A
Acquiescent silence, 156
Affect transfer, 39
Aging to EOR, meaning of, 428–429
EOR benefits offered by older workers, 433–435
EOR benefits valued by older workers, 429–433
Anthropomorphization, 39
Anticipatory justice, 337, 348
continual revision of justice assessments, 358
effects, boundaries of, 349–354
in EOR research and practice, 336–341
implications of broadening EOR to include, 354–355
practical implications, 356–358
theoretical implications, 355–356
Anticipatory psychological contract (APC), 379
Applicant-organization relationship (AOR), 363–389
breach or violation of, 380–383
culture influencing, 376
elements, 364
formation of relationships, 371–374
employer expectations of applicants, 372
implications for employers, 383
organizational agents, 365
practical implications, 383
relational elements/socioemotional exchange in, 367
Assumptions in EOR research
EOR is clear to employees, 173–175
EOR is driven by organization's treatment of participants, 175–177
organization is not understaffed, 179–181
participants are dependant on their organization, 177–179
participants understand their participation as inducement–contribution exchange, 181–184
volunteer–organization relationships, 171–172
B
Backbone managers, 205
Balanced reciprocity, 8
Balanced social exchange, 4. See also Mutual investment EOR
Behavioral sensemaking, 39
Bias/discrimination, elimination of, 519–520
Boundarylessness, 226
Boundary-spanning resource, 238
Breach, definition of, 558
C
Commensurable resources, 128
Commitment, 158
Commitment and flexibility, organizations assurance of, 217
Communication rituals, 351
Confirmatory bias, 345
Confucian Dynamism, 352
Contingent work, 263
Control, sense of, 158
Core–periphery model, 258
Core–ring model, 256
Coworker ethics-related actions, 62
Coworker exchange (CWX), 322
Coworker influences on employee ethics, 59–61
Cruelty, 141
Crystallization, 124
D
The Dark Side of Organizational Behavior (Griffin & O'Leary-Kelly), 141
Dependence situations, 158
Destructive leadership, 149
Direct-hire contingent workers, 258
Direct-hire workers, 258
Discrimination, elimination of, 519–520
Distributive justice, 350
Diversity and intensity of work–family demands, 224–226
consideration of minority viewpoints, 515–517
current diversity trends, 510–511
diverse representation, 513–515
elimination of bias and discrimination, 519–520
managerial implications, 525–526
racioethnic diversity, influences perceptions of organizational support, 511–513
research implications, 523–525
support/understanding of unique minority issues
valuation of different ideas, opinions, and perspectives, 517–519
E
Economic exchanges, 3, 440–441
Effective social identity–based leadership, 103
Effort–Reward Imbalance at Work (Siegrist), 145
Emotional contagion, 500
aggregation of individual-level effects to organizational-level effects, 499–502
social exchange in EOR, 487–488
inducements–contributions model, 491–495
international perspectives, 488–489
psychological contract fulfillment versus breach, 490–491
Employee and organizational health, interdependence of, 486
Employee–organization relationship (EOR), 1, 170–171, 282, 308, 391–392, 458, 534
creation, maintenance, and completion of, 14–15
EOR framework on push-and-pull forces for staying and leaving, 392–398
EOR multilevel effects, 412–413
and ethics. See Ethics, EOR and
HRM and. See Human resource management and EOR, strategic
international implications, 414–416
interactions between push-and-pull leaving and staying forces, 411–412
pull-to-leave forces, 411
push-to-leave forces, 410
push-to-stay forces, 411
impact of, 585
multilevel mediation and moderation, 398
mutual investment EOR, 284
interactions between job embeddedness and shocks, 403–404
as mutual obligation, 23
new ways of thinking about, 11–12
overinvestment EOR, 404
pull-to-leave forces, 407
practical implications, 416–419
push-and-pull forces for different forms, 396
push-and-pull forces to stay or leave, 397
quasi-spot contracts, 407
pull-to-stay forces, 408
push-to-stay forces, 408
relational perspective on.
See Relational perspective on EOR
teamwork, team theories, and, 534–537
virtual. See Virtual EOR
Employees’ knowledge-sharing behavior, 297
Employee's perspectives and organization's, integrating, 566–567
Employee's view of organization.
