V

Vaccary. Farm with dairy cows or cattle. In the 13–14c, many of these were to be found in Yorkshire and Lancashire, on land not suitable for arable crops. [< L vacca = a cow]

Vadia guerre. Lit. ‘war wages’. These were essentially accounts itemising the payroll of the army, listing all who had received money and how much. They were organised by retinue within the army, containing summaries of all personnel with information such as each man’s length of service. Pono ad vadia = to put on the payroll. These account *rolls can now be found in the Public Record Office and the British Library. [< vador = to accept sureties + guerre = war] – Cf. REGARD

Vadimonia. Broadly, a pledge or guarantee. When charters were given to towns by the king, they confirmed all previous grants, privileges and lands, freedom from taxes and other benefits. Vadimonia was included in such a charter, confirming all lands mortgaged to the town. [< L vadio = to give surety or security]

Vair 1. The fur of a squirrel; its grey and white was used as distinctive decoration. – Cf. MINIVER

Vair 2. Her. One of the chief *furs, with alternating azure and *argent bell shapes. – Cf. COUNTER-VAIR; ERMINE 1

Valance. Piece of material attached to an altar cloth and which hung downwards; also used around the bottom of a bed, to conceal the space beneath.

Valettus. A post of close attendance on the king, given to those young and well-born. It could include duties such as making the king’s bed, though this would not have been deemed demeaning. It was a post Geoffrey Chaucer filled for King Edward III. – Cf. COMMENSALIS

Vallate. Being encircled by a *rampart or wall. – Cf. BIVALLATE

Valor. Lit. ‘value’. In the 14c, particularly after the *Black Death, the lords of large honours began to have estimates drawn up of just how much ought to be produced yearly by a *manor. It was an annual means of checking that there was no theft or incompetence at work, diminishing the land’s productiveness and value, particularly if the manor was not the *caput honoris. – Cf. VIEW

Vambrace 1 [avawmbrace, vantbrace]. Piece of armour for the fore-arm, in tubular or part-tubular form, made either of metal or of cuir-bouilli. [< OFr. avant = before + bras = arm] – Cf. BRACER

Vambrace 2. Her. An arm sheathed in armour.

Vamplate. The circular plate – of leather or metal – attached to a *lance intended to protect the hand or deflect an opponent’s weapon.

Varlet. A lowly servant, a menial; a young boy acting as a groom; an attendant on a knight. Only in the 16c did the word acquire negative connotations. – Cf. next

Varlet des chiens. Hound or dog handler. This was the first position in which a boy interested in hunting might make a career for himself. He would handle the hounds for a senior aide. – Cf. previous; AIDE DE LA VENERIE; LYMER

Varvel. Metal ring attached to a hawk’s *jess, so connecting it to the leash.

Vasconicus. Latin form of Gascon; found in Rotuli Vasconie, the *rolls recording royal correspondence with Gascony.

Vassal. Person holding land of a lord to whom he owed loyalty and homage; the most onerous duty was military service, with various payments due to the lord on specified occasions such as the lord’s daughter’s marriage. [< L vassallus = a servant or retainer]

Vasta. Lit. ‘waste (land)’. References in *DB to vasta have been taken to refer to land laid waste by William I’s armies, e.g. in Sussex before the Battle of Hastings, and Yorkshire after the *harrying of the North. ‘Waste’, however, can also indicate land which did not produce an income (for example, because it was exempt) or for which no information was forthcoming.

Vauntmure [vaumure]. An outer wall, one set well in front of a main fortified wall. [< OFr. vaunt = forward + mure = wall] – Cf. VALLATE

Vavasour. A freeman holding land of a *baron, thus ranking below him. In a list in *LHP of the kinds of people who should attend a *county court – the shire moot, held twice a year – the vavasour is included alongside such men as the *reeve (*praepositus) and *steward (*praefectus), implying a distinct place for him in the medieval order – a middle ranker. [?< L vassus vassorum = vassal of vassals]

Vellum. Skin of a calf, treated so as to be suitable for writing on. Something like 120 animals were killed to provide sufficient skins to be turned into vellum for an illuminated *codex of the Bible. Skins of the 12c are often yellower than those of later dates as a weaker lime-water solution was used in the bleaching process. [< OFr. vel = a calf]

Venalis locus. Lit. ‘a place where things are for sale’. The Latin term used in some charters to indicate a market.

Venerable. Title conferred on archdeacons and clerics worthy of great respect, e.g. Bede; also conferred in the Roman Catholic Church on those who are past the first step towards canonisation. [< L venerari = to venerate]

Venire facias. Lit. ‘may you cause to come’. A writ issued to a *sheriff instructing him to summon a jury; writs issued to summon knights and burgesses to *parliament in 1275 were venire facias.

Ventail. See AVENTAIL

Venture. Adventure. ‘Venture’ was used in the 14c as a sophistical synonym for *‘tournament’, when these were banned by royal decree. The Latin word fortunium was used of ventures, as well as of good fortune.

