NOTES

INTRODUCTION: AMERICAN CRISIS, GLOBAL STRUGGLE

1. Malakoff, “Important from Paris,” NYT, March 29, 1861; “Foreign Intervention in American Affairs,” NYT, April 1, 1861.

2. Malakoff, “Interesting from Paris,” NYT, July 19, 1861.

3. John Bigelow, Retrospections of an Active Life, 1865–1866 (New York: Baker and Taylor, 1909), 547.

4. Malakoff, “Interesting from Paris,” NYT, May 16, 1865; William Edward Johnston, Memoirs of “Malakoff,” edited by R. M. Johnston (London: Hutchinson, 1907), 2:430–435.

5. Malakoff, “Interesting from Paris,” May 16, 1865; Johnston, Memoirs of “Malakoff,” 2:431.

6. Allan Nevins, The War for the Union (New York: Scribner, 1959), 2:242.

7. Henry Sanford to William Seward, Paris, August 6, 1861, Belgium, RG 59. The US Civil War and public diplomacy are treated in Stephen Knott, Secret and Sanctioned: Covert Operations and the American Presidency (New York: Oxford University Press, 1996), 139–159; Propaganda and Mass Persuasion: A Historical Encyclopedia, 1500 to the Present, edited by Nicholas John Cull, David Holbrook Culbert, and David Welch (Santa Barbara, CA: ABC-CLIO, 2003), 88–89; Nicholas Cull, “‘Public Diplomacy’ Before Gullion: The Evolution of a Phrase,” in Routledge Handbook of Public Diplomacy, edited by Nancy Snow and Philip M. Taylor (New York: Routledge, 2009), 19–23; and Henry M. Wriston, Executive Agents in American Foreign Relations (Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press, 1929), 779–780.

8. Joseph S. Nye, Soft Power: The Means to Success in World Politics (New York: Public Affairs, 2004); Kevin Peraino, Lincoln in the World: The Making of a Statesman and the Dawn of American Power (New York: Crown, 2013).

9. James Henry Hammond, Selections from the Letters and Speeches of the Hon. James H. Hammond: Of South Carolina (New York: J. F. Trow, 1866), 316–317; David Christy et al., Cotton Is King, and Pro-Slavery Arguments . . . (Augusta, GA: Pritchard, Abbott, and Loomis, 1860).

10. The varied meanings of the word experiment are traced in the Oxford English Dictionary Online, http://www.oed.com/.

11. Walt Whitman, Specimen Days and Collect (Philadelphia: D. McKay, 1883), 64.

12. Alfred J. Hanna and Kathryn A. Hanna, Napoleon III and Mexico: American Triumph over Monarchy (Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press, 1971).

13. Robert E. May, Manifest Destiny’s Underworld Filibustering in Antebellum America (Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press, 2002). Robert E. May, “Bury the Purple Dream: Confederate Visions of Empire,” unpublished paper for conference on American Civil Wars, University of South Carolina, March 19–21, 2014, addresses expansionist ideas during the Confederacy.

14. Lincoln, “Gettysburg Address,” AP.

15. Courrier du Dimanche, January 1, 1865, quoted in George McCoy Blackburn, French Newspaper Opinion on the American Civil War (Westport, CT: Greenwood, 1997), 127; Eugène Pelletan, Adresse au Roi Coton (Paris: Pagnerre, 1863), 11; Eugène Pelletan, An Address to King Cotton, translated by Leander Starr (New York: H. de Mareil, 1863), 5; Judith F. Stone, Sons of the Revolution: Radical Democrats in France, 1862–1914 (Baton Rouge: Louisiana State University Press, 1996), 19–20.

16. Hermann Rauschning, The Voice of Destruction (New York: G. B. Putnam, 1940), 68–70.

17. David M. Potter, “The Civil War in the History of the Modern World: A Comparative View,” in The South and the Sectional Conflict (Baton Rouge: Louisiana State University Press, 1968), 287.

18. Lincoln, “Annual Message to Congress,” December 3, 1861, CWAL, 5:53.

CHAPTER 1: GARIBALDI’S QUESTION

1. Lucy Riall, Garibaldi: Invention of a Hero (New Haven, CT: Yale University Press, 2007); Jasper Ridley, Garibaldi (London: Phoenix Press, 2001); George Macaulay Trevelyan, Garibaldi’s Defence of the Roman Republic, 1848–9 (London: Longmans, Green, 1914), 35.

2. Riall, Garibaldi, 294–297; George Perkins Marsh to Seward, Turin, September 14, 1861, Italy, RG 59.

3. H. Nelson Gay, “Lincoln’s Offer of a Command to Garibaldi: Light on a Disputed Point of History,” Century, November 1907, 63–74; Charles Francis Adams Sr., “Lincoln’s Offer to Garibaldi,” Proceedings of the Massachusetts Historical Society, 3rd ser., 1 (1907): 319–325; Mary Philip Trauth, Italo-American Diplomatic Relations, 1861–1882: The Mission of George Perkins Marsh, First American Minister to the Kingdom of Italy (Westport, CT: Greenwood Press, 1980); David Lowenthal, George Perkins Marsh, Prophet of Conservation (Seattle: University of Washington Press, 2000), 239–241; Joseph A. Fry, Henry S. Sanford: Diplomacy and Business in Nineteenth-Century America (Reno: University of Nevada Press, 1982), 59–65; Joseph A. Fry, “Eyewitness by Proxy: Nelson M. Beckwith’s Evaluation of Garibaldi,” Civil War History 28, no. 1 (1982): 65–70; Howard R. Marraro, “Lincoln’s Offer of a Command to Garibaldi: Further Light on a Disputed Point of History,” Journal of the Illinois State Historical Society 36, no. 3 (1943): 237–270.

4. “Garibaldi on Italy and America,” NYT, May 27, 1861; “Garibaldi’s Reply,” New York Daily Tribune, August 13, 1861.

5. “Letters of Application and Recommendation During the Administrations of Franklin Pierce and James Buchanan, 1853–1861,” M967, roll 36, RG 59; Quiggle to Seward, Antwerp, July 5, 1861, Antwerp, RG 59.

6. Quiggle to Garibaldi, Antwerp, June 8, 1861, enclosed with Quiggle to Seward, Antwerp, July 5, 1861, in Antwerp, RG 59.

7. Garibaldi to Quiggle, Caprera, June 27, 1861, in La guerra civile Americana vista dall’Europa, edited by Tiziano Bonazzi and Carlo Galli (Bologna: Mulino, 2004), 234 (author’s translation).

8. Quiggle to Garibaldi, Antwerp, July 4, 1861, Antwerp, RG 59.

9. Howard Jones, Blue and Gray Diplomacy: A History of Union and Confederate Foreign Relations (Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press, 2010); Stephen C. Neff, Justice in Blue and Gray: A Legal History of the Civil War (Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 2010); Encyclopedia of American Foreign Policy: Studies of the Principal Movements and Ideas, edited by Alexander DeConde (New York: Scribner, 1978), s.v. “Recognition Policy.”

10. Gay, “Lincoln’s Offer,” 67.

11. Sanford to Seward, London, August 10, 1861; Sanford to Seward, Brussels, August 16, 1861, Belgium, RG 59; Sanford to Seward, Brussels, August 16, 1861, box 139, SP.

12. “The War for Union,” New York Daily Tribune, August 11, 1861, CA.

13. Fry, Henry S. Sanford, 60.

14. Joseph Artoni to Sanford, Turin, September 3, 1861, box 39, SP; Sanford to Garibaldi, August 20, 1861, enclosed with Sanford to Seward, Turin, August 29, 1861, Belgium, RG 59.

15. Quiggle to Garibaldi, August 15, 1861, enclosed with Quiggle to Seward, Antwerp, August 15, 1861, Antwerp, RG 59.

16. Garibaldi to Sanford, Caprera, August 31, 1861, Belgium, RG 59; Caroline Marsh, Diary, September 3, 1861, George Perkins Marsh Collection, Special Collections, Bailey Library, University of Vermont. I am grateful to David and Mary Alice Lowenthal, who provided excerpts from this diary. See also Trauth, Italo-American Diplomatic Relations, 13–14n46.

17. Caroline Marsh, Diary, September 5, 1861; Trecchi to Sanford, Turin, September 7, 1861, Belgium, RG 59.

18. Sanford to Seward, Genoa, September 7, 1861, Belgium, RG 59.

19. Sanford to Seward, Turin, September 12, 1861, Belgium, RG 59; Sanford to Seward, Brussels, September 18, 1861, Belgium, RG 59.

20. Sanford to Seward, Brussels, September 18, 1861, Belgium, RG 59.

21. Ibid.

22. Ibid.; Sanford to Seward, Turin, September 12, 1861, Belgium, RG 59; Sanford to Seward, Brussels, September 18, 1861, Belgium, RG 59.

23. Fry, “Eyewitness by Proxy,” 65–70; Beckwith to Sanford, Paris, September 9, [16], 17, 27, 1861, box 115, SP; Marsh to Sanford, Turin, September 23, 1861, box 128, SP; Sanford to Seward, Turin, September 4, 12, 1861, Belgium, RG 59; Sanford to Seward, Brussels, September 18, 27, 1861, Belgium, RG 59; Marraro, “Lincoln’s Offer,” 249, quoting Marsh to Seward, Turin, September 16, 1861.

24. Ridley, Garibaldi, 523, quoting John McAdam to Garibaldi, September 28, and Garibaldi reply, December 3, 1861.

25. Candido Augusto Vecchi, Garibaldi e Caprera (Naples: Fibreno, 1862), 68–70, punctuation modified; Candido Augusto Vecchi, Garibaldi at Caprera, translated by Lucy Ellis and Mary Ellis (London: Macmillan, 1862), 65–66. The passage on Garibaldi’s plans for emancipation was strangely omitted in the English edition.

26. Garibaldi to Quiggle, Caprera, September [10], 1861, enclosed with Quiggle to Seward, Antwerp, September 30, 1861, Antwerp, RG 59.

27. Quiggle to Seward, Antwerp, August 15, September 30, 1861, Antwerp, RG 59.

28. John Franklin Meginness, History of Lycoming County, Pennsylvania (Chicago: Brown, Runk, 1892), 295.

CHAPTER 2: WE ARE A NATION

1. “Declaration of Independence, July 4, 1776,” AP.

2. James Morton Callahan, The Diplomatic History of the Southern Confederacy (Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press, 1901), 96.

3. Encyclopedia of American Foreign Policy: Studies of the Principal Movements and Ideas, edited by Alexander DeConde (New York: Scribner, 1978), s.v. “Recognition Policy.”

4. David Armitage, The Declaration of Independence: A Global History (Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 2007), 105–107; David Armitage, “Secession and Civil War,” in Secession as an International Phenomenon: From America’s Civil War to Contemporary Separatist Movements, edited by Don H. Doyle (Athens: University of Georgia Press, 2010), 37; Don H. Doyle, “Introduction: Union and Secession in the Family of Nations,” in Secession as an International Phenomenon, 1–16.

5. Malcolm Gladwell, David and Goliath: Underdogs, Misfits, and the Art of Battling Giants (New York: Little, Brown, 2013).

6. Andre M. Fleche, The Revolution of 1861: The American Civil War in the Age of Nationalist Conflict (Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press, 2012); Ann L. Tucker, “‘Newest Born of Nations’: Southern Thought on European Nationalisms and the Creation of the Confederacy, 1820–1865” (PhD diss., University of South Carolina, 2014).

