to the Early Neolithic (Ramishvili, 1988). Presumptive archaeological evidence for wine production appears about 6000 B.C. Some 500 indigenous grape varieties may still occur within the region (Ketskhoveli et al., 1960), some adapted to growing at high altitudes in mountainous regions. Georgia also produces wine in ways that harken back to prehistoric times, as suggested by archaeological evidence in Macedonia (Valamoti et al., 2007). Large earthenware containers (frequently 10 to 15 hL), termed kvevri, are used as fermentors, as well as storage vessels. Similar vessels were used in ancient Greece (pithoi) and Rome (dolia). They are still used to a limited degree in southern Spain (tinaja). The process, by which wine is produced in kvevri is termed the Kartuli method. Must and stems from the grapes, trodden under foot, are added to kvevri, buried up to their necks in the ground. The top is covered with a ceramic top. Depending on the style, the must is allowed to completely ferment, or when fermentation is partially complete, marc brandy (chacha) is added to retain residual sweetness. After about 5 months, the wine is removed to a clean kvevri or bottled, if intended for sale.

In Armenia, the most important indigenous cultivars are the white Voskeat and Mskhali (used primarily in brandy production), and the red Areni Chernyi and Kachet. In Azerbaijan, the most important local cultivars are the white Bajac Shirei and the red Shahani.

Unlike the wines of most wine-producing regions, about three-quarters of all wine produced in the former Soviet Union possessed a distinctly sweet taste (over 15% sugar). Sparkling wines were especially appreciated and constituted 10% of the total production (~256 million bottles in 1989). To economize production costs, a continuous fermentation system was developed. Much of the existing sparkling wine production is still centered close to the Black Sea, around Krasnodar in the Kubar Valley (45°03′N), and near Rostov-na-Donu along the Don River (47°16′N) in southwestern Russia.

One of the major factors limiting viticulture in this region is its continental climate. The bitterly cold winters require that the vines in about 50% of the area’s vineyards be laid down and covered with soil each winter. The annual practice is not only labor intensive, but exposes the vines to mechanical damage and additional disease problems. Therefore, an extensive breeding program has been in progress for several decades to increase cultivar hardiness. Central to success has been the incorporation of frost resistance from V. amurensis. Improved cultivars, such as Burmunk, Mertsavani, Karmreni, and Nerkarat are able to survive adequately without burial during the winter. The development of high trunks has also proven beneficial in raising buds above the coldest zone near ground level. Restricting irrigation late in the season, and applying cryoprotectants such as mirval, migugen, and krezatsin, has further improved bud survival (Kirillov et al., 1987).

North Africa and the Near East

In both North Africa and the Near East, wine production has been declining for decades. This has been particularly marked in Moslem countries. The overthrow of French colonial rule was followed by the strict imposition of religious restrictions against wine consumption. For example, wine production in Algeria dropped to 3% of its preindependence (1962) value. Even in Israel, where wine has religious significance, recent production is about 40% of the 1971–1975 level.

The regions of Israel and Lebanon are potentially capable of producing fine wines, for example, the wines from Château Musar in the Bekaa Valley of Lebanon. However, most wines have been either excessively sweet or flat and unbalanced, at least to those accustomed to European wines.

Because wine consumption can be a serious felony in Islamic countries, most cultivated grapevines are table or raisin varieties. The rapid loss of acidity during maturation in such grapes is appropriate for a fresh fruit crop, or for raisining, but unacceptable if wine is the intended product. The colossal cluster of grapes, reportedly carried back to Moses from Canaan (Numbers 13:23), may have been indicative of agricultural fertility, not wine quality.

Far East

Both China and Japan have been repeatedly introduced to winemaking during their long history. In addition, Vitis vinifera varieties have been cultivated in these countries for several centuries. However, wine did not become part of their cultural fabric. Various cultural and genetic hypotheses have been presented to explain this phenomenon, but none seem adequate. In Japan, the general inappropriateness of the climate has probably been the principal reason. In China, however, several regions are suitable for V. vinifera cultivation. Regardless of the reason(s), viticulture, and especially winemaking, attracted limited interest in the Far East until recently.

China

In the past few decades, vineyard hectarage in China has expanded enormously, from 143,000 ha in the mid-1980s, to about 560,000 ha in 2011. Wine production has jumped from about 2.7×10⁶ to 13×10⁶ hL during the same period. By 2005, some 47,000 ha were dedicated to the production of ‘western-style’ winemaking (Gastin, 2006). This involves the cultivation of varieties such as Cabernet Sauvignon, Merlot, Cabernet Franc, Riesling and Chardonnay.

Surprisingly, the majority of Chinese vineyards are present in one of the most rigorous climatic regions of the country, the far northwestern province of Xinjiang Uygur (~40°15′N). Its location in central Asia, north of Tibet, exposes the vines to extremes of drought, summer heat, and frigid cold. The grapes used to be almost exclusively used for raisin production, but most of the extensive new plantings are for wine production. Although rainfall is low, irrigation based on water from the adjacent Tian Shan mountain range is possible. The soils are principally sandy loam covering granite.

Limited cultivation of table and wine grapes also occurs in the east, north of the Yangtze River (~30°30′N). Monsoon rains and summer heat south of the Yangtze are unfavorable to most grape cultivars, whereas north of 35° latitude, cold winters usually require V. vinifera vines to be covered with soil during the winter. However, the alkaline nature of the soil makes it suitable for growing V. vinifera on its own root system. This is possible because phylloxera was, until recently, limited in China.

The cultivation of V. labrusca cultivars and hybrids occurs in the north-central portions of Manchuria (~44°N). Here, abundant rainfall produces more acidic soils, suitable for V. labrusca cultivars. However, use of cold-hardy V. rupestris or V. amurensis rootstock is generally necessary to limit frost-induced root damage during the frigid winters. Temperatures frequently dip to−30 °C to−40 °C. The indigenous V. amurensis is the most cold-tolerant of Vitis species, surviving without significant harm temperatures down to−50 °C. Several pure V. amurensis cultivars are grown, such as Tonghua and Changbeisan, but their unisexual habit makes yield erratic. The bisexual cultivar Shuanqing is a major improvement. However, V. vinifera hybrids, such as Beichum and Gongniang, possessing cold- hardiness derived from V. amurensis, are more popular. Older V. vinifera varieties still widely cultivated are Longyan, Niunai, and Wuhebai (Sultana).

Due to the cold sensitivity of most cultivars, the vines are trained for easy removal from the trellis for winter burial. In hilly terrain, trellising has usually been on sloping elongated pergolas. On level ground, fan training has been common. Both systems use multiple cordons or bearing shoots to maintain sufficient wood subtlety to permit the annual lying down and raising of the vines. A unique adaptation of existing systems, incorporating concepts of canopy management, is the single-Dragon training system using a vertical T trellis (Fig. 10.21).

Figure 10.21 Diagram of the single-Dragon training of vines in China. (By Xiu Deren from Luo, 1986, reproduced by permission.)

The most important winemaking area of China is the Liaoning Peninsula in Shandong province (~37°N). Shandong possesses over 14,000 ha of vines. The area experiences both maritime and continental climatic influences. About 12,700 ha of vines are cultivated in the coastal region of the Bo Hai Bay, and west and north of Beijing (~39°55′N). The other main regions include 11,500 ha in Henan province (33° to 34°N), and the adjoining northern portions of Jiangsu and Anhai, as well as 3,600 ha in Manchuria (42°30′ to 46°N).

Traditionally, Chinese wines have been fortified and sweet. Often, only 30% of the content has been grape-derived (Hua, 1990). The government has begun to demand improved quality standards, but the required purchase of local grapes, regardless of maturity, keeps wine quality minimal. Joint ventures with European firms have more freedom in choosing grapes. Wines up to international standards are being produced.

Japan

Although winemaking experience in Japan goes back at least to the eighth century, social acceptance of wine has been slow. Viticulture occurs sporadically throughout the main island of Honshu and the northern island of Hokkaido. Nevertheless, activity is largely concentrated around Kofu (35°41′N), 100 km southwest of Tokyo. The drier foothills climate of Mount Fuji provides the most suitable conditions in Japan for cultivating European V. vinifera varieties.

The major problems facing Japanese viticulture are monsoon rains (often occurring during flowering and harvesting), and the cold winters. To counteract these undesirable conditions, the vines are trained high on vertically branched pergolas. Sloped sites are preferred. These provide both better drainage and sun exposure. It also avoids competition for the limited supply of level arable land.

Of V. vinifera cultivars, the indigenous Koshu variety is the most well adapted to Japanese conditions. The other dominant cultivars are V. labrusca hybrids, such as Delaware, Campbell’s Early, Neo-Muscat, and Muscat Bailey A. Both disease resistance and acid-soil tolerance make V. labrusca hybrids more suitable for cultivation than most V. vinifera varieties. Japan produces approximately 940,000 hL wine from its 21,000 vineyard ha. Wine production is about 1/100 that of the volume of sake, produced from fermented rice.

Australia and New Zealand

Australia

Although Australia is now one of the top 10 wine-producing countries, it was the quality of its wines that thrust Australia into world significance decades earlier. The range of climatic conditions, from the cool moist highlands of Tasmania to the hot arid conditions of the Murray Valley, creates opportunities for producing distinctive wines. The judicious selection of premium European cultivars has given even the simplest Australian wines a quality seldom achieved elsewhere.

For over 100 years, local preference for sweet fortified wines dictated wine production in Australia. However, consumer preference shifted dramatically during the 1960s and 1970s to dry table wines. This led to major changes in both viticultural and enologic practice, as well as an expansion of grape growing into cooler regions of the country. Fortified wines now constitute less than 2% of Australia’s wine production.

