THE SNAKES

SCOLECOPHIDIA
The basal modern snakes

The Scolecophidia (Scolec = worm; -ophidia = snakes) are known as wormsnakes, blindsnakes, and threadsnakes. There are over 450 species, in five families: 12.3 percent of all living snakes. They are small and slender, with highly glossed, tight-fitting scales, yet a few achieve almost 3 ft 3 in (1 m). Fossorial in habit, blindsnakes are not actually blind. Their pigmented eyespots, under translucent scales, register sunlight and warn them to burrow if exposed. Scolecophidians are highly adapted subterranean snakes.

The Anomalepididae (dawn or early blindsnakes) are South American, 18 species in four genera, the most basal of all living snakes. They possess teeth on both the maxillary and dentary bones.

The largest family, the Typhlopidae (blindsnakes), with over 270 species, inhabits the tropics and subtropics. They only bear teeth on the maxillary bones. Two families were recently removed from the Typhlopidae: the Gerrhopilidae (plaid-headed blindsnakes), 21 species from India to New Guinea with subdermal glands on the head scales, and the Xenotyphlopidae, a monotypic family from Madagascar.

The Leptotyphlopidae (threadsnakes or slender blindsnakes) contain over 140 species from the Americas, Africa, and Asia. They differ from typhlopids in only possessing teeth on the dentary bone.

LIOTYPHLOPS BEUI
BEU’S DAWN BLINDSNAKE

(AMARAL, 1924)

ADULT LENGTH
4–15 in (106–381 mm)

The dawn blindsnakes, or early blindsnakes, comprise four genera and 18 species of neotropical blindsnakes. As the sister taxa to all other scolecophidian snakes, they represent the earliest divergence within extant snakes. Beu’s Dawn Blindsnake inhabits southern Brazil, southeastern Paraguay, and northeastern Argentina, an area with considerable anomalepidid diversity. Originally a forest species, it is very common in highly urbanized São Paulo city. Fossorial in habit, it feeds almost exclusively on the larvae and pupae of small ants, especially aggressive fire ants, also occasionally eating termites, but never ant eggs. This species is named for Afrânio do Amaral’s colleague T. Beu, who collected the holotype, which was destroyed, along with many other irreplaceable specimens, in the Instituto Butantan fire, on May 15th, 2010.

RELATED SPECIES

The closest relatives of Liotyphlops beui are probably Ternetz’s Dawn Blindsnake (L. ternetzii) and the São Paulo Dawn Blindsnake (L. schubarti). All three species are found in southern Brazil, with Ternetz’s Dawn Blindsnake also occurring in Paraguay and Argentina. At one time L. beui was included in the synonymy of L. ternetzii. Two other Liotyphlops species occur in southern Brazil, one in northeastern Brazil, and four in Colombia and neighboring countries.

FAMILY	Anomalepididae
RISK FACTOR	Nonvenomous
DISTRIBUTION	South America: southern Brazil, southeast Paraguay, and northeastern Argentina
ELEVATION	510–3,000 ft (155–915 m) asl
HABITAT	Secondary Atlantic coastal forest, but also urbanized cities
DIET	Ant larvae and pupae (but not ant eggs), and occasionally termites
REPRODUCTION	Oviparous, with clutches of 2–24 eggs
CONSERVATION STATUS	IUCN Least Concern

Beu’s Dawn Blindsnake is a smooth-scaled, glossy black, gray, or brown snake with a distinctive pale pink to yellow head and dorsal neck, and a pale patch over the cloaca. This patterning is common to many species of Liotyphlops. Species determination requires close examination of the head scalation. Liotyphlops species possess an enlarged rostral scale that extends dorsally to the level of the eyes.

TYPHLOPHIS SQUAMOSUS
SMALL-SCALED DAWN BLINDSNAKE

(SCHLEGEL, 1839)

ADULT LENGTH
6–8 in, occasionally 9 in (150–200 mm, occasionally 225 mm)

The Small-scaled Dawn Blindsnake is a common species in the Atlantic coastal rainforest of northeastern South America. It inhabits loose soil, ant or termite mounds, the rotten trunks of dead palms to 3 ft 3 in (1 m) above the ground, and even termite-infested man-made wooden pallets. It may also be found moving on the surface after heavy rain. It feeds on termite and ant larvae and eggs, but the Brazilian herpetologist Afrânio do Amaral claimed it also takes worm-lizards (amphisbaenians), legless lizards, and earthworms. When handled it will squirm vigorously, jabbing repeatedly with the terminal spine of its tail in an attempt to gain a purchase to escape. It can also retract its tail slightly, like an earthworm.

RELATED SPECIES

The genus Typhlophis is monotypic, but T. squamosus could be confused with the widely distributed White-nosed Dawn Blindsnake (Liotyphlops albirostris), Beu’s Dawn Blindsnake (L. beui) from São Paulo, or the Reticulate Blindsnake (Amerotyphlops reticulatus) from Amazonia. However, the head of this species is covered in numerous small, undifferentiated scales, hence squamosus, in contrast to the heads of other blindsnakes.

FAMILY	Anomalepididae
RISK FACTOR	Nonvenomous
DISTRIBUTION	Northeastern South America: eastern Venezuela, Guyana, Suriname, French Guiana, and northern Brazil
ELEVATION	0–2,130 ft (0–650 m) asl
HABITAT	Lowland rainforest
DIET	Ant and termite larvae and eggs, amphisbaenians (worm-lizards), legless lizards, and earthworms
REPRODUCTION	Oviparous, with clutches of 2–6 eggs
CONSERVATION STATUS	IUCN not listed

The Small-scaled Dawn Blindsnake is a shiny, smooth-scaled snake, with a black to dark brown dorsum, a uniform white venter, and a distinctive white or pink head. Some specimens have white spots on the short, curved tail.

MITOPHIS LEPTIPILEPTUS
HAITIAN BORDER THREADSNAKE

(THOMAS, MCDIARMID & THOMPSON, 1985)

ADULT LENGTH
7–8 in (180–205 mm)

All threadsnakes are slender, but this species from the southeastern Haitian border with the Dominican Republic is slender and elongate even by threadsnake standards, as evidenced by its name “leptipileptus,” which translates as “thin on thin.” Little is known of its natural history, although some specimens were collected from piles of stream-worn pebbles, under shady mango trees, and under rocks in a shaded ravine, all in an area dominated by limestone hills and a mosaic of cultivation and scrubland. An unusual feature of this species is the lack of any pelvic vestiges, whereas most other threadsnakes do possess the remnants of small pelvic bones. Nothing is known of its diet, although it is assumed to be similar to other threadsnakes and to feed on termite or ant eggs and larvae.

RELATED SPECIES

The genus Mitophis contains only four species, all from Hispaniola. Thomas’ Threadsnake (M. pyrites) occurs in the south of Haiti and the Dominican Republic, whereas the other two species are from the Dominican Republic. The Sooty Threadsnake (M. asbolepis) occurs on the Sierra Martín García in the south, whereas the Samana Threadsnake (M. calypso) is from the Samana Peninsula in the north. All three species can be distinguished from the extra slender M. leptepileptus by the presence of four rather than three supralabial scales, while M. pyrites is also more stoutly built than the other species.