See Perceived organizational support (POS)
Employee-tribe relationship, 46
Employment, 255
Employment relationship, work–family flexibility and, 223–224
commonalities in transformation of work, family, and employment relationship, 226
transactional and short term, 232–233
growing diversity and intensity of work–family demands, 224–226
linkages to work–family flexibility, 238
inducement and general and specific social support theories, 238–241
power dynamics of formal and informal boundary-blurring flexibility, 243–244
work style preferences for boundary-blurring preferences and EOR, 244–248
work–family boundary-blurring flexibility practices, 234
formal HR policies and informal job design feature, 234–235
idiosyncratic deals versus standardized flexibility, 236
organizational or employee initiated, 235–236
policy availability and awareness and use, 236–237
Employment relationship model, research on, 145
Employment relationships, 4
Empowering leadership, 292
Enactment, in organizations, 32–33
EOR. See Employee–organization relationship (EOR)
EOR and scholar–practitioner divide, 555–558, 559
criteria for scholars who perform research, 560–561
integrating organization's and employee's perspectives, 566–567
changing employment relationships and the lessons of, 565–566
practitioner criteria for using research-based findings, 559–560
EOR and retirement intentions and decisions, 437–441
EORs and retirement-related HRM practices, 441–444
integrating organization's and employee's perspectives, 444–447
meaning of aging to EOR, 428–429
EOR benefits offered by older workers, 433–435
EOR benefits valued by older workers, 429–433
EOR mutual investment, 284
EOR research, assumptions in
EOR is clear to employees, 173–175
EOR is driven by organization's treatment of participants, 175–177
participants are dependant on their organization, 177–179
participants understand their participation as inducement–contribution exchange, 181–184
that organization is not understaffed, 179–181
volunteer–organization relationships, 171–172
EOR research, implications for, 64
role of ethics as foundation for EOR, 67–68
role of supervisors in EOR, 64–66
structure of multiple psychological contracts, 66–67
EOR theory, current status of, 2
employment relationships, 4
perceived organizational support (POS), 6–7
psychological contracts, 5
social exchange theory and inducements–contributions model, 2–4
EOR versus perceived organizational cruelty (POC) concepts, 141–142
employment relationship and POC, 143–144
psychological contracts and POC, 142–143
psychological mechanisms underlying POC, 144–146
EOR virtuality framework, 283
Equal Employment Opportunity Commission (EEOC), 364
ERA. See Ethics-related actions (ERA)
Establishing the credibility of research, 567–569
Ethical behavior, four-component model of, 73
Ethical leadership, 58
coworker influences on employee ethics, 59–61
ethics and employment relationship, 77–79
ethics literature, looking deeper into, 72–73
implications for EOR research, 64
role of ethics as foundation for EOR, 67–68
role of supervisors in EOR, 64–66
structure of multiple psychological contracts, 66–67
implications for ethics research, 70
extending reach of ethics research, 70–71
insights from building blocks of EOR, 71–72
multidimensional models of moral behavior, 73–74
supervisor influences on employee
top management influences on employee ethics, 57–58
top management/supervisors/coworkers, strongest influence, 61–64
Ethics-related actions (ERA), 62
Ethics Resource Center, 61, 62
Evil, 149
Exchange ideology, 316
Exchange relationship
cross-cultural ideological exchange, 131
features of resource elements ideological crystallization, 124–125
ideological incompatibility, 124
meta-ideological exchange, 125–126
pivotal ideological space, 121–124
multiple pivotal spaces and absence of pivotal space, 123
pivotal ideological space, 123
resource commensurability and characteristics, 126–131
resource commensurability and ideological elements of, 113–115
role of identity, 117
sources of resource elements, 122
theoretical framework, 114
Expanding boundaries and challenging assumptions, 1–2
creation, maintenance, and completion of EOR, 14–15
current status of EOR theory, 2
employment relationships, 4
perceived organizational support (POS), 6–7
psychological contracts, 5
social exchange theory and inducements–contributions model, 2–4
new ways of thinking about EOR, 11–12
organizational and strategic implications, 15–16
outcomes associated with EOR, 9
attitudes, 9
behaviors and performance, 9–10
putting “R” back in EOR, 12–14
underlying explanatory mechanisms, 7
level of investment and balance/imbalance, 8–9
Expectancy theory of motivation, 342
F