Viticulture is concentrated principally in the southeastern portion of the continent (Fig. 10.22). The region forms a triangle from the Clare Valley, north of Adelaide (South Australia), to Muswellbrook in the Hunter Valley (New South Wales), and south to Geelong below Melbourne (Victoria). The region incorporates most of the eastern Australian continent between the 10 °C and 20 °C annual isotherms (Fig. 1.2). However, the latitude range (32° to 38°S) is equivalent to that between southern Spain and Madeira. Although much of Australia is hot and arid, southern regions are significantly influenced by cold Antarctic currents flowing eastward below the continent. The high-pressure systems that prevail over the South Indian Ocean generate westerly winds that cool southern and western coastal regions. In addition, the southeast trade winds and low-pressure weather systems coming down the eastern Australian coast provide associated coastal regions with precious moisture. Thus, Australian viticulture is influenced by a range of climatic conditions from Mediterranean to temperate maritime.

Figure 10.22 Wine-producing regions of Australia. (From de Blij, 1985, reproduced by permission.)

The mid-latitudes and generally dry climate of Southern Australia provide longer growing seasons, with higher light intensities than are typical in Europe. This means that planting on sloped sites is of less significance than in much of Europe. Also, the vineyards are rarely subject to frost. Rainfall in coastal regions is well distributed throughout the year, and usually adequate for viticulture. However, precipitation rapidly declines toward the arid interior. Most Australian vineyards lie in the transition zone between the coast and interior, where irrigation is typically essential.

With the exception of some regions in Victoria and adjacent New South Wales, grafting for phylloxera control is unnecessary (Ruhl, 1990). Although phylloxera was accidentally introduced into Australia in the nineteenth century, it has not spread widely. Otherwise, grafting is limited to mainly nematode-infested vineyards. Ramsey, which possesses both nematode and drought tolerance, is the most extensively used rootstock in Australia.

Because of the former importance of sweet fortified wines and brandy in Australia, grape growing became, and still remains, centered along the Murray and Murrumbidgee river valleys. This region contains contiguous areas of New South Wales, South Australia, and Victoria. With the shift to dry wines, replanting focused on aromatically distinctive cultivars, such as Chardonnay, Riesling, and Traminer, and away from neutral-flavored varieties such as Sultana and Trebbiano. Even Cabernet Sauvignon has joined Shiraz (Syrah) as an important red variety grown in these hot regions. The proportion of so-called premium cultivars in the cooler viticultural regions to the south is even more marked.

Although Cabernet Sauvignon, Pinot noir, and Chardonnay are being more extensively planted, Shiraz remains the main red variety cultivated in Australia. It constitutes about 40% of red cultivar hectarage, followed by Cabernet Sauvignon (30%), Merlot (11%) and Pinot noir (4%). Sémillon has long been the major white variety cultivated in the Hunter Valley of New South Wales, although it constitutes only 10% of Australia’s white grape hectarage. The most widely cultivated white variety is Chardonnay (40%). Countrywide, Riesling and Sauvignon blanc occupy about 7% and 5% of white cultivar hectarage, respectively.

From a European perspective, the diversity of climatic regimes in which European cultivars excel is amazing. In the moderate climate of northeastern Victoria (Rutherglen), flinty chablis-like wines have been made from Pedro Ximénez. Fine Cabernet Sauvignon and Chardonnay wines are regularly produced in the hot, arid climate of the Murray River Valley. Excellent Marsanne wines are produced from the cool Yarra Valley in Victoria to the subtropical Hunter Valley in New South Wales. Even award-winning Pinot noir wines have come from the Hunter Valley. Thus, Australia illustrates how viticultural and enologic practice can contradict the commonly assumed limitations imposed by macro- and mesoclimate.

Australia also illustrates that irrigation does not necessarily lead to reduced grape and wine quality. On the contrary, irrigation provides the grower with the potential of controlling vine vigor and ripening. Furthermore, Australia has amply demonstrated that low yield is not an a priori condition for high grape and wine quality.

One of the more distinctive characteristics of winemaking in Australia is the dominance of a few major producers. They not only possess major holdings in widely dispersed wine regions, but they also produce a full range of wines, from bag-in-box to prestigious estate-bottled wines. The relaxed attitude about wine culture is reflected in the extensive use of bag-in-box containers.

The extensive use of rotary fermentors has permitted the production of intensely colored and flavorful red wines, without the excessive extraction of tannic substances. The technique is applicable to both early-maturing and long-aging, premium wines. The adoption of refrigeration to control fermentation temperature was also critical to Australia’s success in producing superior table wines. Another aspect in the triumphant conversion from fortified to table wines was the addition of tartaric acid. Its addition is frequently required in hot, irrigated regions, where acidity falls excessively during ripening.

Australia is particularly unique in its general disinterest in Appellation Control regulation. This avoids legal restrictions limiting the blending of wines from different vineyards or regions. This permits cellar masters to maximize (synergize) the individual qualities of each wine. Even the wine often accorded premier ranking among Australian red wines, Penfolds Grange, comes from a blend of several wines from different South Australian vineyards. For decades, blends, designated by bin number, rather than vineyard names, have become the quality hallmark of several producers. In Australia, blending has been raised to the art frequently associated with the production of champagne and port. Smaller producers of premium wines, as in other parts of the world, try to accentuate regional distinctiveness rather than ideal harmony. It is to the credit of Australians that both views are accepted and appreciated equally.

Other expressions of Australian inventiveness are the novel training systems and attention to harvest criteria. Australia, and its distant neighbor New Zealand, have both generated new training systems. These have been designed to improve early productivity (Tatura), increase yield (Lincoln), improve canopy exposure (RT2T), or achieve better pruning economy (minimal pruning). In determining the harvest date, there is greater concern about fruit flavor than in most countries. Combined with advanced enologic practices, both light aromatic Traminer and smooth, dark, full-flavored Shiraz wines can be produced from grapes grown in hot arid climates.

The 67,000 ha of vines in South Australia yield about 6.5 million hL wine annually. This constitutes about half of all Australian wine. The majority of vineyards occur on irrigated lands associated with the Murray Valley (~34°10′S), some 250 km northeast of Adelaide. The best-known wine region in South Australia, however, is situated 55 km northeast of Adelaide, in the 30-km-long Barossa Valley (~34°35′S). Cooling sea breezes and cool nights help to moderate the effect of the warm climate on acidity loss during ripening. Irrigation supplies the moisture not supplied by sufficient rainfall. Although most of the vines grow on the valley floor, vineyards have been increasingly planted up the western slopes of the valley. Here, the altitude of the Mount Lofty Range retards ripening, and is thought to enhance flavor development. Vineyards of the Eden Valley occur on the eastern slopes of the mountain. Smaller, but increasingly important, regions occur in the Clare Valley northeast of Adelaide, the Southern Vales regions south of the city, and the milder regions of Padthaway (36°30′S) and Coonawarra (37°15′S) in the southeastern corner of the state. Coonawarra has garnered a reputation that rivals the most famous European vineyards.

New South Wales is the second most important Australian state in terms of wine production (32%). It produces about 4.6 million hL wine from 36,000 ha of vines. As in South Australia, the largest production comes from the irrigated regions along the Murray and Murrumbidgee Valleys. Nevertheless, the fame of the state rests largely with its Hunter Valley vineyards. The original area is centered just northeast of Cessnock (32°58′S). Although initially famous for Shiraz and Sémillon wines, it has developed a reputation for excellent Chardonnay and Cabernet Sauvignon wines. Breezes off the South Pacific bring precipitation and cooling to its subtropical latitude. Cloud cover during the hottest part of the day also tends to moderate the heat and intensity of the sun. Frequent drying winds from the interior help to offset the disease-favoring humidity of the sea breezes. Although rains brought by Pacific breezes obviate the need for irrigation, they occasionally produce problems during harvest, making the quality of Hunter Valley wine one of the most variable in Australia. Further inland, to the northwest, is the Muswellbrook region (32°15′S). Its drier climate usually makes irrigation necessary. Further inland again, in the high valleys of the Great Dividing Range, are the vineyards of the Mudgee region.

Victoria is the third major wine-producing Australian state. It produces about 15% of Australia’s wine. Recently, it has regained some of its former viticultural importance. As with its neighboring states, much wine comes from irrigated vineyards along the Murray Valley. Nevertheless, particular interest has been given to plantings in the cooler maritime south. Examples are the Yarra Valley (37°50′S), just east of Melbourne, Geelong (38°06′S), 70 km southwest of the city, and Drumborg, in the southwestern corner, near Portland (38°20′S).

About 2000 km to the west are the vineyard regions of Western Australia. Most of its vineyard area is situated northeast of Perth (31°45′S), in the arid Swan Valley. However, cooler regions in the southwestern corner of the state are favored for making premium table wine. In the Margaret River district, westerly winds off the Indian Ocean provide both cooling and limited summer rains. The abundant sunshine and typically dry harvest conditions are ideal for the production of intensely colored, flavorful red wines. However, due to the closeness to the ocean, spring gale-force winds can inflict serious damage to varieties that undergo early break bud. There can also be considerable salt transport associated with the winds. The other prime viticultural region occurs around Mount Barker, in the southeast corner of the state. Vineyard altitude typically provides climatic moderation and uniform year-round precipitation. With the exception of Swan Valley, and a few other sites where nematodes are a problem, grafting is unnecessary and most grapevines are own-rooted.