FAMILY	Leptotyphlopidae: Epictinae
RISK FACTOR	Nonvenomous
DISTRIBUTION	Caribbean: Hispaniola (Haiti)
ELEVATION	1,200 ft (365 m) asl
HABITAT	Limestone hills, under pebbles or shade trees
DIET	Presumed termite and/or ant larvae and eggs
REPRODUCTION	Oviparous, clutch size unknown
CONSERVATION STATUS	IUCN not listed

The Haitian Border Threadsnake is a uniform silvery gray, although the head and neck may be a much paler gray color, and darker blotches may be present on the bodies of some specimens. There is also iridescence to the scales, a common feature among glossy-scaled leptotyphlopids.

RENA DULCIS
TEXAS THREADSNAKE

BAIRD & GIRARD, 1853

ADULT LENGTH
5–113/4 in, rarely 15 in (130–300 mm, rarely 380 mm)

The Texas Threadsnake inhabits prairie grassland, oak–juniper woodland, and desert edges with yucca, cacti, or thornbush from Texas to Hidalgo and Veracruz. It lives under rocks or logs that retain moisture and occurs in towns and cities where soils contain sand or loam. It is only seen on the surface on cool, wet nights. It has been found in the nests of the Eastern screech owl, possibly having passed through the owl’s gut unharmed. Prey consists of ants, termites, grasshopper nymphs, spiders, and solifuges. Specimens writhing in ant nests are not being stung but covering themselves in a pheromone to stop the ants attacking them. Males also follow female pheromonal trails and often form “mating balls” comprising several males and one female.

RELATED SPECIES

The leptotyphlopid genus Rena contains nine species throughout southwestern USA and Mexico, northern South America, and northern Argentina. The species closest to R. dulcis are probably the other two North American species: the New Mexico Threadsnake (R. dissectus), a former subspecies of R. dulcis, and the Western Threadsnake (R. humilis). Rena dulcis and R. dissectus possess supraocular scales but these are absent in R. humilis. Rena dulcis has a distinct, large anterior supralabial scale, while this is divided into two smaller scales in R. dissectus, hence its name.

FAMILY	Leptotyphlopidae: Epictinae
RISK FACTOR	Nonvenomous
DISTRIBUTION	North America: USA and Mexico
ELEVATION	33–6,890 ft (10–2,100 m) asl
HABITAT	Arid grassland and semidesert, or oak–juniper woodland
DIET	Termites and ants, and other soft-bodied invertebrates
REPRODUCTION	Oviparous, with clutches of 1–8 eggs
CONSERVATION STATUS	IUCN Least Concern

The Texas Threadsnake is an unremarkable uniform red-brown throughout, without additional markings. Its scales are small and close-fitting and its eyes are reduced to pigmented areas under large, translucent head scales.

RHINOLEPTUS KONIAGUI
KONIAGUI THREADSNAKE

(VILLIERS, 1956)

ADULT LENGTH
91/2–18 in (240–460 mm)

The Koniagui Threadsnake is one of the largest threadsnakes known. Its size was probably why it was originally included in the Typhlopidae, the family containing the generally larger, stouter blindsnakes. It is a very common species within its West African range, which encompasses the arid Sudanese climatic zone (the Koniagui are an ethnic Senegalese people). It is often uncovered during plowing or digging, and is found on the surface on rainy nights. The generic name Rhinoleptus means “slender-nosed” and is a reference to the narrow, pointed tip to the snout of this threadsnake. This species preys on small, soft-bodied invertebrates, such as ant or termite larvae and eggs.

RELATED SPECIES

Although Rhinoleptus is generally considered a monotypic genus, some authors include a second species, Parker’s Threadsnake (R. parkeri) from the Ogaden of Ethiopia. Other authors include this species in the genus Myriopholis.

FAMILY	Leptotyphlopidae: Epictinae
RISK FACTOR	Nonvenomous
DISTRIBUTION	West Africa: Senegal, The Gambia, southern Mali, Guinea-Bissau, and northern Guinea
ELEVATION	82–1,480 ft (25–450 m) asl
HABITAT	Paddy fields, gardens, streams, and ponds
DIET	Ant and termite larvae and eggs
REPRODUCTION	Oviparous, with clutches of 5–15 eggs
CONSERVATION STATUS	IUCN Least Concern

The Koniagui Threadsnake is a shiny, smooth-scaled snake, entirely brown in color with yellow-orange iridescent hues. It has a sharply pointed snout, which protrudes well beyond its undercut lower jaw.

SIAGONODON SEPTEMSTRIATUS
SEVEN-STRIPED THREADSNAKE

(SCHNEIDER, 1801)

ADULT LENGTH
8–93/4 in (200–250 mm)

The Seven-striped Threadsnake occurs from southern Venezuela to Guyana, Suriname, and French Guiana, and through the northern Brazilian states of Pará, Amazonas, and Roraima. It is a forest-floor-dwelling species, closely associated with termite mounds, inside which it both feeds on termite larvae and eggs, and lays its eggs. It also inhabits the rootstock of Astrocaryum palms. Although this species occurs in sympatry with several other threadsnakes, it is the only one within its range to be boldly striped. In common with many fossorial threadsnakes, it leads a secretive, nocturnal lifestyle, and is only encountered on the surface after heavy rain.

RELATED SPECIES

Siagonodon septemstriatus is closely related to three other threadsnake species: Ole Borch’s Threadsnake (S. borrichianus) from northwestern Argentina; the Termite Threadsnake (S. cupinensis) from Suriname and the states of Amapa and Mato Grosso in Brazil; and the recently described Sharp-nosed Threadsnake (S. acutirostris) from Tocantins, Brazil.

FAMILY	Leptotyphlopidae: Epictinae
RISK FACTOR	Nonvenomous
DISTRIBUTION	Northern South America: southern Venezuela, the Guianas, and northern Brazil
ELEVATION	330–820 ft (100–250 m) asl
HABITAT	Rainforest soil and termite mounds
DIET	Termite larvae and eggs
REPRODUCTION	Oviparous, clutch size unknown
CONSERVATION STATUS	IUCN not listed

The Seven-striped Threadsnake is yellow-brown above and paler yellow below, the markings consisting of seven dark brown longitudinal stripes along the body.

TETRACHEILOSTOMA CARLAE
BARBADOS THREADSNAKE

(HEDGES, 2008)

ADULT LENGTH
4–41/8 in (101–104 mm)

The Barbados Threadsnake is the world’s smallest snake species. It is known from only three specimens collected in 1889, 1963, and 2006, and was not formally described until 2008, when it was named for the describer’s wife. Threadsnakes feed on the larvae, pupae, and eggs of ants and termites, and given that Barbados was once forested it can be assumed this is a fossorial forest-dwelling species. Barbados is one of the ten most densely populated countries in the world and most of the original forest has been cleared. Even secondary forest is limited to small plots, and the arrival of the parthenogenetic, colonizing Brahminy Blindsnake (Indotyphlops braminus) could threaten the survival of the tiny Barbados Threadsnake.

RELATED SPECIES

The smallest snake was once thought to be the Martinique Threadsnake (Tetracheilostoma bilineatum). The St. Lucia Threadsnake (T. breuili) is another diminutive species, described in the same paper as T. carlae.

FAMILY	Leptotyphlopidae: Epictinae
RISK FACTOR	Nonvenomous
DISTRIBUTION	Lesser Antilles: Barbados
ELEVATION	330–920 ft (100–280 m) asl
HABITAT	Forest soil
DIET	Termites and ants; larvae, pupae, and eggs
REPRODUCTION	Oviparous, clutch size unknown
CONSERVATION STATUS	IUCN not listed

The Barbados Threadsnake is dark brown to black with a pair of pale yellow-gray dorsolateral stripes, between which is a vertebral area of red-brown, while the undersides are grayish brown. There are whitish spots on the head and around the cloaca. The eyes are reduced to pigmented areas beneath large, translucent ocular scales.

