F

Fableor. Successor of the wandering minstrel, the fableor told stories without musical accompaniment. [< L fabulor = to talk, tell a story] – Cf. GLEOMAN; TROUBADOUR

Fabliau. A bawdy medieval verse tale; a French form used by Geoffrey Chaucer in The Miller’s Tale and The Reeve’s Tale. – Cf. REEVE

Fair. The gathering of sellers and traders at set intervals at particular places under a licence or charter granted by a lord – for which he was paid. Such occasions took on the character of a local holiday. A few still exist, e.g. the annual Nottingham Goose Fair.

Faits d’armes. Lit. ‘deeds or feats of arms’. The phrase used by Jean Froissart throughout his work for many kinds of knightly combat, e.g. the *hastilude and *tournament, also of the genuinely hostile combat during war.

Falchion [fauchart, faussart]. A curved broad sword, sharp on the outer or convex side; a billhook. It was sometimes used to despatch a stag at the end of a chase. [< OFr. fauchon = sickle]

Falconer. Both kings and nobles being avid sportsmen would have had falconers. King Harold II is shown in the *Bayeux Tapestry with hawks and dogs. The Latin term for the falconer was accipitrarius. – Cf. next; ACCEPTOR

Falconry. Like other forms of hunting, falconry was the sport of kings and one requiring great skill. It was a particular favourite of Henry II. There were many kinds of hunting birds: gerfalcons (Falco rusticolus) came from Norway, Iceland and Greenland; these were reserved for use by the king. The peregrine was the bird of earls; the goshawk of yeoman, the sparrow hawk of priests. Merlins were used by knights. [< L falco = a falcon] – Cf. previous; CREANCE

Faldage. Rent paid for a sheep fold; also, a lord’s right to have a tenant’s sheep graze on his land and fertilise it. Frequently the tenants’ sheep were pastured with the lord’s flock. It was also customary for the shepherd to fold his lord’s flock on his own small piece of land for 14 days over Christmas, also for fertilising. The Latin form was faldagium. [< OE fald = a fold] – Cf. FOLD SOKE

Faldstool. A seat used by a bishop or other senior ecclesiastic when not using his bishop’s throne. It was a portable item without arms, for use when a bishop was in another’s church. [< OE fald = fold + stool]

Faldyng. A coarse wool cloth.

Familia regis. Lit. ‘king’s household’. In the AN kingdom, this was basically a military establishment, because from before the Normans and long after, as the king was commander-in-chief, his household was necessarily military. It functioned both as the fighting and the administrative heart of the king’s army and the realm. Senior army officers were often also senior government officials. In William I’s case the army was the means by which he had acquired the throne, and certainly the means by which he, and later his sons, held, maintained and defended it. Usually referred to as the familia. – Cf. CONSTITUTIO DOMUS REGIS; DOMUS REGIS; Leges Henrici Primi

Familiaris. An individual member of the *familia regis.

Famulus. The famulus was one of an estate’s full-time workers. No estate or *manor of any size could have been worked relying on the week-work owed by villeins who earned their living on their own plot of land. The famulus earned his living by working for his lord. [L famulus = a slave or servant]

Fane. A flag, or pennant. In time it became the vane in ‘weather-vane’.

Fardel 1. A small pack or bundle; also from bundle the word came to indicate a burden of sin. The first sense is found in a phrase in the Paston Letters: ‘some money came trussed in some fardel’; the second is found in Hamlet’s question, ‘Who would these fardels bear?’

Fardel 2. A fraction or part of something; also more precisely one quarter. [< fourth + deal] – Cf. next

Fardel-holder. Holder of a quarter of a *virgate; consequently, one of the poorest of villeins. – Cf. previous; FARTHINGLAND

Farm. A fixed sum of money due annually, e.g. tax, rent or something in kind. Later, the sum paid for the licence to collect monies, e.g. taxes from a city. Moneyers had the farm, in their case for minting coins. It was a gathering in of plenty, which in usage became the agricultural farm as we use the word. [< L firma = a fixed payment; OE feorm = rent in kind, tribute] – Cf. FEORM; FIRMA BURGI; MONEYERS, ASSIZE OF

Farmery. See FERMERY

Farthing. A coin worth one quarter of a *penny, first minted at the recoinage of 1279. [< OE feorðing = fourth part] – Cf. GROAT; HALFPENNY; SCEATTA; THRYMSA; FERDING

Farthingdeal. One quarter of an acre. [< OE feorðing = a fourth part + dæl = a division] – Cf. DEAL

Farthingland. Term used in Somerset for one quarter of a *virgate; however elsewhere the term covered any area of land up to 30 acres. [< OE feorðing = a fourth part] – Cf. FARDEL-HOLDER; FARTHING

Fastness. A stronghold or fortress. [< OE fæstan = make fast = make secure; fæsten = a fortress]

Fat fish. The designation is unclear; whale or dolphin may be meant.