The coolest of the Australian vineyards are located on the southern island of Tasmania. Its climate is primarily maritime, with moderate seasonal temperature variation. This can give problems with nonuniform bud break and fruit ripening. The vineyard area, although small (~1000 ha), is expanding. Most of the vines are planted around the capital, Hobart (37°50′S). It is favorably influenced by the warming of the Derwent Estuary and adjacent bays. Another region is in the northern portion of the island, near Launceston (37°50′S). It is the warmest and sunniest region of the island.

New Zealand

New Zealand (Fig. 10.23) was the last region in the Southern Hemisphere to see a major expansion in its wine industry. Although it has produced wine for more than 160 years, the industry has undergone most of its development and considerable expansion since the 1970s. In 1965, vineyard coverage approximated about 300 ha. By 2006, vineyard area had expanded to about 23,000 ha (a doubling since 2001) (Anonymous, 2006). During the same period, wine production went from 533,000 hL to 1,330,000 hL. Although the North Island initially possessed more vineyard area, plantings in the South Island are now more extensive. The South Island possesses about two-thirds of the vineyard area, with the Marlborough area alone growing more than half of the country’s vines. The latitude and position of the islands, and their distance from any large land mass, provide a moderate to cool, but variable maritime climate. The central ranges of mountains that run the length of both main islands generate marked contrasts between the higher rainfall, cloudy, windward west, and the milder, sunnier, leeward side.

Figure 10.23 Wine-producing regions of New Zealand. (From de Blij, 1985, reproduced by permission.)

Most of the vineyards on the North Island occur on the eastern side of the mountains that divide the island. They possess a drier, sunny climate. In contrast, the western portion of the island may receive up to 200 cm rain/year. Combined with fertile volcanic soils, vines in the Auckland region tend to grow vigorously, produce dense canopies, and, correspondingly, be particularly susceptible to fungal diseases. These conditions prompted the development of new training systems, such as the TK2T and RT2T. With enhanced canopy openness, disease control was facilitated and fruit quality increased, without negating the natural benefits of the region’s fertile soils. Ground cover further helps restrain excessive vigor and enhance evapotranspiration, minimizing some of the potential dangers of the region’s high rainfall.

The Hawke’s Bay region, around Napier (39°30′S), has about half the rainfall of the Auckland area. It possesses about 60% of the North Island’s vineyard area of 7700 ha. Second in importance, relative to size, is the Gisborne area (38°40′S). It is located in the northeastern portion of the island. The west-coast vineyard regions are located north and south of Auckland (~37°S), while the Wairarapa region is located at the southern tip of the island (41°15′S).

The newer vineyard regions are primarily located on the South Island. The largest region is in the northeastern tip of Marlborough district (Cloudy Bay), around Blenheim (41°30′S). Sheltering, provided by the enclosing branches of the Spencer Mountains, limits annual precipitation to almost 50 cm/year. This provides needed sunshine and warm long summers to fully ripen the grapes. Basalt gravelly soil acts as a useful heat sink (and source at night). Otago, in the southeastern, cooler portion of the island (~46°S), is its second most significant region, with some 1253 ha of vines. Additional vines are grown on the Canterbury Plain, west of Christchurch (43°30′S). The South Island has become world famous for its superior Sauvignon blanc and exquisite Pinot noir wines. Pinot noir constitutes about 78% of the plantings in the Otago region.

The distinctiveness of Marlborough and Wairarapa Sauvignon blanc wines appears to derive, at least, partially from the concentrations of 3-mercaptohexyl acetate and 3-mercaptohexan-1-ol. These compounds, plus higher contents in 2-methoxy-3-isobutyl pyrazine, distinguish the wines from their counterparts in the United States, France, and South Africa (Nicolau et al., 2006). Data from Masneuf-Pomarède et al. (2006), on the effect of yeast strain and fermentation temperature, suggest that these factors do not explain the observed differences in volatile thiols noted above. The differences may result from microclimatic attributes, such as the frequency of cool nights during the growing season in Marlborough and Wairarapa.

Because of disease severity, associated with the original vineyard regions in New Zealand, French-American hybrids were initially extensively grown. With improved chemical control, and a shift toward the making of table wines, Vitis vinifera cultivars replaced French-American hybrids. The most widely planted cultivar used to be Müller Thurgau, but it has declined in recent years to about 1% of white cultivar plantings. Sauvignon blanc is now the most cultivated variety (40%), followed by Pinot noir (18%) and Chardonnay (17%).

South Africa

South Africa has had a long history of grape culture and winemaking, dating back to 1655. It initially became famous for Constantia, a sweet fortified wine. It was once one of the most sought-after wines in Europe. The specialization in fortified wine production remained up until recently, with about half of South African wines becoming sherry- and port-style wines, or being distilled into brandy. The recent shift to table wine production, so pronounced in most New World countries, was slower to express itself in South Africa.

South Africa ranks third, after Australia and Argentina, as the largest wine producer in the Southern Hemisphere. The 132,000 ha of vines annually yield approximately 9 million hL wine. Viticultural activity is largely concentrated in the southwestern coastal region of Cape Province (Fig. 10.24). This area, spanning 31°00′ to 34°15′S, is equivalent to the latitude spread from southern California (Los Angeles) to the Gulf of California. The other viticultural regions are centered around Upington (28°25′S), along the Orange River Valley, and in the Douglas region in central South Africa.

Figure 10.24 Mountainous and Fahrenheit degree-day climatic regions superimposed on viticultural districts of Cape Province in South Africa: (1) Constantia, (2) Durbanville, (3) Stellenbosch, (4) Paarl, (5) Tulbagh, (6) Swartland, (7) Piketberg, (8) Worcester, (9) Robertson, (10) Swellendam, and (11) Overberg. (After Le Roux, 1974, reproduced by permission.)

Given its subtropical latitude, the early excellence of South African fortified wines is not surprising. Most of the coastal Cape region is influenced by a Mediterranean climate, with its limited rainfall occurring primarily in the winter months. The climate is relatively stable and endures few erratic vacillations. Consequently, South African vintages are almost consistently good to excellent.

Although not possessing the largest vineyard area (~17,500 ha), Stellenbosch has the highest concentration of grape cultivation of any district in South Africa. The central location of the city of Stellenbosch, in the L-shaped viticultural region of the Cape, has made it central to viticultural and enologic research in South Africa. The adjacent Cape Peninsula contains what remains of the famous Constantia vineyards. The Constantia district is permitted only a single agricultural activity, viticulture.

Stellenbosch is only 40 km east of Cape Town (33°48′S). Its position on the north shore of False Bay shields it from direct exposure to Atlantic influences. Nonetheless, the cooling effect of the Atlantic Ocean reaches the vineyards and slows vine growth. This postpones ripening into the milder autumn, and reduces excessive vineyard evapotranspiration. Mountain chains to the north and east of Stellenbosch favor cloud and rain formation. These conditions result in 20–25% of the 50 cm annual precipitation falling during the growing season. Nevertheless, some of the finest sites still require periodic irrigation. The famed red wines of the region generally come from vines grown on the moister west-facing slopes of Mt. Simonsberg and the Stellenbosch Mountains. White cultivars tend to do best on the sandy soils of the western lowlands. Cabernet Sauvignon appears to do better in the warm climate of South Africa than in equivalent climates in Europe.

Viticulture becomes progressively less important both north and east of Stellenbosch. Grape culture also declines through a complex patchwork of mountains and valleys into the highveld interior. This reflects the decline in precipitation and increase in temperature in the associated regions. One exception is the most southerly extension of the Cape, the Overberg district. Here, conditions are cooler than in Stellenbosch, but high winds and sand dunes hamper viticulture throughout much of the district.

The L-shaped stretch of coastline viticulture, extending north and east of Stellenbosch, also shows a shift from table to fortified and distilling wine production. This change is already apparent on entering the Paarl district, just north of Mt Simonsberg. Although the Paarl district is larger and possesses more vineyard area (18,000 ha), the vineyards are less concentrated than those of Stellenbosch. Even larger in size is the adjacent Worcester district to the east. It has close to 19,500 vineyard ha, located largely in the western region. Winds funneling through the valley provide some cooling and extra moisture, especially to vineyards on higher slopes. The western region annually collects about 75 cm of rain, whereas the eastern portion receives but 25 cm. Shadows, cast by mountain peaks over 850 m high limit the duration of exposure to the hot subtropical sun. Vines producing table wines usually benefit from east-facing slopes, whereas those producing fortified wines are favored by cultivation on west-facing slopes. Similar, but drier, is the adjacent Tulbagh district to the north of Paarl. Further west again, and along the Atlantic coast, is Swartland. Cool sea breezes and heavy dew help partially compensate for the low annual rainfall (25 cm). Additional districts extend viticulture northward and eastward to form a region up to 130 km deep, 250 km to the north and 400 km to the east of Cape Town.

One of the more important viticultural problems in South Africa is the preponderance of acidic soils. It is estimated that 70% of the vines of the Cape grow in soils below pH 5. Toxic levels of available aluminum probably explain much of the observed poor root growth in acidic soils. This influence may be counteracted by the incorporation of lime. Liming also probably helps root growth by improving the soil structure. The use of acid-tolerant rootstocks can further counter the detrimental influences of acidic soils.

Although the production of different wine styles has not changed as dramatically as in other non-European countries, the varietal composition of South African vineyards has changed considerably since the 1960s. The most marked transformation has been the striking increase in Steen (Chenin blanc), which covers about 20% of the vineyard hectarage in South Africa. Colombard makes up another 11% coverage, followed by Chardonnay and Sauvignon blanc, at about 7% each. A corresponding decline has occurred in the cultivation of Hermitage (Cinsaut). Other cultivars with decreased use have been Palomino, Green Grape (Sémillon), Hanepoot (Muscat of Alexandria), and the local cultivar Pinotage. Although white cultivars still make up 55% of vineyard coverage, red varieties are on the increase. For example, Cabernet Sauvignon, Shiraz, Pinotage and Merlot constitute about 15%, 9%, 7% and 7% of vineyard plantings, respectively.