LEPTOTYPHLOPS INCOGNITUS
INCOGNITO THREADSNAKE

BROADLEY & WATSON, 1976

ADULT LENGTH
6–71/2 in (150–193 mm)

The Incognito Threadsnake occurs from southern Zambia to Swaziland and northeastern South Africa at low to medium elevations. Like other threadsnakes it is usually found sheltering under rocks or rotten logs, or inside termitaria, in savanna grassland habitats, although it may be forced onto the surface after rain at night. It feeds on small soft-bodied invertebrates, especially termites, and their larvae and eggs. Females may produce clutches of three eggs, which are extremely elongate, being five times as long as wide and often linked together like a string of small, pale sausages. These small snakes have many enemies, from ophiophagous snakes to meerkats and other small carnivorous mammals, birds, and scorpions. The epithet incognitus is a reference to how this widely distributed species remained unrecognized for so long.

RELATED SPECIES

One of 23 species remaining in the genus Leptotyphlops, following its revision and splitting into numerous genera, L. incognitus is a member of the southeastern African L. scutifrons species complex. This complex also includes Peters’ Threadsnake (L. scutifrons), the Eastern Cape Threadsnake (L. conjunctus), the Pungwe Threadsnake (L. pungwensis), the Black-tipped Threadsnake (L. nigroterminus), and the Forest Threadsnake (L. sylvicolus).

FAMILY	Leptotyphlopidae: Leptotyphlopinae
RISK FACTOR	Nonvenomous
DISTRIBUTION	Southeastern Africa: southern Zambia, southern Malawi, eastern Zimbabwe, Mozambique, northeastern South Africa, and Swaziland
ELEVATION	655–5,250 ft (200–1,600 m) asl
HABITAT	Mesic savanna grasslands and termitaria
DIET	Termites
REPRODUCTION	Oviparous, with clutches of 3 eggs
CONSERVATION STATUS	IUCN Least Concern

The Incognito Threadsnake is a slender black snake with smooth scales that present a very highly polished appearance. Its eyes are reduced to pigment patches, visible under translucent head scales.

MYRIOPHOLIS MACRORHYNCHA
HOOK-NOSED THREADSNAKE

(JAN, 1860)

ADULT LENGTH
87/8–9 in (225–229 mm)

This is one of the most widely distributed threadsnake species, although it is now thought that its true distribution may be limited to Africa, with Asian populations representing related, but currently undescribed, species. A typical leptotyphlopid, the Hook-nosed Threadsnake inhabits the soft soil of agricultural fields, but it is also found in arid deciduous woodland habitats, and it is thought to occur at higher elevations in grassland on volcanic soils in East Africa. In the Arabian Peninsula it is known to feed on ants and their larvae, but its diet in other parts of its range are undocumented, although termites and soft-bodied insect larvae are likely prey.

RELATED SPECIES

The genus Myriopholis contains 21 species, but this number will increase should the situation with the M. macrorhyncha species complex be resolved. In the Arabian Peninsula it may be confused with the equally translucent Nurse’s Threadsnake (Leptotyphlops nursii), named for a Lieutenant Colonel Nurse, an amateur entomologist in the Indian Army, rather than the profession. The most recently described species, in 2007, was Ionides’ Threadsnake (M. ionidesi), named in honor of the famous Anglo-Greek snake man C. J. P. Ionides, who made Tanzania his home and collected the holotype.

FAMILY	Leptotyphlopidae: Leptotyphlopinae
RISK FACTOR	Nonvenomous
DISTRIBUTION	North Africa and western Asia: Egypt, Sudan, Somalia, and Kenya; Saudi Arabia, UAE, Yemen, Iran, Afghanistan, and Pakistan
ELEVATION	0–2,950 ft (0–900 m) asl
HABITAT	Soft, loose soil of agricultural fields, deciduous woodland, and thickets
DIET	Ants and their larvae, and possibly termites and other soft-bodied invertebrates
REPRODUCTION	Oviparous, clutch size unknown
CONSERVATION STATUS	IUCN not listed

The Hook-nosed Threadsnake appears in two forms. African specimens are uniform brown while many Asian specimens are translucent pink, so lacking in external pigment that their internal organs are visible. This is an extremely slender species with an elongate head that terminates in a downturned hook-nose.

NAMIBIANA LABIALIS
DAMARA THREADSNAKE

(STERNFELD, 1908)

ADULT LENGTH
63/4–113/4 in (170–300 mm)

The Damara Threadsnake is named for the Damara people who inhabit an area once known as Damaraland in northern Namibia, although the Damara Threadsnake also occurs farther south into the Namib Desert, and north into Angola. It is adapted to live in an extremely arid, sandy, or rocky region where the only moisture available may be from sea fogs that move inland from the coast. As with many of the localized threadsnakes of Africa, the precise natural history of this species is relatively undocumented, but it is assumed to feed on soft-bodied invertebrates and lay eggs like other members of the Leptotyphlopidae.

RELATED SPECIES

Namibiana labialis is one of five species of southwest African threadsnakes in the genus Namibiana (formerly included in Leptotyphlops), the others being Bocage’s Threadsnake (N. rostrata) from western Angola, the Benguela Threadsnake (N. latifrons) from coastal southwest Angola, and both the Western Threadsnake (N. occidentalis) and Slender Threadsnake (N. gracilior) from Namibia and South Africa.

FAMILY	Leptotyphlopidae: Leptotyphlopinae
RISK FACTOR	Nonvenomous
DISTRIBUTION	Southwest Africa: Angola and Namibia
ELEVATION	785–7,280 ft (240–2,220 m) asl
HABITAT	Namib Desert, Damaraland scrub and karoo semidesert
DIET	Not known, but presumed to be soft-bodied invertebrates, e.g. termites
REPRODUCTION	Presumed oviparous, clutch size unknown
CONSERVATION STATUS	IUCN not listed

The Damara Threadsnake is a two-tone threadsnake, being gray-brown above, each scale edged with paler pigment, and paler also on the undersides. Its scales are smooth and shiny, and its eyes are minuscule areas of pigment under translucent head scales.

GERRHOPILUS PERSEPHONE
NORMANBY ISLAND BEAKED BLINDSNAKE

KRAUS, 2017

ADULT LENGTH
10 in (255 mm)

The Normanby Island Beaked Blindsnake is endemic to Normanby Island, in the d’Entercasteaux Archipelago in Milne Bay Province, southeast Papua New Guinea. Described in 2017, it is only known from a single specimen, which was collected climbing the lower trunk of a tree in primary lowland rainforest. The trees in this habitat are often home to the nests of arboreal termites and it is possible the snake was searching for such a nest. The reproductive strategy of this species is unknown but suspected to be oviparity, the normal process for scolecophidians. As a group the gerrhopilid blindsnakes are known as “plaid-headed blindsnakes” as their head scales exhibit a wickerwork appearance due to the presence of papillae-like sebaceous glands on every scale.

RELATED SPECIES

The genus Gerrhopilus contains 20 currently recognized species distributed across a wide geographical area: India (three), Sri Lanka (three), Andaman Islands (one), Thailand (one), Philippines (one), Java (one), Moluccas and West New Guinea (one), and Papua New Guinea (nine). The only other member of the Gerrhopilidae is the monotypic Cathetorhinus melanocephalus, which is thought to have originated from Mauritius. Other species from Milne Bay include the Panaeate Island Blindsnake (G. addisoni), Trobriand Island Blindsnake (G. eurydice), Rossel Island Blindsnake (G. hades), and the Plain Montane Blindsnake (G. inornatus) from the mainland.