Verderer [verder]. Officer of the crown who imposed *forest laws. – Cf. SWANIMOTE; VERT AND VENISON

Verdoy. Her. A border with flowers and leaves and fruit. [< OFr. verd, vert = green] – Cf. VERT

Verge. The verge was that area which stretched for 12 miles around wherever it was the itinerant royal household happened to be; because the household was always on the move, the boundaries of the verge were constantly moving. The marshal of the household was in charge of discipline of the royal staff; further, he had the right to try all crimes which occurred within this area. – Cf. next; CLERK OF THE MARKET; MARSHALSEA

Verge, court of the. The legal arm of the royal household, its jurisdiction defined by the *verge. Throughout the 14c there were serious problems created by the *steward exercising his authority in ways felt to be beyond his writ. He would, for instance, impose fines on towns when a single trader had breached the *assize. Another anomalous circumstance occurred when the royal household was in London. The city of London complained that criminals were crossing the river to Southwark, thus placing themselves beyond the city’s reach because the court and *marshalsea claimed jurisdiction there. – Cf. previous; CLERK OF THE MARKET

Vermeil. Vermillion. – Cf. next

Vermillion. The colour derived from *cinnabar.

Vernicle. A portrait of Christ’s head as it was said to have been imprinted on St Veronica’s handkerchief, which she used to wipe his face on his way to crucifixion. [vernicle = corruption of Veronica + -le acting as a dim.] – Cf. TAWDRY LACE

Vert [Her.; orig. verd]. The *tincture green. Use of the word is one sign of the persistence of spoken French in England. [< OFr. verd = green] – Cf. VERDOY

Vert and venison. The greenery and deer of the king’s forest. Special courts were established to protect the greenery on which the deer fed, thus, for example, excluding pigs even in the autumn from feeding on beech mast. From the time of the Norman kings, forests in England were fiercely protected to ensure the king’s hunting was unimpaired, and the forests stocked with plenty of venison on the hoof. – Cf. KING’S VERT; VERDERER

Vertant. Her. Adjective for a *charge which is curving or bent. [< L verto = to turn]

Vespers [evensong]. One of the day’s canonical hours of prayer, vespers is for the early evening. – Cf. HORARIUM

Vestiarius. Latin term for the keeper of the *king’s wardrobe. – Cf. next; HRÆGLTHEGN

Vestiary. A wardrobe for storing clothes, e.g. of the king or in a monastery. [< L vestiarium = a clothes’ chest or cupboard] – Cf. previous

Vexillatores. Latin word for the banner-bearers in *miracle plays. When such plays were put on in the streets, these banner-bearers would go ahead and banns were read announcing the subject of the scenes to follow. [< L vexillum = a standard]

Via Francigena. Lit. ‘the French way or road’. From the 10c the routes – of which there were many – taken by pilgrims from north-west Europe to Rome. – Cf. ROMIPETA

Viander. The man or officer who provided victuals or viands in a household.

Viator. See CURSORES

Vicar. A person who represents another, i.e. the rector in a parish being God’s representative; these duties were carried out for the *benefice or part thereof. [< L vicarius = substitute]

Vice [vis]. A spiral staircase. This word was also used of the screw mechanism of the early printing press. [< Fr. vis = a vine, thus like the twisting tendrils of the vine.]

Victum vel stipendum. Lit. ‘victuals and/or stipend’, i.e. wages. Latin term for payments made to soldiers of the *fyrd. It seems likely the victum element was paid in cash before the soldier went away, while the stipend, as wages, was paid on his return. These payments were made under the obligation of localities to support a set number of soldiers called to serve in the fyrd. – Cf. VADIA GUERRE

Vidimus. An authenticated, witnessed, copy of a document. [< L vidimus = we have seen]

Vielle. Stringed instrument played with a bow; but also a hurdy-gurdy, which required different skills.

View. Term used for the intermediate audit of a *manor or estate of a lord for one of many reasons. It might have been felt that money was not being properly accounted for, that there were problems with leases. Such a visit would have been at the instigation of a *receiver, delegated to his *steward and perhaps accompanied by an auditor. – Cf. VALOR

Vigilium. Latin term for a small group of the king’s bodyguards.

Vignette. Decorative design on the page of a book based upon vine leaves; any curvilinear design frequently found in illuminated MSS; later a small scene with one or two figures at the bottom of a page but without a border. [< OFr. vigne = vine] – Cf. CROCKET

Viking. Scandinavians who raided Britain and the continent from the 8c to the 11c. At much the same time, traders and raiders set out from Sweden and moved into modern Russia. In Russian chronicles, these 9c Swedish Vikings were referred to as Varangians. The first recorded Viking attack in England was on Lindisfarne in 793; their first on mainland England was in Lindsey in 841. ‘Viking’ always implies raiding, but many Norsemen were (also) traders and farmers. Countless settlements were made in the East Midlands of England by Danes, while Norwegians, navigating from so much further north, favoured the western isles of Scotland and Ireland. Vikings began settling in eastern England in 877, though armies had over-wintered many times, e.g. at Repton in 873–4. From this time the *Danelaw really emerges into English history. [OE wicing = pirate]

Vill. The smallest unit of administration; equivalent to today’s parish. There are some 13,000 vills named in *DB.