Fauchart. See FALCHION

Faulds. The hoops of steel in a suit of armour, placed so as to protect the hips and lower back.

Fautor [fauctor]. An accomplice, associate; the AN form was fauteur. [< L fautor < faveo = to favour] – Cf. AFFINITY 2; MEINIE

Fealty. A *vassal’s oath of fidelity to his lord; also the duties of service and aid. [< L fides = oath, faith; L fidelitas = loyalty] – Cf. HOLD OATH; HOMAGE 1; IMMIXTIO MANUUM

Feast 1. The day on which an anniversary of religious importance is celebrated; also, a village festival occurring on the feast day of the patron saint of that village’s church. [< L festa = festival, festive holiday]

Feast 2. A large festive meal for a grand occasion. One such was on the marriage of Margaret, daughter of King Henry III to Alexander III of Scotland in 1252. Then 1,000 knights attended dressed in silk, while some 60 oxen were eaten.

Feast of Fools. A custom of the 10c and later following the Feast of the Nativity. On the *triduum, or three days, following the Nativity, minor clergy and others were permitted to undertake divine service, with the exception of the mass. On St Stephen’s Day (26 December) the deacons took service, followed by priests and choir boys on succeeding days. These occasions were taken in a holiday spirit and often became riotous. They were condemned by the pope in 1207, and in England in 1236; a further prohibition was made in 1390. It was for the far from sober conduct that these occasions were named variously festum fatuorum = feast of fools and asinarium festum = festival of asses or donkeys. Christmas in the Middle Ages was a secular feast as much as it was religious; in the Feast of Fools the two merged.

Feaxede steorra. Lit. ‘hairy or long-haired star’. Most famously *Halley’s comet in 1066, seen later as the ill-omen which preceded the Battle of Hastings. The phrase was also used in *ASC in 892 and 995. [< OE feax, fax = hair; still to be found in Fairfax and Halifax]

Fee 1. Livestock, movable property; also money. [< OE feoh = cattle]

Fee 2. See FIEF

Fee simple. Tenure of a heritable estate in land for ever and without restriction to any particular class of heirs; an estate so held; equivalent to freehold. [ME simple = without duplicity or complication] – Cf. next; ENTAIL; SUBINFEUDATION

Fee tail. This was tenure of property which could be inherited by or willed to a lineal descendant only. If there were no descendants ‘of the body’ upon the death of the tenant, the land reverted to the lord. Such land was thus *entailed. – Cf. previous; ENTAIL; ESCHEAT

Feet of Fines. See FINAL CONCORD

Feld. Open or cultivated land, esp. in forested country. From feld derives ‘field’.

Fell-monger. See PELLETARIUS

Felony. In feudal law, any serious violation of the relation between lord and *vassal was a felony, to be punished by forfeiture of his *fief; used also of treason, the gravest of crimes. Later, the word was assimilated into common law to encompass crimes against the king’s peace. – Cf. ESCHEAT

Femme sole. During this period a woman was usually not considered independent: before marriage she was in her father’s charge; on marriage, in her husband’s. But a widow, esp. one left with money or property, was accepted as being independent. If she carried on her husband’s business she was accepted as a femme sole = a woman alone. – Cf. HUCKSTER

Fenestra parvula. A small window through which nuns and canons of a *Gilbertine double house communicated and made confession etc. Another similarly small window enabled nuns to speak to their family when permitted. [< L fenestra = window + parvula = small, very small] – Cf. ANCHORITE; DOMUS FENESTRAE; MAGNA FENESTRA VERSATILIS

Feodary. See FEUDARY

Feoffment. The process of assigning property to a person under feudal law, for which military service was due. – Cf. ENFEOFFMENT TO USE; FEE 1; LIVERY IN SEISIN

Feorm. The AS version of a *farm was in effect a food-rent, latterly commuted for money. As with other kings, the AS kings had several manors, which the surrounding area was required to supply with food in specified quantities. Thus a group of hides would have to send certain amounts of bread, ale, cattle, cheese, honey etc. These are sometimes known as ‘food renders’ or ‘renders in kind’. – Cf. GWESTFA; HIDE