FAMILY	Gerrhopilidae
RISK FACTOR	Nonvenomous
DISTRIBUTION	Papua New Guinea: Milne Bay, Normanby Island
ELEVATION	2,035 ft (620 m) asl
HABITAT	Primary lowland rainforest
DIET	Presumed to comprise soft-bodied invertebrates, such as termites
REPRODUCTION	Presumed oviparous, clutch size unknown
CONSERVATION STATUS	IUCN not listed

The Normanby Island Beaked Blindsnake is a slender snake, which is pale blue throughout, except for the head and neck, which is pinkish. It is unusual for a blindsnake to be anything other than dark brown, gray, or black. The head is rounded, with a downward sloping beak, distinct pale-gray eyes, and scales bearing numerous subcutaneous sebaceous glands.

AFROTYPHLOPS SCHLEGELII
SCHLEGEL’S GIANT BLINDSNAKE

(BIANCONI, 1847)

ADULT LENGTH
233/4–351/2 in (600–900 mm)

Schlegel’s Giant Blindsnake, also known as Schlegel’s Beaked Blindsnake, is probably the largest African blindsnake. The nominate subspecies (Afrotyphlops s. schlegelii) occurs in northeastern South Africa and southern Mozambique, while Peter’s Giant Blindsnake (A. s. petersii) is found in Botswana, northern Namibia, and southern Angola. These large blindsnakes possess beaks that enable them to burrow into termitaria or compacted soil. The giant blindsnakes live much deeper underground than their smaller relatives, and they are only seen on the surface at night after a prolonged period of heavy rain. They feed on termites and their larvae and store fat reserves in the posterior half of the body. Large females may lay up to 60 eggs.

RELATED SPECIES

The genus Afrotyphlops contains 26 African species. The Zambesi Blindsnake (A. mucruso) was once a subspecies of A. schlegelii. The Somali Giant Blindsnake (A. brevis) and the Angolan Giant Blindsnake (A. anomalus) are also related species. Some authors place these four largest species in the genus Megatyphlops.

FAMILY	Typhlopidae: Afrotyphlopinae
RISK FACTOR	Nonvenomous
DISTRIBUTION	Sub-Saharan Africa: northeastern South Africa, Mozambique, Botswana, Namibia, and southern Angola
ELEVATION	0–3,850 ft (0–1,175 m) asl
HABITAT	Savanna, grassland, and coastal forest
DIET	Termites and their larvae
REPRODUCTION	Oviparous, with clutches of 8–60 eggs
CONSERVATION STATUS	IUCN not listed

Schlegel’s Giant Blindsnake is a large snake with clearly visible, smooth scales that in some pale specimens appear almost as a mosaic pattern. The dorsum is usually yellow or yellow-brown with darker speckling or blotches, while the venter is uniform pale yellow. The head bears a downward-projecting beak and the tail has a terminal spine used to force the snake forward when burrowing. Large specimens may be 1 in (25 mm) wide.

GRYPOTYPHLOPS ACUTUS
INDIAN BEAKED BLINDSNAKE

(DUMÉRIL & BIBRON, 1844)

ADULT LENGTH
113/4–233/4 in (300–600 mm)

Sometimes also called the Beaked Wormsnake, this is the largest Asian blindsnake known. The Beaked Blindsnake is endemic to peninsular India, where it is found from the Ganges Valley in the north, through the dry Deccan Plateau and the wet Western Ghats, to the southern tip of India, although it is far rarer in the south than in the north. Its natural history and biology are poorly known. It is believed to feed on soft-bodied invertebrates such as termites and their larvae, and also earthworms, but although it is presumed to be oviparous, like other blindsnakes, its clutch size is unknown. The Grypo in the generic name means hooked, while acutus means sharply.

RELATED SPECIES

Grypotyphlops acutus is the only member of the typhlopid subfamily Afrotyphlopinae known to occur in Asia. Its relationships are therefore unknown, but it is thought to represent a link back to the Gondwanan origins of both Africa and India.

FAMILY	Typhlopidae: Afrotyphlopinae
RISK FACTOR	Nonvenomous
DISTRIBUTION	South Asia: India
ELEVATION	0–985 ft (0–300 m) asl
HABITAT	Habitat preferences unknown, but range includes arid and wet habitats
DIET	Soft-bodied invertebrates and earthworms
REPRODUCTION	Oviparous, clutch size unknown
CONSERVATION STATUS	IUCN not listed

The Indian Beaked Blindsnake is a uniform shiny brown blindsnake, with a paler venter, a rounded head with a projecting beak, and distinct dark eyes.

RHINOTYPHLOPS LALANDEI
DELALANDE’S BEAKED BLINDSNAKE

(SCHLEGEL, 1839)

ADULT LENGTH
113/4–133/4 in (300–350 mm)

Delelande’s Beaked Blindsnake is widely distributed across southern Africa, from the Cape, north to Namaqualand, and northeast through Lesotho, Swaziland, Mpumalanga, and Limpopo, to eastern Botswana, western Mozambique, and Zimbabwe. It inhabits savanna, grasslands, semidesert, and coastal fynbos heathland, where it is most often discovered under rocks or logs during the day, or on the surface at night, after heavy rain. This species bears a distinct beak for excavating termite mounds, where it feeds on termites and their larvae, and lays up to eight eggs. Pierre Antoine Delalande (1787–1823) was a French naturalist based at the Muséum National d’Histoire Naturelle, Paris. He made collections in the Cape of South Africa.

RELATED SPECIES

The genus Rhinotyphlops contains seven species of small, beaked blindsnakes, three species in southern Africa, and four in East Africa. Some authors place the East African species in the genus Letheobia, a genus containing 18 other African blindsnakes. The other two southern African Rhinotyphlops are Boyle’s Beaked Blindsnake (R. boylei), and Schinz’s Beaked Blindsnake (R. schinzi), from Botswana, Namibia, and Namaqualand, South Africa.

FAMILY	Typhlopidae: Afrotyphlopinae
RISK FACTOR	Nonvenomous
DISTRIBUTION	Southern Africa: South Africa, Swaziland, Lesotho, Mozambique, Zimbabwe, and Botswana
ELEVATION	0–5,380 ft (0–1,640 m) asl
HABITAT	Savanna, grassland, semidesert, and coastal fynbos
DIET	Termites and their larvae
REPRODUCTION	Oviparous, with clutches of 2–8 eggs
CONSERVATION STATUS	IUCN not listed

Delalande’s Beaked Blindsnake is smooth and shiny. The dorsum of the body is pink-brown with every scale edged with paler pigment to present a checkerboard effect. The undersides and lower flanks are pink and the snout and tail tips are paler still. On the pale, rounded head the dark eyes are very visible, while the tail bears a terminal spine.

ACUTOTYPHLOPS INFRALABIALIS
RED SHARP-NOSED BLINDSNAKE

(WAITE, 1918)

ADULT LENGTH
93/4–141/2 in (250–366 mm)

The Red Sharp-nosed Blindsnake occurs on Bougainville, (Papua New Guinea), and in the Solomon Islands, on Malaita, Guadalcanal, New Georgia, and the Nggela Islands. A relatively stocky blindsnake, it inhabits rainforest leaf litter and loose subsoil, and preys primarily on earthworms, rather than the termite and ant larvae and pupae that constitute the diet of smaller, more slender blindsnakes. The sharp snout of this species serves as a burrowing aid, whether in pursuit of its earthworm prey, or escaping desiccation or predation. Female Red Sharp-nosed Blindsnakes lay eggs, but their clutch size is unknown. The related Kunua Sharp-nosed Blindsnake (A. kunuaensis) lays single or pairs of eggs, and it is probable that the Red Sharp-nosed Blindsnake produces similar-sized clutches.