South America

South America has been associated with viticulture and winemaking almost since its colonization, primarily by the Spanish. Nevertheless, the emergence of South America as an important wine-producing region has been comparatively recent. Figure 10.25 shows some of the main wine-producing areas.

Figure 10.25 Main wine-producing regions of Chile, Argentina, and Brazil. (After de Blij, 1985, reproduced by permission.)

Chile

Chile is unique among world nations in being almost exclusively coastal. Although spanning almost 40° of latitude, from the Peruvian border (17°24′S) to the Cape of Good Hope (56°S), it is only an average of 180 km wide. Along the 4500-km coastline, only the zone between 32° and 38°S is amenable to viticulture and premium wine production. Chilean vineyard area (185,000 ha) and yearly wine production (~7 million hL) are considerably less than that of its eastern neighbor, Argentina. Within this region, however, conditions are more favorable for premium wine production than in much of Argentina.

The best viticultural regions in Chile lie at latitudes roughly equivalent to those of southern California in the Northern Hemisphere. The cool Humboldt Current, and the altitude of the vineyards in the central valley (Nucleo Central), provide a temperate Mediterranean climate. Precipitation increases rapidly along this 600-km stretch from north of Santiago, down to the Bío Bío River, near Concepción. Further south, the climate becomes maritime, without a summer drought period. At the northern end of the Nucleo Central, the annual precipitation averages 25 cm, whereas at the southern end near Concepcíon, it averages more than 75 cm annually.

Of the several viticultural zones in Chile, the most highly regarded section is termed the Regadio. It encompasses central Chile, from north of the Aconcagua River to south of the Maule River. Except for the Aconcagua region, the best sites occur within the broad Nucleo Central, formed by the coastal cordillera and the Andes to the east. Most of the vineyards are associated with river valleys that cross the cordillera. From north to south, they include the Maipo, Cachopoal, Tinguiririca, Lontué, and Maule rivers. The Regadio is subdivided from north to south into the Aconcagua, Maipo, Rapel, and Maule regions.

Within the Regadio, sites north and south of Santiago (33°26′S) in the Maule River Valley are considered superior. The regional average rainfall of around 40 cm provides moisture to the deep, loamy–gravelly soils. This, combined with irrigation water from the Maipo River, provide adequate moisture for vine growth and grape ripening. The gentle rolling landscape facilitates excellent drainage. Prevalent dry sunny conditions and moderate temperatures help limit disease development. The calcareous layer in the soil favors root growth. Chile is the major wine-producing country still unafflicted by phylloxera, and most cultivars can be grown on their own root system. The winter season is sufficiently cool to satisfy bud-dormancy requirements and permit bud break in the spring. Maipo’s moderately stable climate usually provides conditions optimal for producing fine-quality fruit. The adjacent Rapel region, south of Maipo, is slightly cooler, and yearly receives between 50 and 60 cm of rain. It also produces excellent-quality fruit and wine. Annually, the regions produce about 90,000 and 230,000 hl wine, respectively.

Although most grape varieties in Chile are red (75%), the cultivars grown in the central Regadio regions are different from País,1 the variety that dominates regions such as Bío Bío. ‘Cabernet Sauvignon’ makes up 55% and 70% of the red cultivars in the Maipo and Rapel regions, and 47% of all red cultivars grown in Chile. In the Maipo region, Merlot is the second most widely grown red variety, whereas in the Rapel region, the rare old Bordeaux cultivar Carmenère is third in red coverage. Of white varieties, Chardonnay is the dominant cultivar, with Sauvignon blanc a distant second. The predominance of French cultivars in a region colonized by Spanish immigrants reflects the effect of Silvestre Ochagavia, an influential viticulturist and politician in the 1850s.

Of the other two regions in the Regadio zone, Maule, south of Rapel, is the largest. It possesses about 50,000 ha of vines, in contrast to the 11,000 and 33,000 ha in Maipo and Rapel. It generates about 50% of Chile’s table wines. Some sites are as fine as those further north, but others possess a more unstable, moist environment. This is reflected in the increased importance of the País variety (23%). Nevertheless, the conditions are still favorable for premium white cultivars. Sauvignon blanc constitutes about 50% of plantings, with Chardonnay and Sémillon at 25% and 10%, respectively.

In the northern Regadio region of Aconcagua, red wine production is dominated by Cabernet Sauvignon, Merlot and Pinot noir. Chardonnay, and Sauvignon blanc are the dominant white cultivars. However, the warmer climate is reflected in the increased cultivation of varieties used in the production of Pisco brandy.

The shift of cultivars to those used in Pisco production is particularly noticeable in the adjacent northern Pisquera viticultural zone. Here, a variety of Muscat cultivars and País constitute the majority of white and red cultivars, respectively. Table grapes also increase in importance in the Pisquera zone. The primary deficit of the zone is neither its hot climate nor dry environment, but the erratic and violent storms that can periodically ravage the area.

South of the Regadio, one enters a transition zone where irrigation becomes progressively unnecessary. In the Secano zone, south of the Bío Bío River, the increasing rainfall and cool climate make viticulture increasingly problematic. Nevertheless, the zone still has an extensive vineyard area, covering 14,000 ha.

Argentina

Argentina has grown grapes and produced wine since the mid-1500s, similar to Chile. However, the growth of the Argentinian wine industry into the fifth largest in the world occurred only in the latter part of the twentieth century. With a vineyard area of about 211,000 ha and an annual wine production of 13 million hL, Argentina is the largest wine producer in the Southern Hemisphere, though this is being challenged by Australia. Viticulture constitutes the third largest industry in Argentina. As in Russia, most of the production is consumed locally. Argentina used to export only between 1.5 and 3% of the annual production. By 2003, this had risen to 14%, and has risen steadily since then. This does not include the export of concentrated grape juice for fermentation in other countries. Were this included, it would add significantly to its contribution to the world’s wine supply.

Vineyard regions in Argentina occur almost exclusively in the rain shadow of the Andes, along the western border of the country. Wines are grown from south of the province of Jujuy (24°S) to along the Negro River (40°S). However, the major concentration of vineyards occurs in the province of Mendoza (~32° to 36°S).

The location of Mendoza in the lee of the Andes gives it an arid climate, annually receiving about 20 cm rain. Irrigation of the region’s extensive vineyards is possible only because of the relative flatness of the land, and the ready availability of river and artesian water (Fig. 10.26). The deep, loosely compacted soils permit good drainage, water retention, and root penetration. Irrigation costs are partially offset by the savings derived from the disease-limiting dry air. The region’s clear skies and altitude (about 500–750 m) generate day–night temperature fluctuations of up to 25 °C. Thus, the heat summation of some 1900 to 2100 Celsius degree-days gives the impression that the region is cooler than it is. To avoid excessive acid loss during grape maturation, it is usual to harvest early and prevent malolactic fermentation. Although the summers are hot, the winter period is adequate to permit bud break in the spring.

Figure 10.26 Source of the artesian water (from the eastern flank of the Andes) essential for irrigation of vineyards of Mendoza, Argentina. (From de Blij, 1985, reproduced by permission.)

Regional differences in latitude and altitude across Mendoza produce significant differences in fruit ripening and quality. The basins of the Tunuyána and Mendoza rivers, southwest of Mendoza (32°54′S) are currently considered the best viticultural areas. Regional differences are partially reflected in cultivar distributions. Cabernet Sauvignon and Malbec are more common in the northern portions of Mendoza, whereas Tempranillo and Sémillon are more frequently cultivated in central regions. Nearly 50% of all cultivars are premium red varieties, and 20% are white. The remainder consists of varieties established in Argentina for centuries, such as Criolla² and Cereza.

The province of San Juan, to the north of Mendoza, ranks second in terms of quantity of wine produced. It has 58,000 ha of vines and annually yields approximately 5 million hL wine. San Juan also produces much of the wine used in sherry and brandy production, as well as most of the exported concentrated grape juice. The San Juan area is slightly hotter and drier than Mendoza, but more frequently subjected to strong desiccating winds from the Andes. Consequently, pergola-training systems are commonly used to protect the grapes from intense sun and wind exposure. The same training system has been used in Mendoza for hail protection.

In San Juan, premium red cultivars, such as Barbera, Nebbiolo, and Malbec cover only about 10% of the vineyard area. White varieties, such as Pedro Ximénez, Torrontés, and Muscat, and the reds Criolla and Cereza are the dominant cultivars planted. Torrontés is the second most cultivated white cultivar. It appears to be derived from an indigenous crossing between Muscat of Alexandra and Criolla (Agüero et al., 2003). Additional details are available in This et al. (2006). Any genetic connection with the Torrontés in Spain seems unlikely. Vines bearing that name appear to consist of a collection of distinct varieties, all being different from that grown in Argentina (Borrego et al., 2002).

Of the other provinces that produce wine, only the south central Rio Negro is of considerable importance. The more southerly latitude (~38°S) provides Rio Negro with a cooler climate. Thus, grapes mature more slowly and generally develop a better acid/sugar balance during ripening.

In Rio Negro, the important viticultural area occurs on the broad flood plain of the Negro River, east of the junction of the Limay and Neuquén rivers. Because annual precipitation averages only about 20 cm, irrigation is essential. Textural soil differences may generate the features that distinguish wines produced on opposite sides of the river. The north side possesses more sand and gravel, whereas the southern portion has finer, more fertile soils.