7. Charles B. Dew, Apostles of Disunion: Southern Secession Commissioners and the Causes of the Civil War (Charlottesville: University Press of Virginia, 2001).

8. Charles H. Lesser, Relic of the Lost Cause: The Story of South Carolina’s Ordinance of Secession ([Columbia]: South Carolina Department of Archives and History, 1990). “A Declaration of the Immediate Causes Which Induce and Justify the Secession of South Carolina from the Federal Union,” AP.

9. Charles Edward Cauthen, South Carolina Goes to War, 1860–1865 (Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press, 1950), 73–74.

10. “A Declaration of the Immediate Causes Which Induce and Justify the Secession of the State of Mississippi from the Federal Union,” AP.

11. Preamble, “Constitution of the Confederate States, March 11, 1861,” AP.

12. Edward B. Rugemer, The Problem of Emancipation: The Caribbean Roots of the American Civil War (Baton Rouge: Louisiana State University Press, 2008); Dew, Apostles of Disunion.

13. William C. Davis, “A Government of Our Own”: The Making of the Confederacy (New York: Simon and Schuster, 1994), 83–89, 103, 224–225, 236–241, 244–256; “Constitution of the Confederate States, March 11, 1861,” AP.

14. Ellis Merton Coulter, The Confederate States of America, 1861–1865 (Baton Rouge: Louisiana State University Press, 1950), 58–59. Tennessee and Virginia also held plebiscites on secession.

15. William J. Cooper, Jefferson Davis, American (New York: Vintage, 2000), 353–354; Coulter, Confederate States, 26; Emory M. Thomas, The Confederate Nation, 1861–1865 (New York: Harper and Row, 1979), 61–62.

16. “President J. Davis’s Inauguration at Montgomery,” Harper’s Weekly, March 9, 1861, 156; William Howard Russell, My Diary North and South (Boston: Burnham, 1863), 173.

17. Cooper, Jefferson Davis, American, 232–234, 309–312, 347, 353–355; Russell, My Diary, 173; “President J. Davis’s Inauguration at Montgomery,” 156.

18. Harper’s Weekly, February 23, 1861, 125; Thomas, Confederate Nation, 62; Jefferson Davis, “Confederate States of America, Inaugural Address of the President of the Provisional Government,” February 18, 1861, AP.

19. Henry Cleveland, Alexander H. Stephens in Public and Private: With Letters and Speeches Before, During, and Since the War (Philadelphia: National Publishing, 1866), 96.

20. Ibid., 717–729; “Constitution of the Confederate States, March 11, 1861,” Article 1, Section 9, Clause 4, AP.

21. Ibid., 637–651, 729–744; Alexander Hamilton Stephens, Recollections of Alexander H. Stephens (New York: Doubleday, Page, 1910), 172–174; Michael Kinsley, New Republic, June 18, 1984.

22. Cauthen, South Carolina, 44; Robert E. Bonner, “Slavery, Confederate Diplomacy, and the Racialist Mission of Henry Hotze,” Civil War History 51, no. 3 (2005): 288–316; Robert E. Bonner, Mastering America: Southern Slaveholders and the Crisis of American Nationhood (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2009); Michael T. Bernath, Confederate Minds: The Struggle for Intellectual Independence in the Civil War South (Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press, 2010); Manisha Sinha, The Counterrevolution of Slavery: Politics and Ideology in Antebellum South Carolina (Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press, 2000); Arthur Gobineau, Essai sur l’inégalité des races humaines (Paris: Firmin-Didot, 1853); Arthur Gobineau, The Moral and Intellectual Diversity of Races: With Particular Reference to Their Respective Influence in the Civil and Political History of Mankind, edited by Josiah Clark Nott and Henry Hotze (Philadelphia: J. B. Lippincott, 1856); Michael D. Biddiss, Father of Racist Ideology: The Social and Political Thought of Count Gobineau (New York: Weybright and Talley, 1970).

23. Harry V. Jaffa, A New Birth of Freedom: Abraham Lincoln and the Coming of the Civil War (Lanham, MD: Rowman and Littlefield, 2000), 216; Agénor de Gasparin, The Uprising of a Great People: The United States in 1861, Abridged (London: S. Low, 1861), 75–78, appendix with full text of Stephens’s Cornerstone Speech; Jay Monaghan, Diplomat in Carpet Slippers: Abraham Lincoln Deals with Foreign Affairs (Indianapolis: Bobbs-Merrill, 1962), 92–93; Serge Gavronsky, The French Liberal Opposition and the American Civil War (New York: Humanities Press, 1968), 90–91.

24. Davis, “Government of Our Own,” 137.

25. James D. Richardson, A Compilation of the Messages and Papers of the Confederacy: Including the Diplomatic Correspondence, 1861–1865 (Nashville: United States Publishing, 1904), 1:55–56.

26. Samuel Wylie Crawford, The Genesis of the Civil War: The Story of Sumter, 1860–1861 (New York: C. L. Webster, 1887), 325–330; Ludwell H. Johnson, “Fort Sumter and Confederate Diplomacy,” Journal of Southern History 26, no. 4 (1960): 456–459; Glyndon G. Van Deusen, William Henry Seward (New York: Oxford University Press, 1967), 178–179; Davis, “Government of Our Own,” 209; Doris Kearns Goodwin, Team of Rivals: The Political Genius of Abraham Lincoln (New York: Simon and Schuster, 2005), 336, 341.

27. Davis, “Government of Our Own,” 203; Callahan, Diplomatic History, 84; Robert Barnwell Rhett and William C. Davis, A Fire-Eater Remembers: The Confederate Memoir of Robert Barnwell Rhett (Columbia: University of South Carolina Press, 2000), 33–38.

28. Frank Lawrence Owsley, King Cotton Diplomacy: Foreign Relations of the Confederate States of America, 2nd ed. (1931; reprint, Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1959), 24–50; Eugène Pelletan, An Address to King Cotton, translated by Leander Starr (New York: H. de Mareil, 1863).

29. Owsley, King Cotton Diplomacy, 51–52.

30. Eric H. Walther, William Lowndes Yancey and the Coming of the Civil War (Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press, 2006), 299–300; Davis, “Government of Our Own,” 203–204.

31. Walther, Yancey and the Coming of the Civil War, 297–299; Owsley, King Cotton Diplomacy, 51–52; Edwin De Leon, Secret History of Confederate Diplomacy Abroad, edited by William C. Davis (Lawrence: University Press of Kansas, 2005), 50.

32. Paul Pecquet du Bellet, The Diplomacy of the Confederate Cabinet of Richmond and Its Agents Abroad, edited by William Stanley Hoole (Tuscaloosa, AL: Confederate Publishing, 1963), 30–32; Burton Jesse Hendrick, Statesmen of the Lost Cause: Jefferson Davis and His Cabinet (New York: Literary Guild of America, 1939), 140; Encyclopedia of the American Civil War: A Political, Social, and Military History, edited by David Stephen Heidler and Jeanne T. Heidler (New York: W. W. Norton, 2002), s.v. “Rost, Pierre Adolphe.”

33. A. Dudley Mann, “My Ever Dearest Friend”: The Letters of A. Dudley Mann to Jefferson Davis, 1869–1889 (Tuscaloosa, AL: Confederate Publishing, 1960), 11–16; Encyclopedia of the American Civil War, s.v. “Mann, Ambrose Dudley”; Hendrick, Statesmen of the Lost Cause, 141; Owsley, King Cotton Diplomacy, 52; De Leon, Secret History, 52.

34. Charles M. Hubbard, The Burden of Confederate Diplomacy (Knoxville: University of Tennessee Press, 1998), 33–34; J. Preston Moore, “Lincoln and the Escape of the Confederate Commissioner,” Journal of the Illinois State Historical Society 57, no. 1 (1964): 23–29.

35. William Stanley Hoole, ed., “Notes and Documents: William L. Yancey’s European Diary, March–June 1861,” Alabama Review 25, no. 2 (1972): 134–142; Walther, Yancey and the Coming of the Civil War, 304–305; Hubbard, Burden of Confederate Diplomacy, 33–34; Yancey and Mann to Toombs, London, May 21, 1861, ORN, ser. 2, 3:214–216.

36. Jasper Godwin Ridley, Lord Palmerston (New York: Dutton, 1971), 548, 6–8.

37. Palmerston to Russell, London, October 28, 1862, in Hugh Dubrulle, “‘We Are Threatened with . . . Anarchy and Ruin’: Fear of Americanization and the Emergence of an Anglo-Saxon Confederacy in England During the American Civil War,” Albion 33, no. 4 (2001): 586.

38. Ridley, Lord Palmerston, 427–428, 489; Eugenio F. Biagini, Liberty, Retrenchment and Reform: Popular Liberalism in the Age of Gladstone, 1860–1880 (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2004), 67–83; Ephraim Douglass Adams, Great Britain and the American Civil War (1924; reprint, New York: Russell and Russell, 1958), 1:24, 28–31, 2:276–289.

39. Adams, Great Britain, 90; E. D. Steele, Palmerston and Liberalism, 1855–1865 (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1991), 292–305.

40. David Urquhart, Public Opinion and Its Organs (London: Trübner, 1855), 24–25.

41. Yancey and Mann to Toombs, London, May 21, 1861, ORN, ser. 2, 3:214–216.

42. Francis Deák and Philip C. Jessup, eds., A Collection of Neutrality Laws, Regulations and Treaties of Various Countries (Washington, DC: Carnegie Endowment for International Peace, 1939), 1:57, 100, 161, 590, 688, 2:814–815, 903, 939; Yancey and Mann to Toombs, London, May 21, 1861, ORN, ser. 2, 3:214–216; Dean B. Mahin, One War at a Time: The International Dimensions of the American Civil War (Washington, DC: Brassey’s, 1999), 197–207.

43. Lynn Marshall Case and Warren F. Spencer, The United States and France: Civil War Diplomacy (Philadelphia: University of Pennsylvania Press, 1970), 60–61; Yancey and Mann to Toombs, London, May 21, ORN, ser. 2, 3:214–216; Stève Sainlaude, Le gouvernement impérial et la guerre de sécession (1861–1865): L’action diplomatique (Paris: Harmattan, 2011).

44. Yancey and Mann to Toombs, London, May 21, 1861; Yancey, Rost, and Mann to Toombs, London, June 1, 1861; Yancey and Mann to Toombs, London, July 15, 1861; Yancey and Mann to Hunter, London, August 1, 1861, all in ORN, ser. 2, 3:214–216, 3:219–220, 3:221–226, 3:229–230.

45. Henry Harrison Simms, Life of Robert M. T. Hunter: A Study in Sectionalism and Secession (Richmond, VA: William Byrd Press, 1935), 187–201; Hunter to Yancey, Rost, and Mann, Richmond, July 29, 1861, ORN, ser. 2, 3:227–229.

46. Yancey, Rost, and Mann to Toombs, London, August 7, 1861, ORN, ser. 2, 3:235–237.

47. Ibid., August 14, 1861, 238–246.

48. Russell to Yancey, Rost, and Mann, London, August 24, 1861, ORN, ser. 2, 3:247–248.

49. Walther, Yancey and the Coming of the Civil War, 315.

50. Ibid., 226–231, 319, 321; Owsley, King Cotton Diplomacy, 76–77; De Leon, Secret History, 50–52.

51. Thomas Le Grand Harris, The Trent Affair: Including a Review of English and American Relations at the Beginning of the Civil War (Indianapolis: Bowen Merrill, 1896), 91–109.