RELATED SPECIES

The genus Acutotyphlops contains four other species of sharp-nosed blindsnakes. The Kunua Sharp-nosed Blindsnake and Bougainville Sharp-nosed Blindsnake (A. solomonis) are endemic to the island of Bougainville, while the Bismarck Sharp-nosed Blindsnake (A. subocularis) is endemic to the Bismarck Archipelago, on the islands of New Britain, New Ireland, Duke of York and Umboi. One species (A. banaorum) occurs on Luzon in the Philippines.

FAMILY	Typhlopidae: Asiatyphlopinae
RISK FACTOR	Nonvenomous
DISTRIBUTION	Melanesia: Solomon Islands and Bougainville (Papua New Guinea)
ELEVATION	50–805 ft (15–245 m) asl
HABITAT	Rainforests
DIET	Earthworms
REPRODUCTION	Oviparous, clutch size unknown
CONSERVATION STATUS	IUCN not listed

The Red Sharp-nosed Blindsnake has shiny, smooth scales, a moderately stout body and a sharply pointed head, which is used for burrowing. It is pinkish red dorsally and pale yellow ventrally, with every dorsal scale pale-edged to present a reticulate appearance. The head is pale like the venter and the eyes are visible as two small dark eyespots.

ARGYOPHIS DIARDI
DIARD’S BLINDSNAKE

(SCHLEGEL, 1839)

ADULT LENGTH
133/4–17 in (350–430 mm)

Diard’s Blindsnake is a common inhabitant of low to mid-montane forest, such as exists in the Himalayan Terai of southern Nepal. Fossorial, nocturnal, and only encountered on the surface after rain, it may be found during the day sheltering under rotten logs or large stones. Being stout-bodied with a broader head than many other blindsnakes, Diard’s Blindsnake can probably ingest larger prey than some of its smaller congeners, taking not only termites and ants, their larvae and pupae, but also earthworms and potentially other soft-bodied invertebrates. Pierre-Medard Diard (1794–1863) was a French explorer and naturalist who collected in Southeast Asia.

RELATED SPECIES

The genus Argyophis contains 12–13 South and Southeast Asian blindsnake species. Two subspecies of Diard’s Blindsnake are recognized: the nominate form (A. d. diardi) occurs through most of the range, while a second form (A. d. platyventris) is found in Pakistan. Müller’s Blindsnake (A. muelleri) from eastern Indonesia is a former subspecies of Diard’s Blindsnake. Some authors do not recognize Argyophis, preferring to retain these species within Typhlops.

FAMILY	Typhlopidae: Asiatyphlopinae
RISK FACTOR	Nonvenomous
DISTRIBUTION	South and Southeast Asia: Pakistan, northeastern India, Nepal, Bangladesh, Myanmar, Thailand, Laos, Vietnam, and China
ELEVATION	460–5,000 ft (140–1,525 m) asl
HABITAT	Low and mid-montane forests
DIET	Termites and ants and their larvae, and earthworms
REPRODUCTION	Oviparous, with clutches of 4–14 eggs
CONSERVATION STATUS	IUCN Least Concern

Diard’s Blindsnake is a moderately stout-bodied blindsnake with smooth, shiny mid-brown scales and a rounded snout. The eyes are just visible as small dark eyespots, and the tail terminates in a short spine.

CYCLOTYPHLOPS DEHARVENGI
DEHARVENG’S BLINDSNAKE

IN DEN BOSCH & INEICH, 1994

ADULT LENGTH
6 in (150 mm)

So far only recorded from southern Sulawesi and the island of Buton, Indonesia, Deharveng’s Blindsnake is a minuscule species characterized by a single round frontal scale on the dorsum of the head. It inhabits cool, moist meadows with sparse scrubby vegetation, and is probably nocturnal. One of the few specimens known was found under a basaltic rock. Nothing is known of the natural history and biology of this rare species, although given its small size it is presumed to feed on small soft-bodied invertebrates such as termite larvae. Since all other blindsnakes are oviparous it is presumed this species is also. It is named in honor of the collector of the holotype, Louis Deharveng, the research director of the French Centre National de la Recherche Scientifique.

RELATED SPECIES

Cyclotyphlops is a monotypic genus with no close relatives. The Australasian genus Anilios has been recognized as the closest genus to Cyclotyphlops.

FAMILY	Typhlopidae: Asiatyphlopinae
RISK FACTOR	Nonvenomous
DISTRIBUTION	Indonesia: southern Sulawesi and Buton
ELEVATION	1,640 ft (500 m) asl
HABITAT	Grassland with sparse scrub
DIET	Prey preferences unknown
REPRODUCTION	Reproductive strategy unknown, presumed oviparous
CONSERVATION STATUS	IUCN not listed

Deharveng’s Blindsnake is smooth-scaled, dark brown dorsally and laterally, and light brown ventrally, becoming yellowish on the anterior undersides. The head is light brown with dark spots on every scale. This species is unique in possessing a single round frontal scale on the dorsum of the head.

INDOTYPHLOPS BRAMINUS
BRAHMINY BLINDSNAKE

(DAUDIN, 1803)

ADULT LENGTH
6–7 in (150–180 mm)

The Brahminy Blindsnake originates from India, but today it is the most widely distributed snake in the world, albeit by introduction. This is the only obligate parthenogenetic snake species; only female specimens are known. A small snake that hides in the root balls of pot plants, the Brahminy Blindsnake is easily transported internationally with exotic plants or agricultural crops such as oil-palm seedlings, earning it the alternative name of Flowerpot Snake. Females produce up to six eggs containing viable clones; it is an excellent colonizer requiring only one specimen to initiate a new colony. It is also often found underneath oil drums or stones. Prey comprises termite or ant eggs and larvae, and possibly small earthworms or caterpillars.

RELATED SPECIES

The genus Indotyphlops contains 23 Asian blindsnake species. One species occurs in Hong Kong (I. lazelli), and another on Komodo and Flores, Indonesia (I. schmutzi), but the remainder, with the exception of I. braminus, are confined to India, Sri Lanka, Nepal, Myanmar, or Thailand. Some authors do not recognize Indotyphlops and retain these species in Ramphotyphlops. While the Brahminy Blindsnake is established worldwide, one related species, the Christmas Island Blindsnake (R. exocoeti), is in danger of extinction due to the aggression of introduced crazy ants (Paratrechina longicornis).

FAMILY	Typhlopidae: Asiatyphlopinae
RISK FACTOR	Nonvenomous
DISTRIBUTION	Worldwide: from India to all continents except Antarctica, and even remote islands
ELEVATION	0–6,560 ft (0–2,000 m) asl
HABITAT	Most habitats but especially gardens, nurseries, and coastal ports
DIET	Termite and ant larvae and eggs, and also possibly earthworms and caterpillars
REPRODUCTION	Oviparous, with clutches of 1–6 eggs
CONSERVATION STATUS	IUCN not listed

The Brahminy Blindsnake is a smooth, shiny black or dark brown snake with a rounded head and small eyes that are barely visible, and a short spine at the terminus of the tail.