Family and employment relationship. See Employment relationship, work–family flexibility and
Family commitments, 224
Family creep, 227
Family-friendly practices, 433
Flexibility policies and practice, 235–236
Formal flexibility policies, 224
Formal HR policies, and informal job design feature, 234–235
Formal leadership position, 101
Fostering anticipatory justice, 335–336
anticipatory justice, illustrations of, 345–349
anticipatory justice effects, boundaries, 349–354
anticipatory justice in EOR research and practice, 336–341
implications of broadening EOR to include anticipatory justice, 354–355
practical implications, 356–358
theoretical implications, 355–356
model of antecedents to anticipatory justice and their relationships with EOR, 339
model of anticipatory justice, 337
revisiting inducements–contributions model, 341–344
British Petroleum (example), 341–342
Lincoln Electric (example), 341–342
“Free” managers, 205
G
Generalized EOR, 43
Generalized reciprocity, 8, 89
Gift exchange, 182
Greene (Chicago-based financial organization), 567
Group prototypicality, 101
Halo effect, 345
Hardiness, 157
Harmful supervisory treatment, 151–153
Health care support, 431
Heteromorphic reciprocity, 7
Hierarchical organizational culture, 44
High performance (HiPo) managers, 205
Homeomorphic reciprocity, 7
Human resource and virtuality architecture, 282
Human resource management and EOR, strategic, 455–458
interpretations and attributions of HRM practices, 470–471
lack of equality in HRM, 459–461
lack of strong effects of HRM, 461–464
temporal nature of HRM systems, 471–473
use versus experience of HRM systems, 467–470
I
Idealized EOR, 43
Ideological crystallization, 124–125
Ideological exchange element, 117–118
Ideological incompatibility, 124
Idiosyncratic deals versus standardized flexibility, 236
Impact of EOR, 585
Incompatibility, 124
Independent contractors, 258, 260, 267–271
Individual-level knowledge-sharing behavior, 296
Inducements–contributions model, 2, 238, 336, 491–495
Informal boundary-blurring practices, 224
Informational justice, 350
Information technology (IT), organization using, 281
self-service as holy grail of, 285
Integrative social contracts theory (ISCT), 69
principles, 69
Internal labor markets, 203
consequences of changes for, 203
International implications, of EOR, 414–416
expansion-related costs, 341
Interpersonal justice, 350
Intrinsic motivation, 98
Investment and balance/imbalance, 8–9
J
Job creep, 227
Joiners, 183
K
Knowledge-based economy and globalization, 199–200
Knowledge sharing, 295
L
Leader–follower relationships, 88
Leader–member exchange (LMX), 32, 34, 64, 322
Leader relational behavior, 33
Leaders as entrepreneurs of identity, 99–105
Leadership and employment relationship, 86–94
Leadership predicted relational identification, 34
Leader visions, 93
Learned helplessness, 156
Learning orientation, 432
Lepak and Snell model, 204
M
The Man in the Grey Flannel Suit (Wilson), 229
Masculinity–femininity values, 160
Meta-ideological exchange, 118, 125–126
Minority issues, support/understanding of unique
boundary conditions, 43
implications for practice, 46–47
implications for theory, 41–43
national culture, 45
organization as context, 25–27
psychological convergence of tribe and organization, 39–41
roles of tribe members role of focal individual, 29–30
role of immediate manager, 30–34
Moral judgment, 73
Moral sensitivity, 73
closed colleague networks reinforcing loyalty, 402
delivery of compensation and benefits, 289
interactions between job embeddedness and shocks, 403–404
lessening dissatisfaction, 399
turnover contagion, 402
Mutuality, 368
cultural influences and, 369
N
National culture, 45
Neglect, 156
Nonparticularistic resources, 127
changing employment relationships and the lessons of, 565–566
O
Occupational elements, 120, 122
OECD Employment Outlook of 2002, 210
Older workers, EOR and, 427–428
integrating organization's and employee's perspectives, 444–447
intentions and decisions, 437–441
retirement-related HRM practices, 441–444
meaning of aging to EOR, 428–429
EOR benefits offered by older workers, 433–435
EOR benefits valued by older workers, 429–433
Organizational career survival, 193–195, 210–214
career from social exchange perspective, 195–199
case for retaining organizational career, 203–207
changing context of careers and career management, 199
consequences of changes for internal labor markets, 203
knowledge-based economy and globalization, 199–200
migration, 201
model of managerial career types, 205
percent share of temporary employment 1987–2009, 212
separating rhetoric from reality, 214–217
Organizational citizenship behaviors (OCB), 9, 42
Organizational climate measure, 26