52. Weed to Seward, London, December 4, 1861, ALPLC (two letters, same date); Malakoff, “Important from Paris, the Seizure of Mason and Slidell the Result of a Preconcerted Plan,” NYT, January 4, 1862.

53. Harris, Trent Affair, 137–162.

54. “The Seizure of the Trent,” Times (London), November 28, 1861.

55. Brian Jenkins, Britain and the War for the Union (Montreal: McGill-Queen’s University Press, 1974), 1:220; Norman B. Ferris, The Trent Affair: A Diplomatic Crisis (Knoxville: University of Tennessee Press, 1977), 179.

56. Ferris, Trent Affair, 54–68; Kenneth Bourne, Britain and the Balance of Power in North America, 1815–1908 (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1967), 206–249; Phillip E. Myers, Caution and Cooperation: The American Civil War in British-American Relations (Kent, OH: Kent State University Press, 2008), 64–88; Amanda Foreman, A World on Fire: Britain’s Crucial Role in the American Civil War (New York: Random House, 2011), 173–196.

57. Yancey, Rost, and Mann to Hunter, London, December 2, 1861, ORN, ser. 2, 3:304–306.

58. Mann to Hunter, London, December 2, 1861, ORN, ser. 2, 3:307.

59. Rost to Hunter, Paris, December 24, 1861, ORN, ser. 2, 3:311–312.

CHAPTER 3: WE WILL WRAP THE WORLD IN FLAMES

1. Lincoln, “First Inaugural Address,” March 4, 1861, CWAL, 4:249–261, 262–271.

2. William Howard Russell, My Diary North and South (Boston: Burnham, 1863), 381, 387, July 4, December 16, 1861; Seward to Adams, Washington, July 28, 1862, FRUS, 1862, 154–158.

3. Michael Burlingame, Abraham Lincoln: A Life (Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press, 2008), 2:41.

4. “The Inauguration Ceremonies,” NYT, March 5, 1861; Julia Taft Bayne, Tad Lincoln’s Father, edited by Mary A. DeCredico (Lincoln: University of Nebraska Press, 2001), 18; Walt Whitman, Specimen Days and Collect (Philadelphia: D. McKay, 1883), 64.

5. “The New Administration,” NYT, March 5, 1861.

6. Burlingame, Abraham Lincoln: A Life, 1:707; Marsh to Seward, Turin, June 28, 1861, Italy, RG 59.

7. Harold Holzer, Lincoln President-Elect: Abraham Lincoln and the Great Secession Winter, 1860–1861 (New York: Simon and Schuster, 2008), 437–446; Walter Stahr, Seward: Lincoln’s Indispensable Man (New York: Simon and Schuster, 2012), 239–241.

8. Burlingame, Abraham Lincoln: A Life, 2:45–51, 58.

9. “The Inauguration Ceremonies”; Burlingame, Abraham Lincoln: A Life, 2:61–62.

10. “The New Administration”; Samuel Wylie Crawford, The Genesis of the Civil War: The Story of Sumter, 1860–1861 (New York: C. L. Webster, 1887), 304, 321.

11. Emer de Vattel, The Law of Nations; or, Principles of the Law of Nature, Applied to the Conduct and Affairs of Nations and Sovereigns, edited by Bela Kapossy and Richard Whatmore (1797; reprint, Indianapolis: Liberty Fund, 2008), 86–87; Lincoln, “First Inaugural Address, Final Text,” March 4, 1861, CWAL, 4:264; Emory M. Thomas, The Confederate Nation, 1861–1865 (New York: Harper and Row, 1979), 63.

12. Burlingame, Abraham Lincoln: A Life, 2:47; James M. McPherson, Battle Cry of Freedom: The Civil War Era (New York: Oxford University Press, 1988), 252–253.

13. Seward circular, Washington, March 9, 1861, FRUS, 1861, 32–33.

14. Benjamin Moran, The Journal of Benjamin Moran, 1857–1865, edited by Sarah Agnes Wallace and Frances Elma Gillespie (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1948), 1:806.

15. Sanford to Seward, Paris, April 19, 1861, Belgium, RG 59; “The Great Rebellion,” NYT, August 13, 1861; Biographical Directory of the US Congress, s.v. “Faulkner, Charles James,” http://bioguide.congress.gov.

16. Eduard Maco Hudson, Der Zweite Unabhängigkeits-Krieg in Amerika (Berlin: A. Charisius, 1862); Eduard Maco Hudson, The Second War of Independence in America, 2nd ed. (London: Longman, Green, 1863). On disloyal diplomats: Sanford to Seward, Paris, April 19, September 19, 1861 (on Faulkner); Sanford to Seward, London, April 27, 1861, Belgium, RG 59 (on Fair); Perry to Seward, Madrid, April 20, 1861, Spain, RG 59 (on Preston).

17. Margaret Antoinette Clapp, Forgotten First Citizen: John Bigelow (Boston: Little, Brown, 1947), 149.

18. Stahr, Seward: Lincoln’s Indispensable Man, 253–254; Thurlow Weed, Life of Thurlow Weed Including His Autobiography and a Memoir (Boston: Houghton Mifflin, 1884), 1:600–601; Burlingame, Abraham Lincoln: A Life, 2:91–95.

19. Lincoln to Seward, Washington, March 11, 1861, CWAL, 4:281.

20. Burlingame, Abraham Lincoln: A Life, 2:108–113; Stahr, Seward: Lincoln’s Indispensable Man, 254–255.

21. Russell, My Diary, 37–39.

22. John Taylor, William Henry Seward: Lincoln’s Right Hand (New York: HarperCollins, 1991), 186–187; Norman B. Ferris, “Lincoln and Seward in Civil War Diplomacy: Their Relationship at the Outset Reexamined,” in For a Vast Future Also: Essays from the Journal of the Abraham Lincoln Association, ed. Thomas F. Schwartz (New York: Fordham University Press, 1999), 170–189; Doris Kearns Goodwin, Team of Rivals: The Political Genius of Abraham Lincoln (New York: Simon and Schuster, 2005), 364–365, 386–388.

23. Glyndon G. Van Deusen, William Henry Seward (New York: Oxford University Press, 1967), 336; Taylor, William Henry Seward, 181.

24. William Henry Seward and Frederick William Seward, Seward at Washington, 1846–1861 (New York: Derby and Miller, 1891), 511; Norman B. Ferris, Desperate Diplomacy: William H. Seward’s Foreign Policy, 1861 (Knoxville: University of Tennessee Press, 1976), 3; Frederick William Seward, Reminiscences of a War-Time Statesman and Diplomat, 1830–1915 (New York: G. P. Putnam’s Sons, 1916), 147.

25. Seward to Lincoln, “Some Thoughts for the President’s Consideration,” Washington, April 1, 1861, ALPLC.

26. Ibid.; “Astounding Intelligence: Aggressive Designs of Spain in the West Indies,” NYT, March 30, 1861.

27. William Henry Seward, The Works of William H. Seward, edited by George E. Baker (Boston: Houghton, Mifflin, 1884), 648–649; Kinley J. Brauer, “Seward’s ‘Foreign War Panacea’: An Interpretation,” New York History 55, no. 136 (1974): 145–147; Patrick Sowle, “A Reappraisal of Seward’s Memorandum of April 1, 1861, to Lincoln,” Journal of Southern History 33 (May 1, 1967): 234–239; Ferris, “Lincoln and Seward”; Ferris, Desperate Diplomacy, 1012; Taylor, William Henry Seward, 150–153.

28. Daniel B. Carroll, Henri Mercier and the American Civil War (Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, 1971), 51–52; Howard Jones, Blue and Gray Diplomacy: A History of Union and Confederate Foreign Relations (Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press, 2010), 25.

29. Jones, Blue and Gray Diplomacy, 24, 27; Ferris, “Lincoln and Seward.”

30. Lincoln to Seward, Washington, April 1, 1861, ALPLC; Taylor, William Henry Seward, 150–151; Burlingame, Abraham Lincoln: A Life, 2:118.

31. Ferris, Desperate Diplomacy; Ferris, “Lincoln and Seward”; Sowle, “Reappraisal of Seward’s Memorandum”; Brauer, “Seward’s ‘Foreign War Panacea.’”

32. Sowle, “Reappraisal of Seward’s Memorandum.”

33. Ibid.

34. “Foreign Intervention in American Affairs,” NYT, April 1, 1861.

35. Van Deusen, William Henry Seward, 292; James W. Cortada, “Spain and the American Civil War: Relations at Mid-Century, 1855–1868,” Transactions of the American Philosophical Society 70, no. 4 (1980): 33–34.

36. Seward to Adams, Washington, April 10, 1861, FRUS, 1861, 71–80.

37. Seward to Dayton, Washington, April 22, 1861, FRUS, 1861, 195–201; Stahr, Seward: Lincoln’s Indispensable Man, 179.

38. William Henry Seward and Frederick William Seward, William H. Seward: An Autobiography, 1831–1846 (New York: Derby and Miller, 1877), 27–28; Stahr, Seward: Lincoln’s Indispensable Man, 16.

39. Taylor, William Henry Seward, 73–74.

40. Stahr, Seward: Lincoln’s Indispensable Man, 178–181, 189–190, 193.

41. Sanford to Seward, Paris, May 10, 1861, Belgium, RG 59.

42. Schurz to Seward, San Ildefonso, Spain, September 14, 1861, Spain, RG 59, reprinted in Carl Schurz, Speeches, Correspondence and Political Papers of Carl Schurz, edited by Frederic Bancroft (New York: G. P. Putnam’s Sons, 1913), 185–193; Frederic Bancroft, The Life of William H. Seward (New York: Harper and Brothers, 1899), 323.

43. Schurz, Speeches, Correspondence and Political Papers, 1:191–193.

44. Henry M. Wriston, Executive Agents in American Foreign Relations (Baltimore: Johns Hopkins, 1929), 776–780; Propaganda and Mass Persuasion: A Historical Encyclopedia, 1500 to the Present, edited by Nicholas John Cull, David Holbrook Culbert, and David Welch (Santa Barbara, CA: ABC-CLIO, 2003), s.v. “Civil War, United States” and “Public Diplomacy”; Nicolas J. Cull, “‘Public Diplomacy’ Before Gullion: The Evolution of a Phrase,” in Routledge Handbook of Public Diplomacy, edited by Nancy Snow and Philip M. Taylor (New York: Routledge, 2009), 19–23.

45. Benedict Anderson, Imagined Communities: Reflections on the Origin and Spread of Nationalism, 3rd ed. (New York: Verso Books, 2006); Lynn M. Case, ed., French Opinion on the United States and Mexico, 1860–1867: Extracts from the Reports of the Procureurs Généraux (New York: D. Appleton-Century, 1936), ix–x.

46. Sanford to Seward, Paris, April 19, 1861, Belgium, RG 59.

47. Harriet Chappell Owsley, “Henry Shelton Sanford and Federal Surveillance Abroad, 1861–1865,” Mississippi Valley Historical Review 48, no. 2 (1961): 222; Malakoff, “From France: French Sentiment upon Secession,” NYT, March 15, 1861; Charles Sumner and A. Malespine, Les relations exteìrieures des États-Unis (Paris: E. Dentu, 1863); A. Malespine, Solution de la question mexicaine (Paris: E. Dentu, 1864); A. Malespine, Les États-Unis en 1865 (Paris: E. Dentu, 1865).