SUNDATYPHLOPS POLYGRAMMICUS
LESSER SUNDA BLINDSNAKE

(SCHLEGEL, 1839)

ADULT LENGTH
93/4–161/2 in (250–420 mm)

The Lesser Sunda Blindsnake has been recorded from a number of islands in Indonesia’s southeasternmost archipelago. This species is associated with wet forest habitats, from wet montane forests to densely vegetated riverine valleys. A fossorial and nocturnal species, it is only seen on the surface during or after heavy rain, which forces it from its burrow and onto the surface. It may otherwise be found under rotten logs or large stones, but it is generally an inhabitant of montane country and is less common near the coast. Little is known about its biology and natural history, though it is thought to feed on soft-bodied invertebrates, and a clutch of nine eggs is on record.

RELATED SPECIES

Sundatyphlops is a monotypic genus that some authors still include in the Australo-Papuan genus Anilios, which contains 47 species. The Torres Blindsnake (A. torresianus) was once a subspecies of S. polygrammicus and the two genera are closely related. Sundatyphlops polygrammicus currently contains five island-specific subspecies from Timor (S. p. polygrammicus), Sumba (S. p. brongersmai), Lombok (S. p. elberti), Flores (S. p. florensis), and Komodo, Moyo, and Sumbawa (S. p. undecimlineatus). These subspecies may actually be valid species, or even species complexes in the case of the Timorese nominate form.

FAMILY	Typhlopidae: Asiatyphlopinae
RISK FACTOR	Nonvenomous
DISTRIBUTION	Indonesia: Lesser Sunda Islands—Lombok, Sumbawa, Komodo, Moyo, Flores, Sumba, and Timor
ELEVATION	0–3,940 ft (0–1,200 m) asl
HABITAT	Wet forest, riverine forest, and lushly vegetated mountainsides
DIET	Probably soft-bodied invertebrates
REPRODUCTION	Oviparous, with clutches of up to 9 eggs
CONSERVATION STATUS	IUCN not listed

The Lesser Sunda Blindsnake is smooth-scaled and shiny with a rounded head and a terminal tail spine. The dorsum may be uniform brown, gray, or almost black, or marked by a series of fine, longitudinal stripes, 11 brown stripes alternating with ten yellow stripes. The undersides are uniform white, yellow, or yellow-brown, although the throat may be dark.

XEROTYPHLOPS VERMICULARIS
EURASIAN BLINDSNAKE

(MERREM, 1820)

ADULT LENGTH
8–113/4 in, rarely 153/4 in (200–300 mm, rarely 400 mm)

Also known as the Vermiculate Blindsnake, the Eurasian or European Blindsnake is the most widely distributed Xerotyphlops. Its preferred habitat is sparsely vegetated hillsides and valleys on a loose, sandy soil substrate. It is fossorial, either using existing burrows or excavating its own, and is active at night or at dusk, but it may be found on the surface during the day after heavy rain. Specimens are most frequently encountered under stones or logs. The preferred prey of the Eurasian Blindsnake includes ants, their eggs, larvae, and pupae, other insect larvae, and small earthworms. Growth rates are slow, with adult specimens sloughing their skins only once a year.

RELATED SPECIES

The genus Xerotyphlops contains four other species with extremely limited distributions: Etheridge’s Blindsnake (X. etheridgei) from western Mauritania, the Socotra Blindsnake (X. socotranus) from Socotra Island, the Lorestan Blindsnake (X. luristanicus) from Iran, and Wilson’s Blindsnake (X. wilsoni) from southwestern Iran. Some authors do not recognize this genus and retain these species in Typhlops.

FAMILY	Typhlopidae: Asiatyphlopinae
RISK FACTOR	Nonvenomous
DISTRIBUTION	Eurasia: Greece, Albania, Serbia, Macedonia, Bulgaria, Turkey, Israel, Jordan, Lebanon, Syria, Egypt, Caucasus, Iran, and Afghanistan
ELEVATION	0–6,230 ft (0–1,900 m) asl
HABITAT	Sandy habitats with sparse vegetation
DIET	Ants, their eggs, larvae, and pupae, earthworms, and insect larvae
REPRODUCTION	Oviparous, with clutches of up to 9 eggs
CONSERVATION STATUS	IUCN not listed

The Eurasian Blindsnake is smooth-scaled and shiny. It is uniform light brown or pink in color, slightly darker dorsally than ventrally, and has a rounded head with a pale snout. The eyes are dark and clearly visible under the translucent scales of the head, and the tail bears a short terminal spine to aid locomotion.

MADATYPHLOPS ARENARIUS
MALAGASY SAND BLINDSNAKE

(GRANDIDIER, 1872)

ADULT LENGTH
83/4 in (220 mm)

The Malagasy Sand Blindsnake is primarily found in the southwest of Madagascar, although there is a single record from the northwest. It is an inhabitant of coastal sand dunes and thornbush savanna. Specimens may be discovered under stones, but one specimen was located climbing the bark of a tree at night. Arboreal habits are not uncommon in blindsnakes, several species having been recorded aloft where they feed on termites found in termitaria on the branches. Little is known about the natural history or biology of the Malagasy Sand Blindsnake, though it is assumed to feed on soft-bodied invertebrates such as termites and/or their larvae, and lay eggs like other typhlopids. The word arenarius means sand-dwelling.

RELATED SPECIES

Madatyphlops contains 13 species, eight from Madagascar, one from Mayotte in the Comoros Islands (M. comorensis), three from Somalia (M. calabresii, M. cuneirostris, and M. leucocephalus), and one from Tanzania (M. platyrhynchus). In southwestern Madagascar, M. arenarius occurs in sympatry with Boettger’s Sand Blindsnake (M. boettgeri).

FAMILY	Typhlopidae: Madatyphlopinae
RISK FACTOR	Nonvenomous
DISTRIBUTION	Madagascar: southwestern and western Madagascar
ELEVATION	0–3,230 ft (0–985 m) asl
HABITAT	Coastal sand dunes and thornbush savanna
DIET	Probably soft-bodied invertebrates
REPRODUCTION	Probably oviparous, clutch size unknown
CONSERVATION STATUS	IUCN Critically Endangered

The Malagasy Sand Blindsnake is smooth-scaled and glossy. The body and rounded head are uniform unpigmented pink, against which the dark eyes are clearly visible.

AMEROTYPHLOPS RETICULATUS
RETICULATE BLINDSNAKE

(LINNAEUS, 1758)

ADULT LENGTH
93/4–153/4 in (250–400 mm)

The largest blindsnake of the Amazonian and Guianan region, the Reticulate Blindsnake is often found in sympatry with threadsnakes of the family Leptotyphlopidae. The stout-bodied Reticulate Blindsnake is able to excavate its own burrow, rather than having to utilize those made by termites and other fossorial organisms. It is active nocturnally but is also encountered abroad in the early morning, and it is a common species. Habitats include both primary and secondary rainforest, with the Reticulate Blindsnake inhabiting leaf litter, decaying logs, termitaria, and ants’ nests. Prey includes ants and ant larvae, and probably also the larvae and adults of termites. Up to ten eggs are laid in aggressive leaf-cutter ant nests for protection from predators.

RELATED SPECIES

The genus Amerotyphlops contains 15 species of Central and South American blindsnakes, 13 mainland species, one species endemic to Trinidad (A. trinitatus), and another endemic to Grenada (A. tasymicris). Only two other species occur in the Amazon–Guiana region, Brongersma’s Blindsnake (A. brongersmianus) and the Amazon Basin Blindsnake (A. minuisquamus). The patterning of A. reticulatus distinguishes it from these two species.