Ferding. Unit of land, being a quarter of a *virgate; also, one of four parts of a *shire. [< OE feorðing = fourth part] – Cf. FARTHING

Feretory. A small shrine, often portable, in which were kept the relics of a saint; a small chapel set aside to contain such shrines and relics. Often the chapel was set close to the main altar. [< OFr. fiertre < L feretum = a bier]

Feria una. Lit. ‘weekday one’. In this period, days of the work were referred to in Latin, and were named, as today, after pagan gods or the moon and sun. Church writers, sensitive to these pagan references, sometimes preferred to use a neutral nomenclature, which was to number the days of the week. Thus there was feria una for day one, i.e. Sunday, feria secunda for day two, i.e. Monday, and so through the week. – Cf. NOON

Fermerer. The fermerer’s duty was to tend the sick in a monastery and prepare those who had died for burial. The elderly and infirm were also housed in the *fermery, where those who had been bled recuperated for three days. – Cf. BLOOD-LETTING

Fermery. The infirmary of a monastery; its *obedientiary was the *fermerer. [< L infirmaria]

Ferratus. Term used of an iron-clad soldier, i.e. one in some form of armour. [< L ferrum = iron]

Fertinus. See FARTHINGLAND

Fess. Her. One of the nine *honourable ordinaries, being a *bar or stripe across the middle of a shield, comprising one third of the space. [< L fascia] – Cf. ENGRAILED; INVECTED; ORDINARY 2

Fess point. Her. The exact centre of a shield. – Cf. ABYSS; CHARGE

Feud 1. Antagonism, hostility, hatred; intense hostility between factions or families, fed by revenge and tit-for-tat killings. (This word has nothing to do with ‘feudal’.) [< OE fæhðu = enmity] – Cf. WERGELD

Feud 2. See FIEF

Feudal incidents. Modern term for the various obligations of a man who held land by knight service. These incidents provided a large part of any lord’s income, great or small. – Cf. AIDS; CONTENEMENT; PRIMER SEISIN; RELIEF

Feudal levy. The summoning of an army by the king. The *fyrd came together as a result of the king’s summons. After the Conquest, servitium debitum answered the king’s need for knights; the great lords with their retinues also responded, though they may well have been at court when such a decision was made. By the 14c, the emergence of paid service and the use of *mercenaries became increasingly common, and a more reliable source of troops, equipped as knights or not. Those knights answering the levy who were part of a lord’s servitium were among other such groups, producing a rather disorganised force. *Scutage also presented problems; even the collection of the money liability of scutage proved difficult. Recruiting by *indenture and payment made organisation and administration easier and more predictable. Ordinary foot soldiers were still supplied by the boroughs and the shires. The very last summons of the feudal levy was issued by Richard II in June 1385. – Cf. ARRAY, COMMISSION OF

Feudalism. A term of tortuous elusiveness. Broadly, the word is used of the system of land-holding, administration and relations between vassal and lord in England after 1066. At its heart is the assumption that everyone had a lord, from the lowliest *servus to the king, who had the sternest and most powerful lord of all, God. This relationship had superseded the familial or kin relationship of the old Saxon world. However, before the Conquest there were clear duties owed to the king by *thegn and *ealdorman, and the importation of the system by the Normans as something wholly new is itself disputed. Feudalism was in effect a combination of two relationships: material and personal. The material is found in the kind of tenure the tenant had and in the way he paid for the land he held of his lord: with service – in the fields or militarily – until the late 14c, after which the incidence of monetary payment increased, i.e. after the *Black Death and concomitant labour shortages. So long as all dues were met the tenure was heritable. The personal relationship derived from the tenant’s place in the social ladder and the kind of dependence or protection the lord could provide. The word is first recorded in 1635, long after the period it now relates to. [< OFr. feu < L feudum = heritable estate, heritable land.] – Cf. BASTARD FEUDALISM; FEE SIMPLE; FIEF

Feudary [feodary]. A *vassal or feudal tenant; one who held land of a lord on the condition of services. The Latin form was feodarius. – Cf. FEUDALISM; FIEF

Feudum. Latin word used in *DB for land held of a lord, i.e. a *fief or fee. – Cf. previous