48. John Bigelow, Retrospections of an Active Life, 1817–1863 (New York: Baker and Taylor, 1909), 364–365; Clapp, Forgotten First Citizen, 165–182; Beckles Willson, America’s Ambassadors to France (1777–1927): A Narrative of Franco-American Diplomatic Relations (London: J. Murray, 1928), 262–263, quoting Dayton to Seward, Paris, May 27, 1861.

49. Aaron W. Marrs, “The Civil War Origins of the FRUS Series, 1861–1868,” chap. 2 of “Toward ‘Thorough, Accurate, and Reliable’: A History of the Foreign Relations of the United States Series,” online at US Department of State, Office of the Historian, http://history.state.gov/historicaldocuments/frus-history/chapter-2; “Secret Diplomatic Service Abroad,” NYT, February 5, 1868; Stephen F. Knott, Secret and Sanctioned: Covert Operations and the American Presidency (New York: Oxford University Press, 1996), 140–144; Peter Bridges, “US Agents Give Special European Service,” Washington Times, June 25, 2005; Wriston, Executive Agents, 779–780; Van Deusen, William Henry Seward, 306–307; Henry Adams, The Education of Henry Adams: An Autobiography (Boston: Houghton Mifflin, 1918), 126.

50. Weed, Life of Thurlow Weed, 2:351, 1:634–639; Stahr, Seward: Lincoln’s Indispensable Man, 307.

51. Charles Francis Adams, “Charles Francis Adams Diaries, 1823–1880” (Massachusetts Historical Society, Boston, 1954), December 1, 9, 1861; H. Adams, Education of Henry Adams, 119.

52. Bigelow, Retrospections of an Active Life, 1817–1863, 384–392; Weed, Life of Thurlow Weed, 1:654–656, and see 2:350 for a different version.

53. John R. G. Hassard, Life of the Most Reverend John Hughes (New York: D. Appleton, 1866), 463–468.

54. Ibid., 456–482.

55. H. Adams, Education of Henry Adams, 147; Weed, Life of Thurlow Weed, 1:642–643.

56. Weed, Life of Thurlow Weed, 1:642–643.

57. Stahr, Seward: Lincoln’s Indispensable Man, 316–317.

58. Weed, Life of Thurlow Weed, 2:352–353.

59. Amanda Foreman, A World on Fire: Britain’s Crucial Role in the American Civil War (New York: Random House, 2011), 180–189.

60. C. Adams, “Charles Francis Adams Diaries,” January 10, 1862.

61. John Stuart Mill, The Contest in America (Boston: Little, Brown, 1862), 3.

CHAPTER 4: THE REPUBLICAN EXPERIMENT

1. John Bigelow, Retrospections of an Active Life, 1817–1863 (New York: Baker and Taylor, 1909), 346, quoting Russell to Bigelow, London, February 4, 1861; Daniel T. Rodgers, “Republicanism: The Career of a Concept,” Journal of American History 79, no. 1 (1992): 11–38.

2. Capitani Regenti to Lincoln, San Marino, March 29, 1861, Archivo dal Stato, San Marino; Captain Regents to President Obama, San Marino, May 6, 2011 (punctuation modified; all spelling as in the original). I am grateful to the State Archives of San Marino for sending me copies of the 1861 letters and to Rakesh Surampudi at the Italian Desk of the US State Department for providing me with a copy of the 2011 letter from San Marino to President Obama.

3. Lincoln and Seward to the Regent Captains of the Republic of San Marino, Washington, May 7, 1861, CWAL, 4:360; John Taylor, William Henry Seward: Lincoln’s Right Hand (New York: HarperCollins, 1991), 167; Don H. Doyle, “From San Marino, with Love,” in The “New York Times”: Disunion—Modern Historians Revisit and Reconsider the Civil War from Lincoln’s Election to the Emancipation Proclamation, edited by Ted Widmer, Clay Risen, and George Kalogerakis (New York: Black Dog and Leventhal, 2013), 86–90.

4. Maurizio Viroli, Republicanism, translated by Antony Shugaar (New York: Hill and Wang, 2001); Jonathan I. Israel, A Revolution of the Mind: Radical Enlightenment and the Intellectual Origins of Modern Democracy (Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, 2010), vii–x; E. J. Hobsbawm, The Age of Revolution, 1789–1848 (New York: Vintage Books, 1996); David Brion Davis, Revolutions: Reflections on American Equality and Foreign Liberations (Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 1990); Harry V. Jaffa, A New Birth of Freedom: Abraham Lincoln and the Coming of the Civil War (Lanham, MD: Rowman and Littlefield, 2000), 12, 26.

5. Jaffa, New Birth of Freedom, 111, quoting Jefferson to Roger Wightman, June 24, 1826.

6. Ibid., 127–135.

7. Seymour Drescher, Abolition: A History of Slavery and Antislavery (New York: Cambridge University Press, 2009); Davis, Revolutions, 17–18; Lacy K. Ford, Deliver Us from Evil: The Slavery Question in the Old South (New York: Oxford University Press, 2009); James Oakes, Freedom National: The Destruction of Slavery in the United States, 1861–1865 (New York: W. W. Norton, 2013).

8. George Bancroft, Memorial Address on the Life and Character of Abraham Lincoln (Washington, DC: GPO, 1866), 6; James M. McPherson, Abraham Lincoln and the Second American Revolution (New York: Oxford University Press, 1990).

9. Bancroft, Memorial Address, 5.

10. Jaffa, New Birth of Freedom, 121–135, 176.

11. Davis, Revolutions; Hobsbawm, Age of Revolution.

12. Henry Blumenthal, A Reappraisal of Franco-American Relations, 1830–1871 (Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press, 1959), 5; Serge Gavronsky, The French Liberal Opposition and the American Civil War (New York: Humanities Press, 1968), 24–25; Fred R. Shapiro, The Yale Book of Quotations (New Haven, CT: Yale University Press, 2006), 327.

13. Jonathan Sperber, The European Revolutions, 1848–1851, 2nd ed. (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2005), 56–59, 68.

14. Ibid., 80.

15. Ibid., 116.

16. Ibid., 82, 122.

17. J. A. S. Grenville, Europe Reshaped, 1848–1878 (Oxford: Blackwell, 2000), 87–100, 141–153.

18. Sperber, European Revolutions, 234–235; Grenville, Europe Reshaped, 1848–1878, 59–68, 111–123; Karl-Heinz Bannasch, “Eduard Zimmermann, Spandaus Bürgermeister in der Revolutionszeit von 1848–49,” in Spandauer Forschungen, edited by Joachim Pohl et al. (Berlin: Heimatkundliche Vereinigung Spandau, Fördererkreis Museum Spandau, 2012), 188–191; Mary Lou Salomon, “Salomon Family Genealogy,” 2005, entry for “Frederick Salomon,” author’s personal library.

19. Sperber, European Revolutions; Grenville, Europe Reshaped, 1848–1878, 87–202.

20. Hilda Sabato, “The Republican Experiment: On People and Government in Nineteenth Century Spanish America” (presented at the Shelby Cullom Davis Center for Historical Studies, Princeton University, 2012); Paul W. Drake, Between Tyranny and Anarchy: A History of Democracy in Latin America, 1800–2006 (Stanford, CA: Stanford University Press, 2009), 52–56, 88–125.

21. Robert Kagan, Dangerous Nation (New York: Alfred A. Knopf, 2006), 157–180, quote on 177; Harold William Vazeille Temperley, The Foreign Policy of Canning, 1822–1827: England, the Neo-Holy Alliance and the New World (London: G. Bell, 1925), 158–159.

22. Jay Sexton, The Monroe Doctrine: Empire and Nation in Nineteenth-Century America (New York: Hill and Wang, 2011), 85–122.

23. Sexton, Monroe Doctrine; Drake, Between Tyranny and Anarchy, 55–56.

24. Alexis de Tocqueville, Democracy in America (London: Saunders and Otley, 1838), 1:xxix, xxxii, 12.

25. Ephraim Douglass Adams, Great Britain and the American Civil War (1924; reprint, New York: Russell and Russell, 1958), 275; Alexander Mackay, The Western World; or, Travels in the United States in 1846–47, 4th ed. (London: R. Bentley, 1850), 3:24.

26. “The Conservative Leaders on the War,” NYT, November 17, 1861.

27. Hugh Dubrulle, “‘We Are Threatened with . . . Anarchy and Ruin’: Fear of Americanization and the Emergence of an Anglo-Saxon Confederacy in England During the American Civil War,” Albion 33, no. 4 (2001): 583–613; Martin Crawford, ed., William Howard Russell’s Civil War: Private Diary and Letters, 1861–1862 (Athens: University of Georgia Press, 2008), 155, quoting Russell to Sumner, London, October 14, 1861.

28. A. J. B. Beresford Hope, The American Disruption in Three Lectures (London: James Ridgway, 1862); “Mr. Beresford Hope, M.P., on the Contest,” NYT, December 9, 1861.

29. Hope, American Disruption in Three Lectures.

30. Malakoff, “Important from France,” NYT, June 3, 1861.

31. Hansard Parliamentary Debates, 3rd ser., May 27, 30, 1861, 163:133–134, 276, 332, http://hansard.millbanksystems.com; Spencer Walpole, The Life of Lord John Russell (London: Longmans, Green, 1889), 338.

32. “Conservative Leaders on the War”; “A Leaden-Headed Lord on Democracy,” NYT, November 19, 1861.

33. Monadnock, “From London: The English People and the American Troubles,” NYT, September 24, 1861.

34. “Affairs in England,” NYT, June 17, 1861; Walpole, Lord John Russell, 338; “English Feeling Towards America,” NYT, June 19, 1861; “Anglican Political Quacks,” NYT, October 27, 1861; “A Leaden-Headed Lord on Democracy”; Charles Francis Adams, “Charles Francis Adams Diaries, 1823–1880” (Massachusetts Historical Society, Boston, 1954), January 10, February 19, 1862.

35. “Secession Agents in Paris Appreciated,” NYT, December 7, 1861; Matías Romero, Proceedings of a Meeting of Citizens of New York, to Express Sympathy and Respect for the Mexican Republican Exiles (New York: J. A. Gray and Green, 1865), 31, quoting Boissy.

36. George McCoy Blackburn, French Newspaper Opinion on the American Civil War (Westport, CT: Greenwood, 1997), 114, 30, quoting Le Monde, January 8, 1861.

37. Gavronsky, French Liberal Opposition, 27; Taxile Delord, Histoire du Second Empire: 1848–1869 (Paris: G. Baillière, 1869), 3:17; Henri Soret, Histoire du conflit Américain, de ses causes, de ses résultats (Tarbes: Telmon, 1863), 7.

38. “Letter from Hamburg,” New York Evening Post, February 16, 1861.

39. Donaldson Jordan and Edwin J. Pratt, Europe and the American Civil War (Boston: Houghton Mifflin, 1931), 251–252; Edwin Pratt, “Spanish Opinion of the North American Civil War,” Hispanic American Historical Review 10, no. 1 (1930): 20, quoting El Pensamiento Español, September 6, 1862.

40. James Spence, The American Union: Its Effect on National Character and Policy, with an Inquiry into Secession as a Constitutional Right, and the Causes of the Disruption (London: R. Bentley, 1861), 39–42.