Villata. The body of villeins of a particular *manor. It was the villata which elected the *reeve. – Cf. HOMAGE 2

Villein. Peasant occupying land subject to a lord. He was effectively tied to the land and the *manor, and not permitted to leave without permission. [< L villa = a farm] – Cf. next; BONDUS

Villeinage. Tenure by which a villein held his land; it was known as ‘tenure by villeinage’ or ‘in villeinage’. The Latin form used was villanagium. – Cf. previous; BONDUS

Vintinary [vintiner]. A commander of 20 soldiers. [< L vintinarius] – Cf. CENTENER; DECURIA

Vintry. A district in the city of London where the vintners lived and stored their wine imports. [< AN vintner < L vinum = wine]

Virgate. Measure of land of approx. 20 to 30 acres; one quarter of a *hide; an English yardland. [< L virga = a (measuring) rod] – Cf. FARTHINGLAND; YARDLAND

Virole. Her. A ring which encircles a hunting horn or bugle.

Virtue. Medieval theology asserted there were three theological virtues: faith, hope and charity (I Corinthians); there were also four cardinal (Christian) virtues: justice, prudence, temperance, fortitude.

Viscount. Orig. an official (vicomte, vicecomes) representing a count or duke, esp. in 11c Normandy. In 12c England, vicecomes was used in Latin sources as the equivalent of *sheriff. In the later medieval hierarchy, a viscount was of noble birth ranking below an earl but above a *baron. [< L vice = in place of + count]

Visitation. A bishop’s visit to one of the religious houses within his jurisdiction. It was intended as an examination of how the order’s rules were or were not being observed and how well the monastery was functioning. Such tours of inspection were made every three years or so. Evidence and disclosures (dicta and detectiones) were taken: anything from ill-prepared food to ill-managed finances to the name of the abbot’s mistress – all were known as *detecta. [< AN visitacioun < L visitatio = a visit of inspection, a visitation] – Cf. COMPERTA

Visor 1. The front of a helmet of a suit of armour with openings to see through, later able to be raised. [< OFr. vis = a face] – Cf. AVENTAIL; MISERICORD 1; UMBREL

Visor 2. Her. A *charge whose placing indicated rank.

Vitri historiales. Lit. ‘storytelling windows’. Term used for the stained-glass windows depicting biblical figures or stories. They were very important in a world of illiterates in the telling of biblical stories but could be expensive, costing up to 2s each.

Vivum gagum. Lit. ‘living gage or pledge’. A form of loan which was repaid by e.g. handing over the proceeds of the crop from an estate. It differed from a mortgage, where both interest and principal must be repaid, because the vivum gagum required only the principal to be paid – interest being illegal – while property was held as surety only until the debt was repaid. This ensured that the land pledged would eventually be returned. The vivum could also discreetly conceal interest payments. A mortgage is a dead (Fr. mort = dead) pledge. [< L vivum = living + gagum = gage i.e. pledge] – Cf. GAGE; USURY

Voider. A piece of armour to protect parts of the body unprotected by the main pieces, e.g. knee and elbow. So named because a voider kept things away.

Voire. Lit. ‘in truth, indeed’. Answer made e.g. when doing homage to the French king. Thus in June 1329, Edward III said Voire = Truly, when doing homage for Aquitaine to King Philip of France.

Volant 1. An additional piece of armour used to protect the face.

Volant 2. Her. Flying, e.g. birds in flight with wings spread.

Vorant. Her. Term used when the *charge is a fish or dolphin swallowing a fish. Engoulant is a synonym. [< L voro = to devour] – Cf. ENGOULED

Vouching to warranty. Term for the process under which sellers of goods were required to provide assurances that their wares had been acquired honestly, thus protecting buyers against criminal charges should the goods prove to have been stolen. – Cf. TEAM

Voussoir. The wedge-shaped stones which form an arch. [Fr. voussure = a curve]

Vow. A promise made to God voluntarily; a solemn commitment to do or not do something, e.g. a vow of chastity taken after the death of wife or husband was not uncommon in the 13c and after. Monks took three vows: the vow to poverty was against the deceits of the world; that to chastity was against the lusts and disturbances of the flesh; that to obedience was against the tricks and snares of the devil. – Cf. INCONTINENCE

Vowess. A woman who took a vow of chastity. Usually, such women were widows; however sometimes such a vow was taken within a marriage. One part of the vow was thereafter to wear plain, modest clothes, long and black to conceal her shape, as well as hands and feet. (These resembled nuns’ habits.)

Vulgate. Lit. ‘in common use’. A 17c term used of the *Bible as translated into Latin by St Jerome and completed in 405; its ‘commonness’ comes from its widespread use, not its language. The text was that found in almost all Latin quotations from the Bible during this period. Its translation into English was at the heart of Lollardy and the Reformation in England: the Church resisted what it saw as a weakening of its authority were everyone able to read the Bible and think for themselves. The Douai Bible is a translation of the Vulgate text. [cf. L vulgaris = commonplace, of the people]

Vulgus. Latin word used in documents for the ‘Commons’ of parliament. Later the word came to be applied to the general public. [< L vulgus = the common people]

Vuln. Her. A wound. [< L vulnus = a wound]