Argentinian vineyards have a much wider diversity of cultivars than neighboring Chile. The original European settlers brought Spanish varieties and techniques that still dominate the wine industry. French cultivars came later, primarily via Chile. Finally, Italian varieties came in with an influx of Italian immigrants, beginning in the middle of the nineteenth century.

As noted, the winemaking procedures are predominantly Spanish. Thus, the finer wines are given several years of aging in casks before bottling. With red wines, the results meet with widespread approval, both in Argentina and abroad. The slightly oxidized character given white wine by prolonged aging in oak cooperage is appreciated in Argentina, but has not developed an equivalent following in foreign markets.

Brazil

Although not widely recognized as a wine-producing nation, Brazil possesses approximately 72,000 ha of vines and annually produces approximately 3 million hL wine. Of the several states involved, only the southernmost Rio Grande do Sul is of notable significance. It contains about 70% of Brazil’s vineyard area. In addition, 6000 ha of grapes are grown in tropical Brazil, largely in the Saõ Francisco River valley, in the Petrolina region (~9°2′S). Most of the production (two crops per year) is grown as a fresh fruit crop, with only about 10% being used in wine production.

Most of the vineyards are congregated north of the Jacui River (~29°30′S), 120 km northwest of Porto Alegre. The other main region in Rio Grande do Sul lies along the border with Uruguay (~31°S). Both regions have moist warm summers and mild winters. The moist climate generally is unfavorable to the cultivation of Vitis vinifera. Nevertheless, modern chemical disease control has permitted the expansion of V. vinifera cultivation in Brazil and neighboring Uruguay. The predominant red cultivars are either Italian, such as Barbera, Bonarda, or Nebbiolo, or French, such as Cabernet Franc or Merlot. Muscat varieties, along with some Trebbiano and Sémillon are the main white cultivars. Nevertheless, almost 80% of all cultivars are V. labrusca varieties, or French-American hybrids. Important cultivars are Isabella, Dutchess, Niagara, Delaware, Concord, and Seibel hybrids. Their main advantage in the humid climate of Brazil is their greater disease resistance.

Uruguay

As with most other South American countries, Uruguay has a long history of grape production, commencing with the arrival of Spanish colonizers. Nevertheless, production has been limited, and consumed almost exclusively locally. Most of the vineyards are located near Montevideo, in the southern part of the country. However, other vineyard regions are located throughout much of the southwestern portions of Uruguay. Vineyards cover about 10,000 ha, of which about half are Vitis vinifera cultivars. The most important red vinifera cultivar is Tannat, amounting to about 32% of the wine grape coverage. In Latin America, this variety from southern France is almost exclusively grown in Uruguay. Its coverage is superseded only by Muscat Hamburg, Isabella and French-American hybrids, grown primarily for domestic wine production. Wine production has remained relatively stable over the past decade or so, being in the range of about 850,000 hL.

North America

The North American market has experienced the same dramatic shift in consumer preference noted previously in Australia and New Zealand. In addition to a move away from fortified wines, white wines became the preference for the majority of consumers. More recently, red wines have shown a return to favor, presumably due to their supposed superior health benefits. These changes have provoked considerable adjustment in viticultural practice, cultivar planting, and winemaking. They have also spawned the creation of an increasing number of wineries specializing in premium wines. Even more important in the long-run has been the greater communication, cooperation, and integration of views between grape growers and winemakers.

These changes have also spurred legal changes. These have encouraged many grape growers to start their own wineries. Consequently, the North American industry has begun to resemble that of Europe. The effect has been an improvement in the level of grape and wine quality. Nevertheless, North American winery conglomerates still retain a dominant position in wine production. Although continuing to produce fortified wines, they have adopted and championed technological advancements that have made North America one of the best quality-for-price wine regions of the world.

United States

The experimental and technological innovation generated by the rapid adjustment of winemaking to new preferences thrust the United States into the forefront of wine research. This has occurred despite its producing somewhat less than half the wine volume generated by any one of the three major wine-producing countries (Italy, France, and Spain). US production stands above 21 million hl; vineyards cover approximately 415,000 ha.

California

Although wine is made in nearly every state in the Union, California is the major producer. Despite the growing importance of other states, California continues to produce over 90% of American wine.

Since the shift toward table wines, the focus of enologic activity has moved from the Central Valley to the numerous valleys that directly open to the Pacific Ocean. Nevertheless, about 60% of Californian vines grow in the southern portion of the Central Valley, the San Joaquin. In addition, nearly 70% of Californian wines come from this strip of land, 650 km long and up to 150 km wide. The Central Valley lies approximately between latitudes 35° and 38°N. The reliably warm Mediterranean climate, rich soils, and flat landscape are ideal for most forms of agriculture. The high Coastal Range separates the valley from moisture-carrying sea breezes.

Although hot and arid, the San Joaquin Valley grows the grapes from which most American table wines are produced. This has been possible with practices such as early harvesting, in-field crushing, cool fermentation, prevention of malolactic fermentation, and protection from oxidation. These procedures are comparable to those used in similar regions in Australia, Chile, and South Africa. New cultivars, specifically bred for Central Valley conditions, helped its transformation into a producer of consistently good, inexpensive, table wines. Particularly valuable were Rubired, Ruby Cabernet, and Emerald Riesling. However, around Lodi (38°07′N), cultivars such as Chenin blanc, Colombard, Chardonnay, Zinfandel, and Cabernet Sauvignon are grown extensively. Here, the opening of the Central Valley to the Pacific provides cooler nights, conducive to acid retention and flavor retention in premium cultivars. The southern portion of the San Joaquin Valley remains the center for its remaining sherry and port production. It also is the main location of the prominent raisin and table grape industries. These constitute 10% and 30%, respectively, of vineyard production. Average rainfall declines in the valley, from 45 cm/year around Sacramento (38°35′N), to 13 cm at the southern tip. Because most of the precipitation comes during the winter, irrigation is essential in most years.

Napa is the best-known coastal valley, located northeast of San Francisco (37°45′N). It is typical of several valleys affected by an influx of cool, moist air from the Pacific. This results as rising air currents, generated by heating of interior parts of the valley, drawing cooler air in from the ocean. This is often associated with the development of fog at the mouth of the valley. As the air is progressively heated, as it moves up the valley, the humidity drops. This influence is less marked along the valley walls. Precipitation is typically higher on the western wall and further up the valley (Fig. 10.27).

Figure 10.27 Mean annual precipitation in Napa County. (From US Department of Agriculture, 1978.)

In addition to the progressive reduced precipitation up the valleys, there is a similar reduction moving down the coast. For example, average precipitation decreases from near 100 cm/year in Mendocino (39°18′N), to roughly 45 cm around Santa Barbara (34°26′N), and just over 20 cm in San Diego (32°43′N). Because most of the rain comes during the winter, coastal-valley viticulture typically requires irrigation. Although irrigation increases the cost of production, it provides an opportunity to regulate vine growth, as well as limiting most disease and pest problems. For example, California is generally unaffected by downy mildew, black rot, and some grape and berry moths. The absence of the winged stage of phylloxera may partially explain the freedom of most central-coastal vineyards from phylloxera, years after its accidental introduction into the state.

The Sonoma Valley, adjacent to Napa, is only marginally less well known. Both are about equal in vineyard area and wine production. The vineyards in the northern region of Mendocino County are more dispersed and scattered through several valleys. The Monterey region, south of San Francisco, has also become an important viticultural area. Other regions, although important for quality, are minor in terms of production. Several regions possess viticultural areas with a reputation and consumer following exceeding that of the county name. Examples are the Alexander Valley in Sonoma and the Santa Ynez Valley in Santa Barbara.

Although viticulture is practiced over nearly 6° of latitude in California, temperature changes are often more marked along the length of the coastal valleys than down the coastline. For example, several coastal valleys pass from heat summation Region I (cool) to Region III (mild) along their length (see Fig. 5.17). This change can occur over a distance of less than 40 km. Temperature regimes near the opening of coastal valleys can be similar to those found at a latitude 13° further north in Europe. The influences of altitude up valley slopes further enhances short-distance climatic diversity. However, valleys in California possess longer growing seasons, have milder winters, and experience higher light intensities than many of their European counterparts. The greater proximity of the vineyard regions to the coast (and influence of the cold California Current) partially explains the apparent anomaly that some of the coolest viticultural regions of California are in the south (San Luis Obispo and Santa Barbara, ~35°N).

The combination of diverse temperature regimes with local differences in moisture and soil conditions has provided California with a remarkably varied range of juxtaposed growing conditions. Consequently, cultivars typically separated by hundreds of kilometers in Europe may grow within sight of one another in California. This has influenced the production of stylistically different wines within kilometers of one another. It has also fostered an acceptance of a much wider range of varietal expressions than in Europe. The absence of a traditional style for particular regions in California has left winemakers free to experiment and create their own distinctive wines. The rejection of the view that grape varieties succeed only under a narrow subset of climatic conditions advances the development of new and better regional and varietal wines.

The shift in consumer preference to dry white wines that occurred in the 1980s had marked effects on Californian viticulture. One solution was the production of blush and ‘white’ wines from excess red grape capacity. Another solution was the grafting over to, or replanting with, white cultivars. This was particularly marked with Chardonnay. It still remains the most cultivated wine cultivar (17%). The next most extensively grown white variety is Colombard (7%), most of which is grown in the San Joaquin Valley. Other important white varieties cultivated in California are Chenin blanc, Sauvignon blanc, and Riesling.