41. A. J. B. Beresford Hope, A Popular View of the American Civil War, 3rd ed. (London: J. Ridgway, 1861), 12–13.

42. Howell Cobb, “Letter . . . to the People of Georgia,” in Southern Pamphlets on Secession, November 1860–April 1861, edited by Jon L. Wakelyn (Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press, 1996), 88–101.

43. William Howard Russell, My Diary North and South (Boston: Burnham, 1863), 148, 227; Sheldon Vanauken, The Glittering Illusion: English Sympathy for the Southern Confederacy (Washington, DC: Regnery Gateway, 1989). Russell’s diary testifies to similar antidemocratic sentiments among New Yorkers.

44. Russell, My Diary, 134, 263–264; William Howard Russell, Pictures of Southern Life, Social, Political, and Military (New York: James G. Gregory, 1861), 3; Robert E. Bonner, Mastering America: Southern Slaveholders and the Crisis of American Nationhood (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2009), 266.

45. Russell, My Diary, 263–264; Crawford, Russell’s Civil War, 89–90; Russell, Pictures of Southern Life.

46. “The South to Be a Monarchy,” New York Tribune, April 2, 1861.

47. “The Fixed Purposes of the People,” Commercial Advertiser, July 12, 1861.

48. Malakoff, “France and Secession,” NYT, February 5, 1861; Malakoff, “From France: French Sentiment upon Secession,” NYT, March 15, 1861; “A Crown with a Cotton Lining,” NYT, July 10, 1861; Brian Schoen, “Secessionist Plots and Foreign Powers: Diplomats and Rumor in the Coming of the Civil War,” unpublished paper. Schoen raises doubts about some of these rumors.

49. Lincoln, “Annual Message to Congress,” December 3, 1861, CWAL, 5:51.

50. Minetta Altgelt Goyne, Lone Star and Double Eagle: Civil War Letters of a German-Texas Family (Fort Worth: Texas Christian University Press, 1982), 47–48; Chandra Manning, What This Cruel War Was Over: Soldiers, Slavery, and the Civil War (New York: Alfred A. Knopf, 2007), 66; Patrick J. Kelly, “The North American Crisis of the 1860s,” Journal of the Civil War Era 2, no. 3 (2012): 348–349; Bonner, Mastering America, 266.

51. James Morton Callahan, The Diplomatic History of the Southern Confederacy (Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press, 1901), 244; J. B. Jones, A Rebel War Clerk’s Diary at the Confederate States Capital (Philadelphia: Lippincott, 1866), 2:355, December 15, 1864; Jeff Sowers Kinard, “Lafayette of the South: Prince Camille de Polignac and the American Civil War” (PhD, Texas Christian University, 1997), 304–305; C. J. Polignac, “Polignac’s Mission,” Southern Historical Society Papers 35 (January–December 1907): 326–334.

52. Thurlow Weed, Life of Thurlow Weed Including His Autobiography and a Memoir (Boston: Houghton Mifflin, 1884), 2:313–314; “Benjamin” to Archibald, New York, August 11, 1860, and Archibald to Lord Lyons, Lebanon Springs, NY, August 14, 1860, box 204, NY Consul, Archibald, 1860, Lyons Papers, West Sussex County Record Office, Chichester, UK. I am grateful to Brian Schoen for sending me a copy of this fascinating correspondence.

53. Robert Douthat Meade, Judah P. Benjamin: Confederate Statesman (Baton Rouge: Louisiana State University Press, 2001), 140–141; Eugene H. Berwanger, The British Foreign Service and the American Civil War (Lexington: University Press of Kentucky, 1994), 14–15; “History of the Benjamin Letter,” NYT, March 23, 1884; Eli N. Evans, Judah P. Benjamin, the Jewish Confederate (New York: Free Press, 1988), 237.

CHAPTER 5: THE EMPIRES RETURN

1. “Foreign Intervention in American Affairs,” NYT, April 1, 1861.

2. Malakoff, “Important from Paris,” NYT, March 29, 1861; “Foreign Intervention in American Affairs”; “Astounding Intelligence: Aggressive Designs of Spain in the West Indies,” NYT, March 30, 1861; Malakoff, “Our Rebellion Abroad,” NYT, May 5, 1861; “Our Washington Correspondence,” NYT, April 2, 1861.

3. A. R. Tyrner-Tyrnauer, Lincoln and the Emperors (New York: Harcourt, Brace, and World, 1962), 3–12.

4. Jay Sexton, The Monroe Doctrine: Empire and Nation in Nineteenth-Century America (New York: Hill and Wang, 2011), 49–73.

5. James F. McMillan, Napoleon III (London: Longman, 1991), 143–152.

6. Alfred J. Hanna and Kathryn A. Hanna, Napoleon III and Mexico: American Triumph over Monarchy (Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press, 1971), 58–60, 183; Michel Chevalier, Mexico Ancient and Modern, translated by Thomas Alpass (London: J. Maxwell, 1864), 2:201; Walter Mignolo, The Idea of Latin America (Malden, MA: Wiley-Blackwell, 2005), 77–79; Michel Gobat, “The Invention of Latin America: A Transnational History of Anti-Imperialism, Democracy, and Race,” American Historical Review 118, no. 5 (2013): 1345–1375.

7. Hanna and Hanna, Napoleon III and Mexico, 3–20; John Leddy Phelan, “Pan-Latinism, French Intervention in Mexico (1861–1867) and the Genesis of the Idea of Latin America,” in Conciencia y autenticidad históricas, edited by Juan Antonio Ortega y Medina (Mexico City: UNAM, 1968), 279–298.

8. Phelan, “Pan-Latinism”; Gobat, “Invention of Latin America.”

9. Michel Chevalier and Ernest Rasetti, La France, le Mexique et les États Confédérés (Paris: E. Dentu, 1863); “France, Mexico and the Confederate States,” NYT, September 25, 1863; Michel Chevalier, France, Mexico, and the Confederate States, translated by William Henry Hurlbert (New York: C. B. Richardson, 1863); Vine Wright Kingsley, French Intervention in America; or, A Review of la France, le Mexique, et les États-Confédérés (New York: C. B. Richardson, 1863); Hanna and Hanna, Napoleon III and Mexico, 60–65.

10. “The Mexican Question,” NYT, February 28, 1862.

11. Nathan L. Ferris, “The Relations of the United States with South America During the American Civil War,” Hispanic American Historical Review 21, no. 1 (1941): 65–66; Hanna and Hanna, Napoleon III and Mexico, 182–183; James Schofield Saeger, Francisco Solano López and the Ruination of Paraguay: Honor and Egocentrism (Lanham, MD: Rowman & Littlefield, 2007).

12. Frank Moya Pons, The Dominican Republic: A National History (Princeton, NJ: Markus Wiener, 1998), 91–192.

13. Nancy Nichols Barker, Distaff Diplomacy: The Empress Eugénie and the Foreign Policy of the Second Empire (Austin: University of Texas Press, 2011), 63–65.

14. Schurz to Seward, San Lorenzo (Escorial), September 27, Spain, 1861; James W. Cortada, “Spain and the American Civil War: Relations at Mid-Century, 1855–1868,” Transactions of the American Philosophical Society 70, no. 4 (1980): 33; Edwin Pratt, “Spanish Opinion of the North American Civil War,” Hispanic American Historical Review 10, no. 1 (1930): 14–25; Wayne H. Bowen, Spain and the American Civil War (Columbia: University of Missouri Press, 2011), 2–3, 6.

15. Cortada, “Spain and the American Civil War,” 30–33; Moya Pons, Dominican Republic, 197–210; Bowen, Spain and the American Civil War, 84–90.

16. Cortada, “Spain and the American Civil War,” 30, 33–36; Moya Pons, Dominican Republic, 204–205; Bowen, Spain and the American Civil War, 84–90; Kinley J. Brauer, “Gabriel García y Tassara and the American Civil War: A Spanish Perspective,” Civil War History 21, no. 1 (1975): 5–27; William Moss Wilson, “The Foreign War Panacea,” NYT, March 17, 2011, sec. “The Opinionator: Disunion,” http://opinionator.blogs.nytimes.com; “Spain and San Domingo,” NYT, May 10, 1861; “Will Spain Be Able to Retain Dominica?,” NYT, June 3, 1861.

17. Brauer, “García y Tassara,” 11–12; Cortada, “Spain and the American Civil War,” 33.

18. Glyndon G. Van Deusen, William Henry Seward (New York: Oxford University Press, 1967), 281–282, 292; Patrick Sowle, “A Reappraisal of Seward’s Memorandum of April 1, 1861, to Lincoln,” Journal of Southern History 33 (May 1, 1967): 234–239.

19. “Protest of the Dominicans Against the Spanish Invasion Call to Arms,” NYT, April 2, 1861; Anne Eller, “‘Rise, Compatriots’: Dominican Civil Wars, Slavery, and Spanish Annexation, 1844–1865” (paper presented at “American Civil Wars” conference, University of South Carolina, March 19–21, 2014) (Cabral quote); Anne Eller, “Let’s Show the World We Are Brothers: The Dominican Guerra de Restauracion and the Nineteenth-Century Caribbean” (PhD diss., New York University, 2011).

20. “Important from St. Domingo,” NYT, March 30, 1861; “Astounding Intelligence”; Wilson, “The Foreign War Panacea.”

21. Perry to Seward, Madrid, May 8, 27, 1861, Spain, RG 59.

22. Ramón Gómez de la Serna, Mi tía Carolina Coronado (Buenos Aires: Emecé, 1942).

23. Perry to Seward, Madrid, May 8, 27, June 4, 1861, Spain, RG 59.

24. Perry to Seward, Madrid, April 20, May 27, 1861, Spain, RG 59.

25. Toombs to Crawford, Montgomery, April 2, 1861, reel 1, CSA; Hunter to Yancey, Rost, and Mann, Richmond, November 20, 1861; Helm to Hunter, Havana, October 22, November 8, 1861, ORN, ser. 2, 3:284, 296.

26. Toombs to Charles Helm, Richmond, July 22, 1861; Toombs to Yancey, Rost, and Mann, Richmond, August 24, 1861, ORN, ser. 2, 3:225–226, 249–252.

27. Frank Lawrence Owsley, King Cotton Diplomacy: Foreign Relations of the Confederate States of America, 2nd ed. (1931; reprint, Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1959), 84; Rost to Hunter, Madrid, March 21, 1862, ORN, ser. 2, 3:367–370.

28. “Important from St. Domingo.”

29. Eric Van Young, The Other Rebellion: Popular Violence, Ideology, and the Mexican Struggle for Independence, 1810–1821 (Stanford, CA: Stanford University Press, 2001); Brian R. Hamnett, A Concise History of Mexico (New York: Cambridge University Press, 2006), 111–171; Brian R. Hamnett, Juárez (New York: Longman, 1994); Jasper Godwin Ridley, Maximilian and Juárez (New York: Ticknor and Fields, 1992).

30. Hamnett, Juárez, 89, 99.

31. Hamnett, Juárez; Ridley, Maximilian and Juárez.

32. Daniel Dawson, The Mexican Adventure (London: G. Bell and Sons, 1935), 80–91; Erika Pani, “Dreaming of a Mexican Empire: The Political Projects of the ‘Imperialistas,’” Hispanic American Historical Review 82, no. 1 (2002): 1–31; Erika Pani, El Segundo Imperio: Pasados de usos múltiples (Mexico City: Centro de Investigación y Docencia Económicas: Fondo de Cultura Económica, 2004).