FAMILY	Typhlopidae: Typhlopinae
RISK FACTOR	Nonvenomous
DISTRIBUTION	Amazonian South America: Colombia, Venezuela, the Guianas, northern Brazil, western Peru, and northern Bolivia
ELEVATION	0–2,460 ft (0–750 m) asl
HABITAT	Primary and secondary forest
DIET	Leaf-cutter ants and termites, and their larvae
REPRODUCTION	Oviparous, with clutches of up to 10 eggs
CONSERVATION STATUS	IUCN not listed

The Reticulate Blindsnake has smooth, shiny scales, a body as thick as a finger, and a very distinctive pattern. The dorsum of the body is light, mid-, or dark brown, while the venter is immaculate white or cream, the division between the two colors occurring in the midlateral region. The tip of the snout is also colored pale like the venter and a band of similar pale pigment encircles the tail anterior to its terminus.

CUBATYPHLOPS NOTORACHIUS
IMIAS BLINDSNAKE

THOMAS & HEDGES, 2007

ADULT LENGTH
11–113/4 in (282–301 mm)

The Imias Blindsnake occurs in extreme eastern Cuba, close to the town of Imias, in Guantánamo Province. The name notorachius means “southern shore,” a reflection of where this species occurs, at sea level on the southeastern corner of Cuba. No natural history data are available for this species, but in common with other typhlopid blindsnakes it may be expected to be nocturnal, fossorial but active on the surface after rain, to feed on soft-bodied invertebrates such as termites, and to lay a small number of soft-shelled eggs. The pale coloration and lack of pigmentation in this species suggests it is more an inhabitant of sandy soils than dark soils, and its coastal distribution would indicate this.

RELATED SPECIES

The genus Cubatyphlops contains 12 species of western Caribbean blindsnakes, mostly from Cuba but also from the Cayman Islands and Bahamas. Cubatyphlops notorachius belongs to the C. biminiensis species group, which also includes four other Guantánamo Province species, the Maisi Blindsnake (C. anchaurus), Cuban Pallid Blindsnake (C. anousius), Cuban Short-nosed Blindsnake (C. contorhinus), and Guantánamo Bay Blindsnake (C. perimychus). Two other American genera are found in the West Indies, the eastern Caribbean genus Antillotyphlops and the widespread genus Typhlops.

FAMILY	Typhlopidae: Typhlopinae
RISK FACTOR	Nonvenomous
DISTRIBUTION	West Indies: eastern Cuba (Guantánamo)
ELEVATION	Sea level
HABITAT	Coastal habitats
DIET	Probably soft-bodied invertebrates
REPRODUCTION	Probably oviparous, clutch size unknown
CONSERVATION STATUS	IUCN not listed

The Imias Blindsnake is smooth-scaled, and glossy light brown, being darker on the dorsum than on the venter. The dark eyes are clearly visible.

XENOTYPHLOPS GRANDIDIERI
GRANDIDIER’S MALAGASY BLINDSNAKE

(MOCQUARD, 1905)

ADULT LENGTH
91/2–101/4 in (240–263 mm)

Grandidier’s Malagasy Blindsnake can be recognized by its broad, flat rostral scale, giving a “bulldozer” appearance. The type locality is unknown but other specimens have been collected under stones on the Baie de Sakalava on the northern tip of Madagascar in forested and scrubby coastal sand-dune habitats. The natural history and biology of this species is almost unknown. It probably feeds on soft-bodied invertebrates like termites and/or their larvae, and it probably lays eggs. Its small range is being deforested in order to provide wood for the charcoal-burning industry, and it is also Critically Endangered by mining in the area. Alfred Grandidier (1836–1921) was a French ornithologist who worked in Madagascar and discovered the bones of the elephant bird.

RELATED SPECIES

The endemic Madagascan Xenotyphlopidae is a monotypic blindsnake family, distinct and separate from all other scolecophidian snakes, although it shares some characteristics with members of the threadsnake family Leptotyphlopidae, such as the Koniagui Threadsnake (Rhinoleptus koniagui). Some authors recognize a second species, Mocquard’s Malagasy Blindsnake (Xenotyphlops mocquardi), but others consider this species to be a synonym. Xenotyphlops grandidieri has no other close relatives.

FAMILY	Xenotyphlopidae
RISK FACTOR	Nonvenomous
DISTRIBUTION	Madagascar: northern Madagascar
ELEVATION	0–165 ft (0–50 m) asl
HABITAT	Forested and scrubby coastal sand dunes
DIET	Probably soft-bodied invertebrates
REPRODUCTION	Probably oviparous, clutch size unknown
CONSERVATION STATUS	IUCN Critically Endangered

Grandidier’s Malagasy Blindsnake is smooth-scaled and glossy. The body is dark pink anteriorly and pale pink posteriorly. The head is blunt, covered in small papillae, and terminates acutely in a large rostral scale with a small hook at the base. The eyespots are not visible on the head.

ALETHINOPHIDIA: AMEROPHIDIA
Out of America

The Alethinophidia (Alethin = real, true; -ophidia = snakes) are the True Snakes, a clade comprising snakes more advanced than the Scolecophidia (shown here). Some alethinophidian snakes are fossorial, with small mouths that limit their prey size but the majority of snakes are macrostomatan (big-mouthed) species with highly adapted jaws that permit them to swallow prey much wider than their own heads.

During the mid-Cretaceous, 116–97 MYA, the Alethinophidia diverged to form two clades—the Amerophidia and Afrophidia—as a result of the break-up of West Gondwana, the supercontinent comprising modern-day South America and Africa. Almost 99 percent of all living alethinophidian snakes belong to the Afrophidia (shown here).

The Amerophidia contains two families, three genera, and 35 species. The monotypic Aniliidae is a semi-fossorial, small-mouthed snake which exhibits ecological similarities to the Asian pipesnakes (Cylindrophiidae) of the Afrophidia, while the Tropidophiidae contains 34 species of macrostomatan woodsnakes or dwarf boas, which are convergent with similar-sized dwarf boas (Charinidae) in the Afrophidia. Amerophidian snakes are confined to Central and South America, and the West Indies. They are nonvenomous constrictors.

ANILIUS SCYTALE
SOUTH AMERICAN PIPESNAKE

(LINNAEUS, 1758)

ADULT LENGTH
233/4–351/2 in, rarely 3 ft 3 in (600–900 mm, rarely 1.0 m)

The South American Pipesnake is a common inhabitant of primary and secondary rainforest leaf litter and cultivated habitats throughout the Amazonian countries and the Guianas. It is nocturnal or crepuscular, and semi-fossorial in habit. The South American Pipesnake preys on small snakes, from blindsnakes (Typhlops and Amerotyphlops) to groundsnakes (Atractus), as well as amphisbaenians (worm-lizards), swamp eels, and elongate fish. It may also take caecilians (legless amphibians) and elongate lizards. Constriction is used to restrain and subdue prey prior to swallowing. South American Pipesnakes are inoffensive and do not bite, even when handled. When disturbed they mirror the behavior of Asian pipesnakes (Cylindrophis) by burying their head in the coils and elevating and inverting the tail, either to deflect attention from the real head or to intimidate the enemy.

RELATED SPECIES

Two subspecies of Anilius scytale are recognized, the nominate form (A. s. scytale), distributed throughout most of Amazonia and the Guianas, and a second form (A. s. phelpsorum) from Bolivar and Amacuro states, Venezuela. This second form, which some authors raise to species level, can be distinguished from the nominate form by wider black than red bands and a higher ventral scale count. This pipesnake could be confused with highly venomous coralsnakes (Micrurus) and mildly venomous false coralsnakes (Erythrolamprus aesculapii).