Organizational commitment, 439–440
Organizational culture, 27
inventory, 26
Organizational elements, 120, 122
Organizational harm enablers, 148
Organizational identification, 95
Organizational support theory (OST), 31
Organization for Economic Co-operation and Development (OECD), 10
Organization's and employee's perspectives, integrating, 566–567
Origins (cosmetic company), 117
Ostracism, 152
Outcomes associated with EOR, 9
attitudes, 9
behaviors and performance, 9–10
Overinvestment EOR, 4, 77, 404
pull-to-leave forces, 407
P
Particularistic resources, 127
Pecuniary exchanges, 130
Peers, influence, 35
Perceived organizational cruelty (POC), 139–140
antecedents of, 148
harmful supervisory treatment, 151–153
organizational harm enablers, 149–151
comparison of POC and other negative EOR concepts, 141–142
employment relationship and POC, 143–144
psychological contracts and POC, 142–143
psychological mechanisms underlying POC, 144–146
psychological contract, 147
moderators
outcomes of POC, 154
health and well-being, 154–155
Perceived organizational membership, 27
Perceived organizational support (POS), 6–7, 40, 239
enhancing work–family relationships, 240
retirement, EOR and, 438
Perceived supervisory support (PSS), 31, 39–40
Permanent employment, preference for, 211
Personalization, 39
Pivotal ideological space, 118, 121–124
POC. See Perceived organizational cruelty (POC)
POC versus EOR concepts, 141–142
employment relationship and POC, 143–144
psychological contracts and POC, 142–143
psychological mechanisms underlying POC, 144–146
Policy availability and awareness and use, work–family benefitting, 236–237
POS. See Perceived organizational support (POS)
Professional managers, 205
Progressive organizational career, 195
Psychological connectivity, 289–290
Psychological contract, 5, 197, 557
breach of, 558
fulfillment versus breach, 490–491
Q
Quasi-spot contract EOR, 298
Quasi-spot contracts, 77–78, 407
pull-to-stay forces, 408
push-to-stay forces, 408
Quiescent silence, 155
Racioethnic diversity influences perceptions of organizational support, 511–513
Rejection, 157
Relational demography, 315–316
Relational effect
involving three individuals, 320–324
involving two individuals, 316–319
Relational perspective on EOR, 307–309
balanced/imbalanced triadic structures, 321
brief summary of existing studies, 311–314
boundary conditions, 326
relational view of social exchange relationships, 314–315
relational demography, 315–316
relational effect involving three individuals, 320–324
relational effect involving two individuals, 316–319
social exchange theory, 309–311
Relationships, 170
Representing organization, 30–32
Resource commensurability and ideological elements of exchange relationship, 113–115
cross-cultural ideological exchange, 131
features of resource elements ideological crystallization, 124–125
ideological incompatibility, 124
meta-ideological exchange, 125–126
pivotal ideological space, 121–124
multiple pivotal spaces and absence of pivotal space, 123
pivotal ideological space, 123
resource commensurability and characteristics, 126–131
sources of resource elements, 122
direct-hire contingent workers, 258
independent contractors, 267–271
temporary agency workers, 264–267
independent contractors, 260
practical implications, 274–276
research implications, 271–273
temporary agency workers, 259
Retirement, 436
bridge employment opportunity, 442–443
early retirement incentives, 442
EOR and retirement intentions and decisions, 437–441
EOR and retirement-related HRM practices, 441–444
integrating organization's and employee's perspectives, 444–447
mediation role of EOR in older worker–related organizational staffing, 445
perceived organizational support, 438
S
Salience, 464
Scholar–practitioner divide, EOR and, 555–558
criteria for scholars who perform research, 560–561
integrating organization's and employee's perspectives, 566–567
major challenges in bridging, 557
changing employment relationships and the lessons of, 565–566
practitioner criteria for using research-based findings, 559–560
Script-based leaving, 411
Senior managers, role of, 47
Situational strength, 44
Social conduct, 68
Social construction, 35
“Social death.” See Exclusion
inducements–contributions model, 491–495
international perspectives, 488–489
psychological contract fulfillment versus breach, 490–491
perspective, 87
process as norm of reciprocity, 465
quality of, 91
versus social identity, 93
and social identity conceptualizations, 86
Social exchange relationships, 3, 307
relational demography, 315–316
relational effect involving three individuals, 320–324
relational effect involving two individuals, 316–319
timing of reciprocation, importance of, 3