33. Dawson, The Mexican Adventure, 58–128.

34. Karl Marx, “The Intervention in Mexico,” New York Daily Tribune, November 23, 1861, originally written November 8, 1861, Marxists Internet Archive, http://www.marxists.org/archive/marx/works/1861/11/23.htm.

35. Dawson, The Mexican Adventure, 73–78, 116–119, 120–121; Carl H. Bock, Prelude to Tragedy: The Negotiation and Breakdown of the Tripartite Convention of London, October 31, 1861 (Philadelphia: University of Pennsylvania Press, 1966).

36. Hanna and Hanna, Napoleon III and Mexico, 40.

37. “The Expedition to Mexico,” NYT, January 3, 1862; Bock, Prelude to Tragedy, 275.

38. Hanna and Hanna, Napoleon III and Mexico, 40.

39. “Colonization of Discrowned Heads in America,” NYT, March 5, 1862.

40. Ronnie C. Tyler, Santiago Vidaurri and the Southern Confederacy ([Austin]: Texas State Historical Association, 1973), 30–31, 34, 52–53, 56–59.

41. Darryl E. Brock, “José Agustín Quintero: Cuban Patriot in Confederate Diplomatic Service,” in Cubans in the Confederacy: José Agustín Quintero, Ambrosio José Gonzales, and Loreta Janeta Velazquez (Jefferson, NC: McFarland, 2002), 9–142; Tyler, Santiago Vidaurri; Patrick J. Kelly, “The North American Crisis of the 1860s,” Journal of the Civil War Era 2, no. 3 (2012); Toombs to Vidaurri, Montgomery, May 21, 22, 1861; William M. Brown to Quintero, Richmond, September 3, December 9, 1861, ORN, ser. 2, 3:101, 116, 217–218, 253–255.

42. Thomas D. Schoonover, Dollars over Dominion: The Triumph of Liberalism in Mexican–United States Relations, 1861–1867 (Baton Rouge: Louisiana State University Press, 1978), 19–21.

43. Owsley, King Cotton Diplomacy, 91–92; US Department of State, The Present Condition of Mexico (Washington, DC: GPO, 1863), 16, 24, quoting Corwin to Seward, Mexico City, July 29, September 7, 1861.

44. Lester D. Langley, Struggle for the American Mediterranean: United States–European Rivalry in the Gulf-Caribbean, 1776–1904 (Athens: University of Georgia Press, 1976), 116–121.

45. Forsyth to Davis, Washington, March 20, 1861, vol. 1, John T. Pickett Papers, LoC; Owsley, King Cotton Diplomacy, 89–91; Mary Wilhelmine Williams, “Letter from Colonel John T. Pickett, of the Southern Confederacy, to Senor Don Manuel De Zamacona, Minister of Foreign Affairs, Mexico,” Hispanic American Historical Review 2, no. 4 (1919): 611–617; “Important from Mexico,” NYT, December 18, 1861.

46. Schoonover, Dollars over Dominion, 25–29; John T. Pickett to John Forsyth, Washington, March 13, 1861, John T. Pickett Papers, LoC.

47. Owsley, King Cotton Diplomacy, 90–91, suggests Pickett added the advice on bribery; Toombs to Pickett, Montgomery, May 17, 1861, ORN, ser. 2, 3:202–205.

48. Ibid., 92–103; US Department of State, Present Condition of Mexico, 20, quoting Corwin to Seward, Mexico City, August 28, 1861; Pickett to Martin J. Crawford, Veracruz, February 2, 1862, letterbook 1:118, John T. Pickett Papers, LoC.

49. Owsley, King Cotton Diplomacy, 95–97.

50. Ibid., 93–95, 101–102; US Department of State, Present Condition of Mexico, 31–32, quoting Corwin to Seward, Mexico City, October 21, 1861.

51. Schoonover, Dollars over Dominion, 42–43; Owsley, King Cotton Diplomacy, 98, quoting Pickett to Toombs, Mexico City, November 29, 1861.

52. Schoonover, Dollars over Dominion, 43.

53. John T. Pickett to Martin J. Crawford, Veracruz, February 2, 1862; Pickett to Jefferson Davis, Veracruz, February 22, 1862, John T. Pickett Papers, LoC.

54. Schurz to Seward, Madrid, November 16, 1861, Spain, RG 59; Sara Yorke Stevenson, Maximilian in Mexico: A Woman’s Reminiscences of the French Intervention, 1862–1867 (New York: Century, 1899), 28n2.

55. “Proclamation of the Allied Commissioners to the People of Mexico, Vera Cruz, January 10, 1862,” House Divided, n.d., http://hd.housedivided.dickinson.edu/node/38607; Dawson, The Mexican Adventure, 158–182, 235–243; Hanna and Hanna, Napoleon III and Mexico, 42–44.

56. Hanna and Hanna, Napoleon III and Mexico, 45–46, 69; Dawson, The Mexican Adventure, 244–245.

57. Dawson, The Mexican Adventure, 244–246.

58. Stevenson, Maximilian in Mexico, 68; Hamnett, Juárez, 171.

59. Hanna and Hanna, Napoleon III and Mexico, 77–81, 89, quoting Napoleon III to Forey, July 3, 1862, February 14, 1863.

60. Ibid., 78–80; Ridley, Maximilian and Juárez, 78, 134; Pani, “Dreaming of a Mexican Empire”; Michel Chevalier, L’expédition du Mexique (Paris: E. Dentu, 1862); Chevalier and Rasetti, La France, le Mexique et les États Confédérés; Chevalier, France, Mexico, and the Confederate States.

61. Hanna and Hanna, Napoleon III and Mexico, 87–92.

62. Dawson, The Mexican Adventure, 118–119.

63. Robert Ryal Miller, “Arms Across the Border: United States Aid to Juárez During the French Intervention in Mexico,” Transactions of the American Philosophical Society 63, no. 6 (1973): 1–68; Robert Ryal Miller, “Matías Romero: Mexican Minister to the United States During the Juarez-Maximilian Era,” Hispanic American Historical Review 45, no. 2 (1965): 236; Correspondencia de la Legacion Mexicana en Washington durante la intervencion extranjera, 1860–1868, edited by Matías Romero, 10 vols. (Mexico: Imprenta del Gobierno, 1870).

64. Miller, “Matías Romero,” 232–233.

65. Matías Romero, A Mexican View of America in the 1860s: A Foreign Diplomat Describes the Civil War and Reconstruction, edited by Thomas David Schoonover (Teaneck, NJ: Fairleigh Dickinson University Press, 1991); Schoonover, Dollars over Dominion; Thomas D. Schoonover, Mexican Lobby: Matías Romero in Washington, 1861–67 (Lexington: University Press of Kentucky, 1986); Matías Romero, Proceedings of a Meeting of Citizens of New York, to Express Sympathy and Respect for the Mexican Republican Exiles (New York: J. A. Gray and Green, 1865), 7–8, speech by Leavitt; Robert E. May, ed., The Union, the Confederacy, and the Atlantic Rim, rev. ed. (Gainesville: University Press of Florida, 2013).

66. Egon Caesar Corti, Maximilian and Charlotte of Mexico, translated by Catherine Alison Phillips (New York: Alfred A. Knopf, 1928), 435; Dawson, The Mexican Adventure, 318, 343–344; Ridley, Maximilian and Juárez, 156–157.

67. Ridley, Maximilian and Juárez, 47–48, 1–5.

68. John Lothrop Motley, The Correspondence of John Lothrop Motley (New York: Harper and Brothers, 1889), 2:143.

69. William Edward Johnston, Memoirs of “Malakoff,” edited by R. M. Johnston (London: Hutchinson, 1907), 2:437.

70. Ridley, Maximilian and Juárez, 165–166.

CHAPTER 6: FOREIGN TRANSLATIONS

1. Marsh to Seward, Turin, September 3, 1861, Italy, RG 59; Marsh to Seward, Turin, July 6, 1861, FRUS, 1861, 322–323 (emphasis added).

2. Agénor Gasparin, Un grand peuple qui se relève (Paris: Michel Levy, 1861); Agénor Gasparin, The Uprising of a Great People, translated by Mary L. Booth (New York: C. Scribner, 1861); Malakoff, “The American Crisis in France,” NYT, May 15, 1861; Serge Gavronsky, The French Liberal Opposition and the American Civil War (New York: Humanities Press, 1968), iv, 59–60.

3. Gavronsky, French Liberal Opposition, 59, 60, 254; Théodore Borel, The Count Agénor de Gasparin (New York: A. D. F. Randolph, 1879); “The Distinguished Strangers,” NYT, September 14, 1861; Monadnock, “Renewed Rumors of Intervention,” NYT, June 6, 1862; “Louis Napoleon’s Designs and Dangers,” NYT, December 7, 1862.

4. Gasparin, Uprising of a Great People, ix–x.

5. Ibid., 10, 11, 259.

6. Édouard Laboulaye, Why the North Cannot Accept of Separation (New York: C. B. Richardson, 1863), 3, from introduction by M. L. A.

7. Harriet P. Spofford, “Mary Louise Booth,” in Our Famous Women (Hartford, CT: A. D. Worthington, 1883), 117–133; Madeline B. Stern, “Mary Louise Booth,” in Notable American Women, edited by Edward T. James, Janet Wilson James, and Paul Boyer (Cambridge, MA: Belknap Press, 1971), 1:207–208.

8. Mary L. Booth, History of the City of New York (New York: W. R. C. Clark, 1859).

9. Spofford, “Mary Louise Booth”; Stern, “Mary Louise Booth.”

10. Malakoff, “The American Crisis in France”; “A Remarkable French Book,” NYT, May 27, 1861; “Mary Louise Booth,” Student 11, no. 1 (1890): 341–343; Stern, “Mary Louise Booth.”

11. Spofford, “Mary Louise Booth,” 27; “The Uprising of a Great People: The United States in 1861; From the French of Count Agénor de Gasparin, by Mary L. Booth,” North American Review 93, no. 193 (1861): 583–585.

12. Agénor de Gasparin, The Uprising of a Great People: The United States in 1861, Abridged (London: S. Low, 1861); Agénor Gasparin, A Word of Peace on the American Question (London: S. Low, 1862); Jay Monaghan, Diplomat in Carpet Slippers: Abraham Lincoln Deals with Foreign Affairs (Indianapolis: Bobbs-Merrill, 1962), 92–93; Agénor Gasparin, Een Groot Volk Dat Zich Verheft: De Vereenigde Staten in 1861 (Utrecht: L. E. Bosch en Zoon, 1861); “A Word from Count Gasparin,” NYT, December 29, 1861.

13. Agénor de Gasparin, L’Amérique devant l’Europe (Paris: M. Lévy Frères, 1862); Agénor Gasparin, America Before Europe: Principles and Interests, translated by Mary L. Booth (New York: C. Scribner, 1862).

14. Lincoln to Booth, August 1, 1862, CWAL, 5:352.

15. Gasparin, America Before Europe, 302, 345.

16. John Bigelow, Some Recollections of the Late Edouard Laboulaye (New York: G. P. Putnam Sons, 1889), 1–2.

17. Édouard Laboulaye, “La guerre civile aux États-Unis,” Journal des Débats (October 2, 1861): second part in October 3 issue; Bigelow, Some Recollections of Laboulaye, 1–4; Walter Dennis Gray, Interpreting American Democracy in France: The Career of Édouard Laboulaye, 1811–1883 (Newark: University of Delaware Press, 1994), 77–78; Tim Verhoeven, “Shadow and Light: Louis-Xavier Eyma (1816–76) and French Opinion of the United States During the Second Empire,” International History Review 35, no. 1 (2013): 143–161.