FAMILY	Aniliidae
RISK FACTOR	Nonvenomous
DISTRIBUTION	South America: Brazil, Venezuela, Trinidad, Guyana, French Guiana, Suriname, Colombia, Bolivia, Ecuador, and Peru
ELEVATION	98–2,300 ft (30–700 m) asl
HABITAT	Tropical rainforest and cultivated habitats
DIET	Small snakes, amphisbaenians, and fish, including eels
REPRODUCTION	Viviparous, with litters of 7–15 neonates
CONSERVATION STATUS	IUCN not listed

The South American Pipesnake is a cylindrical-bodied snake with smooth scales, a short tail, a rounded head and small eyes. It has alternating red and black transverse bands, the red bands being wider than the black bands, and the first black band crossing the posterior head. The bands are never yellow or white like a coralsnake, although pale yellow replaces red on the underside, with black blotches that may coincide or alternate with the dorsal bands.

TRACHYBOA BOULENGERI
NORTHERN EYELASH BOA

PERACCA, 1910

ADULT LENGTH
153/4 in (400 mm)

The Northern Eyelash Boa is a strange snake, and rarely encountered in the field. It inhabits the Pacific lowland Chocó rainforests of Panama, Colombia, and Ecuador, where it adopts a secretive existence in the leaf litter, often close to water sources. The natural history and biology of these snakes is poorly known. They are known to be live-bearers, producing small litters, but their prey preferences are a mystery, captive specimens refusing all food offered except fish and the occasional small mouse. No records are available regarding their diet in the wild. These cryptozoic snakes exhibit an unusual defense—when handled, they freeze. This is neither defensive “balling” nor thanatosis (“playing dead”), but it may be a precursor to one or both of those defensive strategies.

RELATED SPECIES

A second species of Trachyboa is known, the Southern Eyelash Boa (T. gularis) from Pacific coastal Ecuador, although this second species does not possess “eyelashes.” The term “boa” is applied loosely with respect to these snakes because they are not closely related to the Boidae (shown here), instead only being related to the West Indian woodsnakes (Tropidophis) in the Tropidophiidae. At first glance T. boulengeri has the appearance of the African Rough-scaled Bushviper (Atheris hispida) or an Eyelash Palm-pitviper (Bothriechis schlegelii).

FAMILY	Tropidophiidae
RISK FACTOR	Nonvenomous
DISTRIBUTION	Central and South America: Pacific coastal Panama, Colombia, and Ecuador
ELEVATION	0–2,460 ft (0–750 m) asl
HABITAT	Lowland tropical rainforest
DIET	Prey preferences unknown
REPRODUCTION	Viviparous, with litters of 2–6 neonates
CONSERVATION STATUS	IUCN not listed

The Northern Eyelash Boa is a small snake with strongly keeled scales, a short tapering tail, and a bulbous head with small eyes, with vertically elliptical pupils, over which rise a series of small fleshy supraciliary (“eyelash”) scales. Further elevated scales are present on the snout. Coloration is brown with darker saddles, and a pale yellow or white tail.

TROPIDOPHIS HAETIANUS
HAITIAN WOODSNAKE

(COPE, 1879)

ADULT LENGTH
193/4–28 in (500–712 mm)

Although often called “dwarf boas,” the snakes of the genus Tropidophis are not closely related to the Boidae and should possibly be known by their alternative name of “woodsnakes.” Twenty-seven species occur in the West Indies, but the Haitian Woodsnake is the only species of Tropidophis to occur on Hispaniola, the island comprising Haiti and the Dominican Republic. It inhabits lowland rainforest, especially alongside creeks, but is also found in plantations where it hides inside piles of discarded coconut husks or other debris. At night it hunts and constricts small mammals, frogs, and lizards. It is both terrestrial and arboreal, being found sheltering inside epiphytic bromeliads on palms and other trees. Woodsnakes are completely harmless, there being no dangerous snakes in Haiti or the Dominican Republic.

RELATED SPECIES

Three subspecies of Tropidophis haetianus are recognized, the widespread nominate form (T. h. haetianus), an eastern Dominican subspecies (T. h. hemerus), and a Tiburon Peninsula subspecies (T. h. tiburonensis) in Haiti. A record from northeastern Cuba may be an introduction. Three related Jamaican species were once also subspecies: Southern Jamaican Woodsnake (T. jamaicensis), Northern Jamaican Woodsnake (T. stejnegeri), and the Portland Point Woodsnake (T. stullae).

FAMILY	Tropidophiidae
RISK FACTOR	Nonvenomous, constrictor
DISTRIBUTION	West Indies: Hispaniola (Haiti and Dominican Republic)
ELEVATION	0–2,690 ft (0–820 m) asl
HABITAT	Lowland rainforests, plantations, rocky areas, and creeks
DIET	Frogs, lizards, and small mammals
REPRODUCTION	Viviparous, with litters of 4–9 neonates
CONSERVATION STATUS	IUCN not listed

The Haitian Woodsnake is a small, moderately muscular snake with a laterally compressed body, and an angular head with small eyes and vertically elliptical pupils. The body may be pale gray to dark brown or tan, with patterning absent or consisting of two irregular parallel rows of dark brown dorsal blotches.

TROPIDOPHIS MELANURUS
CUBAN WOODSNAKE

(SCHLEGEL, 1837)

ADULT LENGTH
3 ft 6 in (1.06 m)

The most widely distributed of 17 Cuban Tropidophis, the Cuban Woodsnake is found in moist woodland, tropical rainforest, open habitats, rocky habitats, and even human-altered habitats throughout Cuba, and on the satellite Isla de la Juventud. It is also one of the largest species in the genus. Nocturnal, terrestrial, and arboreal, it is a predator of frogs, lizards, birds, and small mammals, which are killed by constriction. This snake demonstrates a number of defensive strategies if handled. It will “ball,” with its head in the center of its coils, it may exude a noxious white secretion from its cloacal glands, or it may autohemorrhage from its mouth and eyes. Otherwise, this snake is completely harmless, there being no dangerous venomous snakes on Cuba.

RELATED SPECIES

Thirty-two species of Tropidophis woodsnakes are recognized, of which three are Brazilian, two Ecuadorian–Peruvian, and the remainder West Indian. Of those 17 occur on Cuba, all but two endemic. Three subspecies of T. melanurus are recognized, the widespread nominate form (T. m. melanurus), a northern race (T. m. dysodes) from Pinar del Rio Province, and an island endemic from Isla de la Juventud (T. m. ericksoni). The Navassa Woodsnake (T. bucculentus) is a former subspecies and probably endangered due to the introduction of goats.

FAMILY	Tropidophiidae
RISK FACTOR	Nonvenomous constrictor
DISTRIBUTION	West Indies: Cuba
ELEVATION	33–2,620 ft (10–800 m) asl
HABITAT	Moist woodland, rainforest, gardens, pastures, and rocky outcrops
DIET	Frogs, lizards, birds, and small mammals
REPRODUCTION	Viviparous, with litters of 8–36 neonates
CONSERVATION STATUS	IUCN not listed

The Cuban Woodsnake is a slender, muscular snake with keeled or smooth scales, an angular head, and small eyes with vertically elliptical pupils. The dorsal color may be gray, brown, buff, orange, tan, or red, with a darker pattern of longitudinal stripes, transverse blotches, spots, or zigzags, which vary from subspecies to subspecies and locality to locality. The tail is black or white, and the undersides are buff with darker markings.