Another indicator of present trends is the increased importance of Cabernet Sauvignon. Following Chardonnay, Cabernet Sauvignon is the most common cultivar (12.5%). Coverage by Zinfandel is almost the same as Merlot, at about 10%. The enigmatic Pinot noir constitutes about 2% of Californian wine grape hectarage. Other red cultivars include Rubired, Grenache, Barbera, Sangiovese, and Carignan. Vine planting also increased fairly steadily from 1995 until recently.

The proportion of premium cultivars grown in coastal valley vineyards is significantly higher than for the state as a whole. This reflects the cooler environment of the coastal valleys, and greater climatic similarity to the cultivars’ European homeland.

As in Australia, extensive research has been directed toward improving grape quality. One aspect of this research has been the isolation of clones with distinctive flavor characteristics. Some producers are combining the must or wine from several clones to enhance wine complexity (Long, 1987). Such activity may produce, under precise direction, some of the clonal diversity that has characterized many traditional European vineyards.

One of the few disappointing aspects of wine production in California, and in most other New World countries, is the inordinate space given a few grape varieties. Several Spanish and Italian cultivars are grown widely, but they are seldom used in varietally designated wines. Although essential to the quality of inexpensive wines, their anonymity prevents their receiving the recognition they deserve. This is probably one of the unfortunate legacies of the prevalent British acceptance of the French attitude that French wines and their cultivars are superior to all others. Thus, as usual, it will depend on a few, dedicated, skilled visionaries to slowly expose consumers and wine critics to the merits of other cultivars. Consumers deserve more variation and sensory stimulation than can be provided by the principal, so-called ‘premium’ cultivars grown worldwide. Creativity in the winery helps, but we desperately need more of another concept, often viewed as French – Vive la différence.

Pacific Northwest

Of the two states juxtaposed between California and British Columbia, Washington is the more significant in wine production. It possesses about 12,000 ha devoted to wine production, and equivalent coverage for juice production. This qualifies it as the third most important wine-producing state (2.6%). In comparison, Oregon comes in fourth in wine production, derived from about 5,600 ha.

In Washington, the primary vineyard area is situated in the south-central region, approximately between latitudes 45° and 48°N. The region encompasses the connecting valleys of the Columbia River and its tributaries, the Yakima and Snake Rivers. It is bounded on all sides by mountains – the Rocky Mountains to the east, the Cascades to the west, the Okanagan highlands to the north, and the Blue to the south. The mountains provide protection both from cold north and east winds and from moisture-laden winds from the west. The area possesses a dry, sunny climate, with much of the limited precipitation coming in winter as snow. The summers are warm with cool nights. The rapid decline in temperature in mid-September helps retain fruit acidity. Heat summation varies from 1220 to 1500 Celsius degree-days (Regions I to II). The soils are primarily sandy loams of various depths and are commonly underlain by a calcareous hardpan, typical of most dryland regions. Irrigation is typically necessary. Cold winter temperatures occasionally reach−25 °C, and the region may experience marked and precipitous temperature drops. Sites midway up slopes provide optimal frost protection by draining cool air away, while avoiding the cold at the slope apex. Cool evenings, combined with stable sunny conditions throughout the growing season, favor full ripening, excellent color production, and the retention of ample acidity. South-facing orientations are preferred because of the extra spring and fall light received.

In the past, much of the grape culture in central Washington was destined for juice production, notably from Concord. Since the late 1960s, plantings of Vitis vinifera cultivars have increased considerably. In areas experiencing the coldest winters, varieties possessing cold tolerance, such as Riesling, Gewürztraminer, Pinot noir, and Chardonnay, are cultivated. Cabernet Sauvignon and other longer-season cultivars grow better on warmer sites. Because phylloxera is absent, a major cost saving is achieved by avoiding the necessity of grafting.

A second viticultural region occurs in the area surrounding Seattle, extending to the Canadian border (~47° to 49°N). The temperate, maritime climate of Puget Sound is markedly different from the arid conditions of the central and eastern parts of the state. Although freezing is seldom experienced, the cool moist climate (heat summation of 850 to 1050 Celsius degree-days) retards growth and grape ripening. Thus, short-season varieties such as Müller-Thurgau, Madeleine Angevine, and Okanagan Riesling are preferred. The vineyard area is highly dispersed and small.

In Oregon, commercial viticulture exists in four regions – the southern portion of the Columbia River valley across from Washington, and a string of three valleys, formed between the low Coast Range and Cascade Mountains. Of the valleys, the largest and most significant is the Willamette. It extends southward from the Washington border for about 280 km and can be 100 km wide. It spans a latitude between 44° and 46°N. The Umpqua Valley lies south of the Willamette Valley, from which it is separated by a semimountainous divide. An even smaller region, situated within the Klamath Mountains, is the Rogue Valley. It lies close to the Californian border.

The Willamette Valley receives on average 80–120 cm rain/year, but only about one-third falls during the growing season. Long sunny days during the spring and summer tend to compensate for the moderate to cool temperatures (heat summation of 1050–1250 Celsius degree-days), with from 165 to 210 frost-free days. South-facing slopes, between 120 and 220 m altitude, are preferred for the extra light and heat received. As with other cool climatic regions, the mid-slope region provides optimal frost protection, consistent with heat gain. Deep soils are preferred. They provide protection against occasional summer droughts. Excellent drainage is necessary, however, to avoid excessive early shoot vigor in such sites.

The preferred cultivar is clearly Pinot noir. It covers over 55% of the vineyard hectarage. Pinot gris comes in a distance second, followed by Chardonnay, and Riesling. As the varietal coverage suggests, Oregon has been particularly successful with Pinot noir. The wine is produced in a manner similar to that in Burgundy. This may involve early harvesting to retain sufficient acidity, even though it requires chaptalization. During fermentation, some whole clusters may be incorporated with the must, and the temperatures permitted to rise to 29 °C. Fermentation is usually preferred in small cooperage, with gentle punching down rather than pumping over. Malolactic fermentation is favored by infrequent racking and the minimal addition of sulfur dioxide. There is considerable interest in the use of special strains of lactic acid bacteria to enhance flavor complexity during malolactic fermentation. Furthermore, some vineyards are planted at high densities (10,000 vines/ha). The narrow rows require the use of special machinery designed to work under such conditions (Adelsheim, 1988).

Oregon has the advantages of a climate that accentuates the varietal character of Pinot noir, and a fairly consistent concept among producers on how the wine should be made. The combination has helped the state achieve rapid international recognition for its Pinot noir wines. It is a good example of how a small region can quickly establish an identity in the crowded and competitive world wine market.

East of the Rockies

The most significant wine-producing region after California is New York. New York annually produces approximately 1 million hL wine, from about 12,500 vineyard ha. This constitutes about 5% of America’s wine production. Most eastern states, as well as those in the south and southwest, produce wine. Although the wines are of considerable local interest and pride, production capacity is small and the wines are seldom found outside their home state. Following Washington and Oregon, New Jersey, Florida, Kentucky, Vermont, Texas and Ohio produce the most wine.

The northeastern states receive precipitation throughout the year. During the winter, snow cover often provides needed frost protection. However, high humidity during the growing season can favor several severe fungal pathogens, notably downy mildew, and both black and bunch rots. In addition, the region is endemically infested with phylloxera and several insect pests absent west of the Rockies.

The southern and coastal states seldom suffer from vine-damaging frost conditions, but they are more humid. Humid conditions demand greater fungicide use, or require the cultivation of varieties derived from indigenous Vitis species, or varieties containing resistance genes. The bacterium Xylella fastidiosa, the causal agent of Pierce’s disease, severely limits cultivation of V. vinifera cultivars in the southern and coastal states.

The central portion of the United States has little viticultural activity. Most of what occurs is located either in the southwestern states of Texas, New Mexico, and Arizona, or in the east-central states of Michigan and Ohio. Viticulture in Wisconsin usually requires that the vines be laid down and covered with soil each winter. States such as Colorado have abundant sunshine, low relative humidity, marked day/night temperature fluctuations, but frequently experience bitterly cold winters. Throughout the northern states, vines are commonly trained with two or more trunks. This minimizes the damage caused by death of one trunk due to crown gall, Eutypa dieback, or other problems.

One of the most distinctive features of the eastern wine industry is the tremendous diversity of its cultivars. During the early years of colonization, plantings of V. vinifera suffered repeated failures. Thus, the industry evolved based on V. labrusca or hybrid cultivars in the northeast, V. aestivalis cultivars in the Midwest, and V. rotundifolia cultivars in the southeast. V. labrusca cultivars, such as Concord, Niagara, Catawba, Isabella, and Ives are well adapted to the climate and endemic diseases and pests. They produced good fortified and sparkling wines, which were the staple of the wine industry for more than a century. In the Midwest (Arkansas, Illinois, Kentucky, Missouri) and mid-Atlantic states (Maryland and Virginia) cultivars such as Norton and Cynthiana were, and still are, popular (Dami et al., 2001). Their cultivation is based primarily on their cold hardiness and ability to withstand the typical hot, humid summers. The old standard in the southeast, ‘Scuppernong,’ has now been largely replaced by newer, self-fertile, muscadine cultivars.