18. Malakoff, “A French Writer on the American Crisis,” NYT, October 27, 1861.

19. Ibid.; Édouard Laboulaye, The United States and France (Boston: Boston Daily Advertiser, 1862).

20. Bigelow, Some Recollections of Laboulaye, 1–4; Gray, Interpreting American Democracy, 77–84.

21. Bigelow, Diary, October 5, 1861, August 30, 1862, box 103, Bigelow Family Papers, NYPL; Bigelow, Some Recollections of Laboulaye, 3–4; John Bigelow, Retrospections of an Active Life, 1817–1863 (New York: Baker and Taylor, 1909), 532–533; David Hackett Fischer, Liberty and Freedom (New York: Oxford University Press, 2005), 368; Édouard Laboulaye, Les États-Unis et la France (Paris: E. Dentu, 1862).

22. Gray, Interpreting American Democracy; Philip G. Nord, The Republican Moment: Struggles for Democracy in Nineteenth-Century France (Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 1998), 34; George McCoy Blackburn, French Newspaper Opinion on the American Civil War (Westport, CT: Greenwood, 1997), 12, 14, 65.

23. Bigelow, Some Recollections of Laboulaye; Blackburn, French Newspaper Opinion, 16–17, 105; Gray, Interpreting American Democracy, 76.

24. Gray, Interpreting American Democracy, 29–30.

25. Bigelow, Some Recollections of Laboulaye, 4.

26. Ibid., 5.

27. Ibid., 4–7; Laboulaye, United States and France; Gray, Interpreting American Democracy, 79, quoting Sumner to Laboulaye, November 14, 1863.

28. Édouard Laboulaye, Paris en Amérique (Paris: Charpentier, 1863); Édouard Laboulaye, Paris in America, translated by Mary L. Booth (New York: Charles Scribner, 1863); Gray, Interpreting American Democracy, 65–67.

29. Among Laboulaye’s other writings on behalf of the Union were Pourquoi le Nord ne peut accepter la séparation (New York: Messager Franco-Américain, 1863); Upon Whom Rests the Guilt of the War?; Separation: War Without End (New York: W. C. Bryant, 1863); Why the North Cannot Accept of Separation; Separation: War Without End (New York: W. C. Bryant, 1864); and The Election of the President of the United States (Washington, DC: Union Congressional Committee, 1864).

30. James Spence, The American Union: Its Effect on National Character and Policy, with an Inquiry into Secession as a Constitutional Right, and the Causes of the Disruption (London: R. Bentley, 1861), xi; Donaldson Jordan and Edwin J. Pratt, Europe and the American Civil War (Boston: Houghton Mifflin, 1931), 75; Brian Jenkins, Britain and the War for the Union (Montreal: McGill-Queen’s University Press, 1974), 2:35–37. For other details on Spence, see Mason to Benjamin, London, May 2, 1862; and Spence to Mason, Liverpool, April 28, 1862, ORN, ser. 2, 3:401–405.

31. Mason to Benjamin, London, February 7, 1862, ORN, ser. 2, 3:331.

32. Spence, American Union, 39–41, 57–58, 103, 110, 317; Frank Lawrence Owsley, King Cotton Diplomacy: Foreign Relations of the Confederate States of America, 2nd ed. (1931; reprint, Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1959), 172–173.

33. Spence, American Union, 122–123.

34. Hotze to Hunter, London, February 28, March 18, 1862, ORN, ser. 2, 3:353–354, 362–363.

35. Mason to Benjamin, London, May 2, 1862, ORN, ser. 2, 3:401–402.

36. James Spence, L’union Américaine: Ses effets sur le caractère national et la politique causes de la dissolution et étude du droit constitutionnel de séparation (Paris: Michel Lévy Frères, 1862); James Spence, Die Amerikanische Union, translated by August P. Wetter (Barmen: W. Langewiesche, 1863); James Spence, The American Union: Its Effect on National Character and Policy, with an Inquiry into Secession as a Constitutional Right, and the Causes of the Disruption (Richmond: West and Johnston, 1863); Hotze to Hunter, London, February 28, March 18, 1862; Hotze to Benjamin, London, April 25, May 2, 1862, ORN, ser. 2, 3:353–354, 362, 400–402.

37. Spence, American Union, 131–132, 158–165.

38. George Macaulay Trevelyan, The Life of John Bright (Boston: Houghton Mifflin, 1913), 1–3.

39. Ibid., 2–3, 302, 303; Keith Robbins, John Bright (London: Routledge, 1979), 197.

40. John Bright, Speeches of John Bright, M.P., on the American Question (Boston: Little, Brown, 1865), 1–7.

41. Trevelyan, Life of John Bright, 301–302.

42. John Bright, A Liberal Voice from England: Mr. John Bright’s Speech at Rochdale, December 4, 1861, on the American Crisis (New York: G. P. Putnam, 1862), 1.

43. Bright, Speeches of John Bright, 10–11; Trevelyan, Life of John Bright, 1.

44. Bright, Speeches of John Bright, 8–67, quotes on 14, 17.

45. Ibid., 66–67.

46. Trevelyan, Life of John Bright, 313; Bright, Liberal Voice.

47. Trevelyan, Life of John Bright, 313, 304.

48. Ibid., 314–315.

49. Burton Jesse Hendrick, Lincoln’s War Cabinet (Boston: Little, Brown, 1946), 206–208; Michael Burlingame, Abraham Lincoln: A Life (Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press, 2008), 2:226, 250.

50. Ephraim Douglass Adams, Great Britain and the American Civil War (1924; reprint, New York: Russell and Russell, 1958), 2:1–32, esp. 6–7; Eugenio F. Biagini, Liberty, Retrenchment and Reform: Popular Liberalism in the Age of Gladstone, 1860–1880 (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2004), 69–78, esp. 70, 73n259; Jenkins, Britain and the War for the Union, 2:163–164; R. J. M. Blackett, Divided Hearts: Britain and the American Civil War (Baton Rouge: Louisiana State University Press, 2001).

51. Trevelyan, Life of John Bright, 297.

52. August H. Nimtz, Marx, Tocqueville, and Race in America: The “Absolute Democracy” or “Defiled Republic” (Lanham, MD: Lexington Books, 2003), 64, 84n57; Robert Chadwell Williams, Horace Greeley: Champion of American Freedom (New York: New York University Press, 2006), 133–137; Encyclopedia of the American Civil War: A Political, Social, and Military History, edited by David Stephen Heidler and Jeanne T. Heidler (New York: W. W. Norton, 2002), s.v. “New York Tribune.”

53. Williams, Horace Greeley, 135.

54. Francis Wheen, Karl Marx: A Life (New York: W. W. Norton, 2001); Kevin Peraino, Lincoln in the World: The Making of a Statesman and the Dawn of American Power (New York: Crown, 2013), 170–223.

55. Asa Briggs, Marx in London: An Illustrated Guide (London: BBC, 1982), 37–58; Williams, Horace Greeley, 133–136; Marx to Engels, London, May 13, 1865, Marxists Internet Archive, http://www.marxists.org/archive/marx/works/1865/letters/65_05_13.htm.

56. Karl Marx and Frederick Engels, The Civil War in the United States (New York: International, 1969); Wheen, Karl Marx: A Life, 84–85, 186–187, 218–219, 223–224, 224–227.

57. Marx and Engels, Civil War; Gerald Runkle, “Karl Marx and the American Civil War,” Comparative Studies in Society and History 6 (January 1964): 117–141; Wheen, Karl Marx: A Life, 223–224; Karl Obermann, Joseph Weydemeyer: Pioneer of American Socialism (New York: International, 1947); Karl Marx, Karl Marx and Frederick Engels: Letters to Americans, 1848–1895, a Selection (New York: International, 1953), 3–5, 304.

58. Karl Marx, “The North American Civil War,” Die Presse, no. 293 (1861), Marxists Internet Archive, http://www.marxists.org/archive/marx/works/1861/10/25.htm; Barrington Moore, Social Origins of Dictatorship and Democracy: Lord and Peasant in the Making of the Modern World (Boston: Beacon Press, 1966), 111–158; Nimtz, Marx, Tocqueville, and Race, 95–96.

59. Marx and Engels, Civil War, 23–24.

60. Ibid., 25.

61. Ibid., 45, 51.

62. Ibid., 43–44.

63. Ibid., 40, 47–54.

64. Ibid., 49, 48.

65. Ibid., 57–220.

66. “Address of the International Working Men’s Association to Abraham Lincoln, President of the United States of America, Presented to U.S. Ambassador Charles Francis Adams, January 28, 1865, Marxists Internet Archive, http://www.marxists.org/archive/marx/iwma/documents/1864/lincoln-letter.htm.

67. Maria Diedrich, Love Across Color Lines: Ottilie Assing and Frederick Douglass (New York: Hill and Wang, 1999), chaps. 2–3; Ottilie Assing, Radical Passion: Ottilie Assing’s Reports from America and Letters to Frederick Douglass, edited by Christoph K. Lohmann (New York: Peter Lang, 1999), xiv–xvi.

68. Frederick Douglass, Sclaverei und Freiheit autobiographie, translated by Ottilie Assing (Hamburg: Hoffmann und Campe, 1860); Diedrich, Love Across Color Lines, 237.

69. Diedrich, Love Across Color Lines, 234–237.

70. Ibid., 237.

71. Assing, Radical Passion, 215.

72. Diedrich, Love Across Color Lines, 237, 254–256, 371–375, 377–379.

CHAPTER 7: FOREIGN LEGIONS

1. Dillon to Seward, Turin, June 10, 1861, FRUS, 1861, 319–320; George C. D. Nanglo to Sanford, Turin, August 23, 1861, box 94, folder 18, SP.

2. Campbell J. Gibson and Emily Lennon, “Historical Census Statistics on the Foreign-Born Population of the United States: 1850 to 1990,” 1999, table 13, “Nativity of the Population, for Regions, Divisions, and States: 1850 to 1990,” http://www.census.gov/population/www/documentation/twps0029/twps0029.html.

3. “China at Gettysburg,” NYT, July 12, 1863; “A Chinaman from Rebeldom,” NYT, March 12, 1864; Benjamin Apthorp Gould, Investigations in the Military and Anthropological Statistics of American Soldiers (New York: Hurd and Houghton, 1869), 27–28, 574; Daniel Scott Smith, “Who Fought for the Union Army?” (presented at the annual meeting of the American Historical Association, Chicago, 2000). Thanks to David Hacker for sending me a copy of Smith’s paper, following the author’s untimely death, and for taking time to help me understand his methods and findings.

4. Martin Öfele, True Sons of the Republic: European Immigrants in the Union Army (Westport, CT: Praeger, 2008), 55; George Brinton McClellan, The Armies of Europe (Philadelphia: J. B. Lippincott, 1861).

5. Gould, Investigations in the Military and Anthropological Statistics, 15–16, 28–29.

6. Ibid., 4.

7. “Civil War Treasures from the New York Historical Society (American Memory, Library of Congress),” http://memory.loc.gov/ammem/ndlpcoop/nhihtml/cwnyhsarcpp.html#pos.