Social exchange theory (SET), 3, 309–311
and inducements–contributions model, 2–4
social exchange studies including social exchange variables studied, 312
Social identity, 95
analysis, 86
dynamics, 100
versus social exchange, 93
Social identity–based leadership and EOR, 85–86
advantages of social identity–based leadership, 94–99
leaders as entrepreneurs of identity, 99–105
leadership and employment relationship, 86–94
stopping of cultural universals and beginning of cultural specifics begin, 105–106
Social influence, 39
Social pain, 154
Socioemotional selectivity theory (SST), 431
Socioemotional support, 431–432
Supervisor ERAs, 62
Supervisor influences on employee ethics, 58–59
Supervisor's organizational embodiment (SOE), 65
Surface-level relational diversity, 315
T
Team diversity, 291
Team-member exchange (TMX), 34
Teamwork, myths about, 537–538
all work teams are created equal, 542–544
creating and promoting teamwork in
culturally diverse teams versus culturally homogenous teams, performance, 547–548
organizations know how to manage and foster teamwork, 540–541
organizations know what teamwork is, 538–540
team players are born, 545
teamwork is all about communication, 544–545
work teams are better than individuals, 541–542
Temporary agency workers, 259, 264–267
Temporary help services, 258
Top management ERAs, 62
Top management influences on employee ethics, 57–58
Traditional organizational career, 194
Transactional and short term, work/family/employment relationship, 232–233
relational approaches, 232
Transactional contracts, 198
Transaction cost economics, 204
Transformational leadership instrument, 349
Transformation of work/family/employment relationship, commonalities, 226
transactional and short term, 232–233
Translating mechanisms and psychological states, 288
managerial mutual investment practices, 288–289
moderating elements influencing job virtuality–psychological connectivity relationship, 290–294
connective mechanisms, 292–293
cross-level impact of virtual HR, 293–294
perceived mutual exchange and support, 294–295
psychological connectivity, 289–290
Tribe, 24
endorsement of, 36
and interpersonal influences, 36
and organization, psychological convergence of, 39–41
Tribe members roles role of focal individual, 29–30
role of immediate manager, 30–34
representing organization, 30–32
importance of social construction, 35–36
process of social construction, 36–38
2-1-1 multilevel mediation model, 412
Turnover contagion, 402
U
Underinvestment EOR, 4, 77, 409–410
interactions between push-and-pull leaving and staying forces, 411–412
pull-to-leave forces, 411
push-to-leave forces, 410
push-to-stay forces, 411
V
cultural influences on virtual work, 299–300
EOR mutual investment, 284
human resource and virtuality architecture, 282
outcomes
individual-level outcomes, 295–296
organizational-level outcomes, 296–297
practical implications, 300–301
translating mechanisms and psychological states, 288
managerial mutual investment practices, 288–289
moderating elements influencing job virtuality–psychological connectivity relationship, 290–294
perceived mutual exchange and support, 294–295
psychological connectivity, 289–290
virtual HR system quality, 284–286
Volition, 262
Volunteer–organization relationships, 171–172
Volunteers and EOR, 170
Volunteers versus employees, 172
Work and work arrangements, changing nature of, 581–583
Work–family boundary-blurring flexibility practices, 234
family configurations, shift in, 225
flexible work arrangements, 230
formal HR policies and informal job design feature, 234–235
idiosyncratic deals versus standardized flexibility, 236
organizational or employee initiated, 235–236
policy availability and awareness and use, 236–237
work and family programs/policies, 229
work–family flexibility policies and practices, 233, 241
Work–family flexibility
and EOR, 242
linkages to, 238
inducement and general and specific social support theories, 238–241
power dynamics of formal and informal boundary-blurring flexibility, 243–244
work style preferences for boundary-blurring preferences and EOR, 244–248
Work teams, failure in organizations, 533–534
best practices for training and supporting teamwork in organizations, 535
fostering effective teamwork, 548
necessary action of leaders, 549–550
necessary action of organization, 548–549
necessary aspects in team, 550–551
all work teams are created equal, 542–544
creating and promoting teamwork in organizations, 545–546
culturally diverse teams versus culturally homogenous teams, performance, 547–548
organizations know how to manage and foster teamwork, 540–541
organizations know what teamwork is, 538–540
team players are born, 545
teamwork is all about communication, 544–545