With an increase in the popularity of dry wines in the 1960s, the northeastern states and adjacent Canada began to explore the use of French-American hybrids. They possessed many of the winemaking properties of V. vinifera, combined with some of the disease resistance of one or more indigenous Vitis species. The success of the trials added cultivars such as Maréchal Foch, Baco noir, Vidal blanc, Seyval blanc, and Aurora to the list of commonly grown cultivars. Although widely cultivated, Aurora plantings are on a decline. They are being replaced by varieties with better winemaking characteristics. Breeding programs in both New York State and the neighboring province of Ontario produced new V. vinifera hybrids, notably Cayuga White and Ventura, respectively. In the Midwest, varieties such as the Swenson hybrid Frontenac have proven successful and popular under severe winter conditions. In the southeast, renewed breeding work generated new muscadine cultivars, notably Carlos, Noble, and Magnolia. Further south, the cultivars Stover and Suwannee have been bred to the climate and disease conditions of Florida.

To these new varieties are now being added vinifera cultivars from Europe. With appropriate rootstocks, pesticide application, site selection, training, and winter protection, European cultivars can now survive and prosper after more than two centuries of failure. Although gratifying, the long-term benefit of V. vinifera cultivars to the wine industry in the eastern and central states is unclear. One short-term effect has been to direct interest away from hybrids inherently more suited to the local climate. These could give regional wines a distinctiveness that European cultivars cannot. If as much attention were given to these cultivars, as to viniferas, they would undoubtedly contribute significantly to the repute of eastern North American wines. However, wine critics and many producers seem intent on trying to turn eastern North America into another Europe. This is not to imply that producing wines of superior caliber from French-American or newer hybrids will necessarily be any easier than with vinifera varieties. They have their own viticultural problems. These include a tendency to excessive secondary shoot production, pronounced vegetative flavors (especially in young wine), and lower tannin levels. Nevertheless, the acceptance and prestige, derived from successfully cultivating familiar European varieties, may eventually encourage adventurous, young winemakers to branch out and produce distinctively regional wines, possessing new and interesting flavors. Thankfully, New York State possesses fewer eurocentric copycats than is in vogue north of the border.

Wine production in New York State is largely centered in the Finger Lakes region (~42°25′ to 42°50′N), nearly 100 km south of Lake Ontario. The vineyards are primarily situated on slopes adjacent to a series of narrow elongated lakes, oriented north and south. Thus, the vines receive either an eastern or western exposure. Although such sites receive less light than south-facing slopes, this can be beneficial in delaying the loss of insulating snow cover during the winter. This limits premature bud burst in the spring, when late frosts can be particularly damaging. The lakes moderate temperature fluctuations, a feature especially important in the late winter and early spring, when the vines are losing their cold acclimation. The marked slopes also facilitate drainage, promoting early warming of the soils. They also direct cold air away from the vines. The lakes also act later on as a heat source and sink, helping to prolong autumn warmth, favoring uniform fruit ripening.

During the summer, cloud cover and precipitation can reduce the temperature maxima in the Finger Lakes. These factors also limit solar intensity and increase humidity. The Geneva Double Curtain (GDC) training system, developed in Geneva, New York, was designed primarily to counteract these effects (see Chapter 4). By opening the canopy, and allowing the shoots to grow pendulously, the system greatly improved the degree and uniformity of fruit exposure to air and sun. In addition to increasing fruit quality and health, vineyard yield was boosted due to improved leaf photosynthetic efficiency. In wine production, the region is predominantly a producer of white wine. Cayuga White and Seyval blanc are the most cultivated French-American cultivars, followed by Vignoles and Vidal blanc. There has also been considerable success with several V. vinifera cultivars, notably Riesling, Chardonnay, as well as Cabernet Sauvignon.

Other increasingly significant wine regions in the Empire State occur about 150 km north of New York City, along the Hudson River, and on the northeastern branch of Long Island, east of New York City. The latter is somewhat unique in its almost exclusive use of V. vinifera cultivars, with about a 50:50 split between red and white varieties. The maritime climate of Long Island extends the growing season and raises the average winter temperature. However, the additional cloud cover delays ripening.

In Ohio, the vineyards are concentrated along the southern side and islands of Lake Erie. These are desirably close to the large population center of Cleveland. Similarly, the majority of Michigan vineyards are located proximally to Chicago, along the southeastern portion of Lake Michigan.

In Virginia, most vineyards are situated adjacent to Washington, DC. This permits consumers to quickly reach farm wineries by car. Although avoiding the colder climate of more northern states, Virginia suffers erratic winter temperatures. These occasionally cause severe bud damage to V. vinifera and French-American hybrid cultivars. Otherwise, Virginia possesses a desirably mild climate, and occurs north of the natural distribution of Pierce’s disease. Considerable interest has been shown in the viticultural potential of Virginia by Californian, New York, Canadian, and European wine enterprises.

Florida is the largest wine producer of the southern states. However, because of its size and diverse climatic conditions, Texas may soon become the major wine-producing region of the southeastern and Gulf States. The south Plains region around Lubbock possesses cool nights at its elevation of approximately 1000 m. The limited precipitation in this semiarid region is concentrated in the spring and early summer months, ideal for vine growth and reducing the need for irrigation. The deep, well-drained, rich soils permit excellent root penetration, favoring good nutrition and minimizing water stress. Premium French and German varieties are those preferred for cultivation.

Canada

Although the wine industry of Canada is small on a world scale, it has considerable regional economic significance. Most Canadian production is located in southwestern Ontario and south-central British Columbia. The wine industry was forced into a major restructuring due to the General Agreement on Tariffs and Trade (GATT) ruling in 1987, and implementation of the Free-Trade Agreement with the United States in 1989. The lack of protective tariffs made foreign imports less expensive than locally produced wines. This was compounded by wine critics’ eurocentric bias, and unwarranted but uniform damning of Vitis labrusca and French-American hybrid wines. The loss of profitability had the effect of significantly reducing vineyard hectarage. For example, coverage in British Columbia shrank from a high of 1375 ha in 1988 to 460 ha in 1989. The vineyards that remained were those planted primarily with V. vinifera cultivars, or were replanted with them. This is reflected in an almost doubling of the vinifera hectarage between 1993 and 2005. French-American hybrids now cover less than one-quarter of the vineyard hectarage. In Ontario, the larger fresh fruit and juice market partially cushioned the initial effects of these changes. Nevertheless, the shift to V. vinifera from French-American hybrids and V. labrusca has been the major trend in Ontario vineyards. In both provinces, there is a marked preference for white cultivars, notably Riesling, Chardonnay, and Gewürztraminer. For red wines, Cabernet Sauvignon, Cabernet franc, and Pinot noir are favored.

Ontario possesses the largest vineyard area devoted to wine production (about 5700 ha). Most of this is located along the southwestern edge of Lake Ontario, between Hamilton and Niagara Falls (~43°N). The soils are deep, fertile, silt clay to sandy loam, underlain by shale. Precipitation is relatively uniform throughout the year and averages 80 cm. The region is bounded on the south by the Niagara Escarpment, a prominent geologic feature that markedly affects the climate of the region (Fig. 5.24). Sites on 4–10% slopes, 4–6 km from the lake, are the most favored. Cold air drainage draws warmer air down from the temperature inversion layer that often develops during calm cold nights. The vines are also sufficiently far from the lake to avoid a marked chilling by the flow of cool air off the water during the summer months. Although the north-facing slopes of the Escarpment limit sun exposure, it also delays bud burst, further minimizing the likelihood of frost damage in the spring. It shortens the growing season, however. The location of the vineyards between Lake Ontario and Lake Erie greatly cushions the effect of the otherwise continental climate. Long mild autumns usually supply ample time for the ripening of most short-season V. vinifera cultivars. Nevertheless, the region often experiences a hard freeze in late November or early December. Although normally undesirable, it has favored the production of icewines, a style that has become synonymous with Ontario wine. The other main region for wine production in Ontario is along portions of the northern side of Lake Erie, and Prince Edward county along the northeastern shores of Lake Ontario.

On Canada’s west coast, the vineyards (about 2700 ha) are considerably further north than those of Ontario. The vines in British Columbia grow primarily between 49° and 50°N, versus 43°N in Ontario. Nevertheless, dry, sunny conditions, cold protection provided by the surrounding mountains, and the influence of the Pacific coast provide the Okanagan Valley with a moderate climate. Semiarid conditions make irrigation necessary in most locations. The vineyards are located primarily on slopes and plateaus lining a series of narrow elongated lakes in the Okanagan River Valley. Vines also grow along the Similkameen River, a tributary joining the Okanagan, about 25 km from the US border. Although the southern portion of the Okanagan Valley is warmer, its drier environment provides less snow cover. Thus, the vines are about as vulnerable to cold damage as in the northern portions of the valley. Nonetheless, about 60% of the grape production occurs in the south, between Penticton (49°30′N) and the border with Washington state (49°00′N).

Nova Scotia, on the eastern coast of Canada, possesses several vineyards and local wineries (~45°N). Because the province is almost entirely surrounded by water, the vines are exposed to a maritime climate. Both the Bay of Fundy and Atlantic Ocean moderate continental influences from the west. These same influences also retard early bud break. The typically long autumn helps to compensate for delayed spring growth, permitting the ripening of short-season cultivars. In addition to familiar French-American hybrids, the region also grows several new German Vitis vinifera cultivars. Particularly interesting is the cultivation of V. vinifera×V. amurensis cultivars from Russia, notably Michurinetz and Severnyi.

Québec has a small wine industry (~100 ha) located largely in the southwestern portion of the province, adjacent to Vermont and New York. Because of the short growing season and cold climate, most cultivation involves French-American hybrids, notably Seyval blanc and some local hybrids. Some red varieties are grown and produce light-red to rosé wines. Even with these varieties, the vines must be cropped low and protected by partial burial during the winter. This keeps production low and adds to production costs. Judicious selection of cultivars, site, slope, drainage and wind breaks is critical to improving the chances of commercial viability in such a marginal viticultural region.