8. Maurizio Viroli, For Love of Country: An Essay on Patriotism and Nationalism (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1995); “Adopted Citizens and the War,” NYT, August 12, 1861.

9. James Epstein, Radical Expression: Political Language, Ritual, and Symbol in England, 1790–1850 (New York: Oxford University Press, 1994), 70–99.

10. Philip G. Nord, The Republican Moment: Struggles for Democracy in Nineteenth-Century France (Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 1998), 202; Lloyd S. Kramer, Nationalism in Europe and America: Politics, Cultures, and Identities Since 1775 (Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press, 2011), 8, 27–28, 46, 99.

11. David Hackett Fischer, Liberty and Freedom (New York: Oxford University Press, 2005), 298–300; Ellen L. Berg, “Hail, Columbia!,” NYT, July 2, 2011, sec. “The Opinionator: Disunion,” http://opinionator.blogs.nytimes.com/2011/07/02/hail-columbia/; Jeannene M. Przyblyski, “Between Seeing and Believing . . . ,” in Making the News: Modernity and the Mass Press in Nineteenth-Century France, edited by Dean De la Motte (Amherst: University of Massachusetts Press, 1999), 323–324.

12. Fischer, Liberty and Freedom, 298–300, 368–374; Guy Gugliotta, Freedom’s Cap: The United States Capitol and the Coming of the Civil War (New York: Hill and Wang, 2012).

13. Peter Welsh, Irish Green and Union Blue: The Civil War Letters of Peter Welsh, Color Sergeant, 28th Regiment, Massachusetts Volunteers (New York: Fordham University Press, 1986), 100–103 (all spelling and punctuation as in original).

14. Walter D. Kamphoefner and Wolfgang Johannes Helbich, eds., Germans in the Civil War: The Letters They Wrote Home (Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press, 2006), 122, 124, 128 (punctuation modified).

15. Ibid., 267–268.

16. Ibid., 317, 350.

17. Elizabeth Cady Stanton et al., History of Woman Suffrage (New York: Fowler and Wells, 1881), 2:59.

18. J. David Hacker, “A Census-Based Count of the Civil War Dead,” Civil War History 57, no. 4 (2011): 307–348.

19. William Osborn Stoddard, Inside the White House in War Times (New York: C. L. Webster, 1890), 278–279; E. B. Long and Barbara Long, The Civil War Day by Day: An Almanac, 1861–1865 (Garden City, NY: Doubleday, 1971), 705, summarizing and citing earlier estimates; Aaron Sheehan-Dean, “‘Awful Arithmetic’: Regular and Irregular Violence in the U.S. Civil War,” unpublished paper.

20. Encyclopedia of the American Civil War: A Political, Social, and Military History, edited by David Stephen Heidler and Jeanne T. Heidler (New York: W. W. Norton, 2002), s.v. “Conscription, C.S.A.”

21. Gould, Investigations in the Military and Anthropological Statistics, chap. 2.

22. Long and Long, Civil War Day by Day, 704.

23. Gould, Investigations in the Military and Anthropological Statistics, 24.

24. Seth C. Chandler, “Benjamin Apthorp Gould,” Proceedings of the American Academy of Arts and Sciences 32, no. 17 (1897): 355–360; George C. Comstock, “Biographical Memoir Benjamin Apthorp Gould,” National Academy of Science 7 (1922); Andrew McFarland Davis, Benjamin Apthorp Gould (Worcester, MA: American Antiquarian Society, 1897).

25. Times (London), June 19, 1862, quoted in dispatch from A. Dudley Mann to Charles Rogier, Brussels, May 29, 1862, ORN, ser. 2, 3:430–431.

26. Slidell to Benjamin, Paris, July 25, 1862, ORN, ser. 2, 3:481–483; Dean B. Mahin, The Blessed Place of Freedom: Europeans in Civil War America (Washington, DC: Brassey’s, 2002), 10.

27. Gould, Investigations in the Military and Anthropological Statistics, 15–16, 28–29; Susannah Ural Bruce, The Harp and the Eagle: Irish-American Volunteers and the Union Army, 1861–1865 (New York: New York University Press, 2006), 146–147.

28. Wilhelm Kaufmann, Die Deutschen im amerikanischen bürgerkriege (Munich: R. Oldenbourg, 1911); Wilhelm Kaufmann, The Germans in the American Civil War: With a Biographical Directory, edited by Don Heinrich Tolzmann, translated by Steven W. Rowan (Carlisle, PA: John Kallmann, 1999), 70–76.

29. Gould, Investigations in the Military and Anthropological Statistics, 24, 25, 27, 574. Ella Lonn, Foreigners in the Union Army and Navy (New York: Greenwood Press, 1969), 582, revises Gould’s estimate of foreign enlistees to 518,000; Smith, “Who Fought?,” raises it to 543,000. All three confirm that immigrants enlisted at higher rates than native-born Americans.

30. “Ay—down to the dust with them, slaves as they are, / From this hour, let the blood in their dastardly veins, / That shrunk at the first touch of Liberty’s war, / Be wasted for tyrants, or stagnate in chains,” from Thomas Moore, The Poetical Works of Thomas Moore (London: Longman, Orme, 1841), 392; Catherine C. Catalfamo, “The Thorny Rose: The Americanization of an Urban, Immigrant, Working Class Regiment in the Civil War; A Social History of the Garibaldi Guard, 1861–1864” (PhD diss., University of Texas, Austin, 1990), viii.

31. George E. Waring, “The Garibaldi Guard,” in Liber Scriptorum: The First Book of the Authors Club (New York: Authors Club, 1893), 570–571; Frank W. Alduino and David J. Coles, Sons of Garibaldi in Blue and Gray: Italians in the American Civil War (Youngstown, NY: Cambria Press, 2007), 55–56; Michael Bacarella, Lincoln’s Foreign Legion: The 39th New York Infantry, the Garibaldi Guard (Shippensburg, PA: White Mane, 1996), 31.

32. Bacarella, Lincoln’s Foreign Legion, 35, quoting George E. Waring.

33. Mann to Benjamin, Brussels, July 5, 1862, ORN, ser. 2, 3:453–455; James Shields to Brigadier-General Carroll, Columbia Bridge, VA, June 7, 1862, OR, ser. 1, 12:352–353.

34. Smith, “Who Fought?”; Gould, Investigations in the Military and Anthropological Statistics, 27, 574; Kaufmann, Germans in the American Civil War, 70–76; James M. McPherson, Battle Cry of Freedom: The Civil War Era (New York: Oxford University Press, 1988), 606–607; Long and Long, Civil War Day by Day, 704, 705, 708. Joseph C. G. Kennedy, Population of the United States in 1860 (Washington, DC: GPO, 1864), xvii, estimates the military population in 1860.

35. Ute Frevert, A Nation in Barracks: Modern Germany, Military Conscription and Civil Society (Oxford: Berg, 2004), chap. 2; Karen Hagemann, “Revisiting Prussia’s Wars Against Napoleon: War, Political Culture and Memory,” private correspondence with the author on her work in progress, March 8, 2012; Mary Lou Salomon, “Salomon Family Genealogy,” 2005, author’s personal library.

36. Ray Allen Billington, The Protestant Crusade, 1800–1860: A Study of the Origins of American Nativism (1938; reprint, Chicago: Quadrangle Books, 1964); Dale T. Knobel, Paddy and the Republic: Ethnicity and Nationality in Antebellum America (Middletown, CT: Wesleyan University Press, 1986); Bruce, Harp and Eagle, 10–12.

37. Christian G. Samito, Becoming American Under Fire: Irish Americans, African Americans, and the Politics of Citizenship During the Civil War Era (Ithaca, NY: Cornell University Press, 2009); Bruce, Harp and Eagle.

38. Michael Cavanagh, Memoirs of Gen. Thomas Francis Meagher (Worcester, MA: Messenger, 1892), 368–369.

39. Paul R. Wylie, The Irish General: Thomas Francis Meagher (Norman: University of Oklahoma Press, 2007); Thomas S. Lonergan, “General Thomas Francis Meagher,” Journal of the American-Irish Historical Society 12 (1913): 111–128; John M. Hearne and Rory T. Cornish, eds., Thomas Francis Meagher: The Making of an Irish American (Dublin: Irish Academic Press, 2006); Bruce, Harp and Eagle, 55–58.

40. Bruce, Harp and Eagle, 1, 3, 63.

41. Gould, Investigations in the Military and Anthropological Statistics, 27, 574.

42. US Bureau of the Census, Historical Statistics of the United States, Colonial Times to 1970 (Washington, DC: Bureau of the Census, 1975), 106; Gould, Investigations in the Military and Anthropological Statistics, 8; Mahin, Blessed Place of Freedom, 51–58.

43. Wright to Seward, Berlin, May 26, 1861; Dayton to Seward, Paris, May 22, 1861, FRUS, 1861, 39–40, 319–320; Lonn, Foreigners in the Union Army and Navy, 409, quoting Bornstein to Seward, September 12, 1862, Hamburg, Bremen, RG 59.

44. Stephen C. Neff, Justice in Blue and Gray: A Legal History of the Civil War (Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 2010), 169–170; Ephraim Douglass Adams, Great Britain and the American Civil War (1924; reprint, New York: Russell and Russell, 1958), 1:94–95, 2:200–201.

45. Paul W. Gates, Free Homesteads for All Americans: The Homestead Act of 1862 (Washington, DC: Civil War Centennial Commission, 1963).

46. Seward, Circular 19, August 8, 1862, FRUS, 1862, 172.

47. John Bigelow, Retrospections of an Active Life, 1817–1863 (New York: Baker and Taylor, 1909), 563.

48. John Taylor, William Henry Seward: Lincoln’s Right Hand (New York: HarperCollins, 1991), 201; Bigelow to Seward, Paris, September 19, 1862, Paris, RG 59; Bigelow, Retrospections of an Active Life, 1817–1863, 562, quoting Seward to Bigelow, October 27, 1862.

49. Malakoff, “American Matters in France,” NYT, August 23, 1862; Dayton to Seward, Paris, September 9, 1862, FRUS, 1862, 387.

50. John Bigelow, Les États-Unis d’Amerique en 1863 (Paris: Hachette, 1863); Bigelow, Gli Stati Uniti d’America nel 1863 (Milan: Corona e Caimi, 1863); John Bigelow, Diary, April 1, 1863, box 103, Bigelow Family Papers, NYPL; Bigelow to Seward, Paris, November 21, 1862, Paris, RG 59.

51. Gould, Investigations in the Military and Anthropological Statistics, 2, 4, 28; Historical Statistics of the United States: Millennial Edition (New York: Cambridge University Press, 2006), online edition, table Ad1–2.

52. Charles P. Cullop, Confederate Propaganda in Europe, 1861–1865 (Coral Gables, FL: University of Miami Press, 1969), 100–116; Adams, Great Britain, 200–202; Frank Lawrence Owsley, King Cotton Diplomacy: Foreign Relations of the Confederate States of America, 2nd ed. (1931; reprint, Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1959), 495–499.

53. Lincoln, Annual Message to Congress, December 6, 1864, CWAL, 8:141. What we may call the “Barbier Affair,” after the principal litigant, was detailed in multiple documents: FRUS, 1865, 173–194.

54. Ibid., 192.

55. Ibid., 174–175.

56. Adams, Great Britain, 2:200–201; Bigelow, Retrospections of an Active Life, 1817–1863, 562–564.