Suggested Reading

Introductory Books

1. Clarke O. Wine Atlas – Wines and Wine Regions of the World Boston, MA: Little-Brown; 1995.

2. Johnson H, Robinson J. The World Atlas of Wine fifth ed New York, NY: Simon & Schuster; 2001.

3. Stevenson T. The Sotheby’s Wine Encyclopedia fourth ed London, UK: Dorling Kindersley; 2005.

Appellation Control Laws

1. Dickenson, J.P., 1992. ‘Aristocratic’ versus ‘popular’ wine: trends in the geography of viticulture. In: de Blij, H.J. (Ed.), Viticulture in Geographic Perspective: Proc. 1991 Miami AAG Symp., Miami Geographical Society, Coral Gables, FL, pp. 23–43.

2. Moran W. The wine appellation, environmental description or economic device? In: Smart RE, Thornton RJ, Rodriguez SB, eds. Proc 2nd Int Symp Cool Climate Vitic Oenol. Auckland, New Zealand: New Zealand Society for Vitic. Oenol.; 1988:356–360.

3. O. I. V. Symposium Les Appellations d’Origine Historiques Paris, France: Office International de la Vigne et du Vin; 1987.

Detection of Wine Misrepresentation and Adulteration

1. Calderone G, Guillou C. Analysis of isotopic ratios for the detection of illegal watering of beverages. Food Chem. 2008;106:1399–1405.

2. Ebeler SE, Takeoka GR, Winterhalter P, eds. Authentication of Food and Wine. Washington, DC: ACS; 2007; ACS Symposium, Series 952.

3. Kelly S, Heaton K, Hoogewerff J. Tracing the geographical origin of food: the application of multi-element and multi-isotope analysis. Trends Food Sci Technol. 2005;16:555–567.

4. Médina B. Wine authenticity. In: Ashurst PR, Dennis MJ, eds. Food Authentication. London, UK: Blackie Academic; 1996:61–107.

5. Serapinas P, Venskutonis PR, Aninkevičius V, Ežerinskis Ž, Galdikas A, Juzikienė V. Step by step approach to multi-element data analysis in testing the provenance of wines. Food Chem. 2008;107:1652–1660.

Geographical Regions

General

1. de Blij HJ. Wine, A Geographic Appreciation Totowa, NJ: Rowman & Allanheld; 1983.

2. de Blij HJ. Wine Regions of the Southern Hemisphere Totowa, NJ: Rowman & Allanheld; 1985.

3. de Blij, H.J. (Ed.), 1992. Viticulture in Geographical Perspective. Proc. 1991 Miami AAG Symp., University of Miami, Coral Gables, FL.

4. Dickenson J, Unwin T. Viticulture in Colonial Latin America: Essays on Alcohol, the Vine and Wine in Spanish America and Brazil Liverpool, UK: Institute of Latin American Studies, University of Liverpool; 1992.

5. Fegan PW. The Vineyard Handbook: Appellation, Maps and Statistics Chicago, IL: Chicago Wine School Inc.; 2004.

6. Gladstone J. Viticulture and Environment Adelaide, Australia: Winetitles; 1992.

7. Prescott JA. The climatology of the vine (Vitis vinifera L.), the cool limits of cultivation. Trans R Soc South Aust. 1965;89:5–22.

Argentina

1. Catania C, de del Monte SA. Détermination des aptitudes oenologiques des différents cépages dans la républic Argentine. 19th Int Vitic Oenol Congress. vol. 2 Paris, France: Office International de la Vigne et du Vin; 1986; pp. 17–33.

Australia

1. Coombe BG, Dry PT, eds. Viticulture, Vol I (Resources in Australia). Adelaide, South Australia: Australian Industrial Publishers; 1988.

2. Helm FK, Cambourne B. The influence of climatic variability on the production of quality wines in the Canberra district of South Eastern Australia. In: Smart RE, Thornton RJ, Rodriguez SB, eds. Proc 2nd Int Symp Cool Climate Vitic Oenol. Auckland, New Zealand: New Zealand Society for Viticulture and Oenology; 1988:17–20.

Brazil

1. Lakatos T. Grape growing and winemaking in Tropical Brazil. J Small Fruit Vitic. 1995;3:3–14.

Canada

1. Anonymous. Atlas of Suitable Grape Growing Locations in the Okanagan and Similkameen Valleys of British Columbia Kelowna, Canada: Agriculture Canada & Association of B. C. Grape Growers; 1984.

2. Deshaies, L., Dubois, J.-M. M. (Eds.), 1993. Vins et Vignoles Artisanaux au Québec. Géographes 4, 5–110.

3. Ripmeester M, Mackintosh PG, Fullerton C. The World of Niagara Wine Waterloo, Canada: Wilfrid Laurier Univ. Press; 2013.

Caucasus and Northern Black Sea

1. Maghradze, D., Rustioni, L., Turok, J., Scienza, A., Failla, O. (Eds.), 2012. Caucasus and Northern Black Sea region ampelography. Vitis, Special Issue, pp. 488.

Chile

1. Santibañez MMF, Diaz F, Gaete C, Daneri D. Bases climatiques pour le zonage de la région viti-vinicole chilienne. 19th International Vitic Oenol Congress. vol. 2 Paris, France: Office International de la Vigne et du Vin; 1986; pp. 93–124.

China

1. Hua L. Les indications géographiques des vins et leur protection en Chine. Bull O.I.V. 1990;63:282–287.

2. Huang SB. Agroclimatology of the major fruit production in China: a review of current practice. Agric Forest Meteorol. 1990;53:125–142.

3. Jenster P, Cheng Y. Dragon wine: developments in the Chinese wine industry. Int J Wine Business Res. 2008;20:244–259.

England

1. Pearkes G. England. In: Heatherbell DA, Lombard PB, Bodyfelt FW, eds. Int Symp Cool Climate Vitic Enol. Corvallis, OR: Oregon State University; 1984:347–357. OSU Agriculture Experimental Station Technical Publication No. 7628.

France

1. Boursiquot JM. Évolution de l’encépagement du vignoble français au cours des trente dernières années. Prog Agric Vitic. 1990;107:15–20.

2. duPuy P. Endeavors to produce quality in the wines of Burgundy, control of soil, clonal selection, maturity, processing techniques and commercial practices. In: Heatherbell DA, Lombard PB, Bodyfelt FW, eds. Int Symp Cool Climate Vitic Enol. Corvallis, OR: Oregon State University; 1984:292–314. OSU Agriculture Experimental Station Technical Publication No. 7628.

3. Pomeral C, ed. The Wines and Winelands of France. Orléans, France: Geological Journeys. Éditions BRGM; 1989.

4. Wilson JT. Terroir: The Role of Geology, Climate and Culture in the Making of French Wines Berkeley, CA: University of California Press Ltd.; 1998.

Germany

1. Anonymous. The Wine Industry in the Federal Republic of Germany Bonn, Germany: Evaluation and Information Services for Food, Agriculture and Forestry; 1979.

2. Wahl K. Climate and soil effects on grapevine and wine The situation on the northern borders of viticulture – the example Franconia. In: Smart RE, Thornton RJ, Rodriguez SB, eds. Proc 2nd Int Symp Cool Climate Vitic Oenol. Auckland, New Zealand: New Zealand Society for Viticulture and Oenology; 1988:1–5.

Italy

1. Anderson B. Vino – The Wines and Wine Makers of Italy Boston, MA: Little-Brown; 1980.

2. Hazan V. Italian Wine New York, NY: Alfred A. Knopf; 1982.

India

1. Shanmugavelu KG. Viticulture in India Bikaner, India: Agro Botanical Publishers; 1989.

New Zealand

1. Eschenbruch R. New Zealand. In: Heatherbell DA, Lombard PB, Bodyfelt FW, eds. Int Symp Cool Climate Vitic Enol. Corvallis, OR: Oregon State University; 1984:345–346. OSU Agriculture Experimental Station Technical Publication No. 7628.

Portugal

1. Gonçalves FE. Portugal – A Wine Country Lisbon, Spain: Editora Portuguesa de Livros Técnicos e Cientificos; 1984.

2. Stanislawski D. Landscapes of Bacchus: The Vine in Portugal Austin, TX: University of Texas Press; 1970.

Russia and the CIS

1. Batukaev A. La situation de la viticulture dans la Fédération de Russie. Bull O.I.V. 1995;68:615–623.

Spain

1. García de Luján y Gil de Bernabé A. La Viticultura del Jerez Madrid, Spain: Ediciones Mondi-Prensa; 1997.

2. Ruiz Hernández M, Garoña MM. Elementos Técnicos para Elaboraciones de Vino de Rioja Haro, Spain: Estación de Viticultura y Enología, Consejería de Agricultura; 1985.

United States

1. Baxevanis JJ. The Wine Regions of America: Geographical Reflections and Appraisals Stroudsburg, PA: Vinifera Wine Growers Journal; 1992.

2. Elliott-Fisk, D.L., Noble, A.C., 1992. Environments in Napa Valley, California, and their influence on Cabernet Sauvignon wine flavors. In: de Blij, H.J. (Ed.), Viticulture in Geographic Perspective. Proc. 1991 Miami AAG Symp. Miami Geographical Society, Coral Gables, FL, pp. 45–71.

3. Morton LT. Winegrowing in Eastern America Ithaca, NY: Cornell University Press; 1985.

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¹Synonym for Criollo in Argentina and Mexico, and Mission in California.

²Originating from Spain as the cultivar Listán Prieto (Tapia et al., 2007), and called Mission in Mexico and California; Païs in Chile, and Rosa del Peru or Negra corriente in Peru.