Feudum loricae. A *hauberk *fief; known in AN as a fief de haubert. It was also known as a fief loricae. Orig. the Norman term for a knight with a *mail hauberk – a term of distinction, as not all Norman knights had one. In England the distinction was unnecessary: all enfeoffed knights were required to possess a hauberk. Feudum loricae and feudum militis (a knight’s fief) were effectively one and the same. [< L feudum = a fief + lorica = mail] – Cf. ENFEOFF

Fewterer. A keeper of greyhounds. [< AN veutrier = hound]

Fidelis. Latin word for a retainer who remained faithful to his lord. [< L fidelis = faithful]

Fief [fee]. Land which was held of a superior lord in return for which service – mostly military – and *homage was offered. This chain of homage and service reached upwards to the monarch. Such land became heritable by the 12c. Our sense of the word ‘fee’ as payment comes from its extension to offices which received payment. The Latin form in *DB = feudum. [< OE feoh = cattle, money, chattels in general] – Cf. BOOK OF FEES; FEOFFMENT; FEUDALISM; HONOUR

Fief de haubert. The 11c French term equivalent to a knight’s fee. So named from the *hauberk of *mail each knight was required to have and wear when his services were called upon. – Cf. FEUDUM LORICAE; SERVITIUM DEBITUM

Fief loricae. Synonymous with *feudum loricae.

Fief militum. Lit. ‘fief of the knights’. – Cf. FEUDUM LORICAE; FIEF

Fiefs-rentes. Members of the king’s household guard, successors to the huscarls of pre-Norman England, provided with fiefs for their support. Such payments were not necessarily made in coin; food and wine were also given, being known as ‘money fiefs’.

Field. Her. The surface upon which a *charge is blazoned.

Fieri facias. Lit. ‘cause to be done’. Common-law writ issued, e.g. for the collection of a debt. Such writs were addressed to a *sheriff for execution; he would seize goods and *chattels to the value of the judgement. In Latin documents the abbr. fi. fa was used.

Fifburgingas. Term used in the 11c for the inhabitants of the *Five Boroughs.

Fighting season. The fighting season lasted generally from St Hilary’s day, 13 January, until *Michaelmas, 29 September. – Cf. TRUCE OF GOD

Fihtwite. A fine, i.e. a *wite, for fighting. In *LHP, the Latin was fightwita and was considered a relatively minor offence, punishable by the offender’s lord. – Cf. FORSTEAL; LEYRWITE

Filbert. Fruit of the hazel tree; so named as it ripened close to St Philbert’s day, 22 August.

Filiatio. Latin word for the obedience required of the monks in a monastery. [< L filiatio = sonship] – Cf. ABBOT

Fimbriation. Her. When two colours (metals) are adjacent an edging is added to prevent their touching; this edge or border is the fimbriation.

Final concord. The legal documents recording a private transaction, usually concerning the transfer of property, made before the king’s justices. The form continued in use until the 19c. Such a document was a *chirograph, being cut into three pieces, one for each party, the third for the court. Seals were not used as most people did not have one, their use being largely confined to king and magnates. From the late 12c, these were enrolled as Feet of Fines.

Fine. A sum of money paid at the end of something, e.g. a set period of time, like the end of a lease, or on the death of the holder of land. Then the best beast might be paid to the lord with something to the incumbent priest, over and above regular payments. Later, a fine was paid by the incoming tenant. (The phrase ‘in fine’ with the sense of ‘in the end’ continues the sense.) [< OFr. fin < L finis = end] – Cf. next

Fine Rolls. Rolls recording payments of money, i.e. fines, made to the king for charters, privileges, writs and pardons, for favours and grants, e.g. of land. Here ‘fine’ is used in the sense of payment. These rolls also contain the appointments of sheriffs and other officials. These documents were also known as ‘oblata rolls’, where the Latin oblata meant an offering, an *oblate of money. The Latin form of the name was twofold: rotuli oblatorum or rotuli finium. These records begin in 1199. – Cf. CHARTER ROLLS; PIPE ROLLS

Firma burgi. Latin term for a borough farm in which a town, e.g. Cambridge in 1186, acquired the right to pay all dues in an agreed lump sum, the town collecting all payments. This gave the town a significant autonomy, restricting interference from the lord. – Cf. next; FARM

Firma unius noctis. Lit. ‘one night’s *farm’. Payment or assessment of the money or produce needed to support the king and his travelling household for one night. – Cf. previous

First. Her. Used as in ‘of the first’, indicating a similarity with the *tincture first mentioned in a *blazon.

First fruits. Latin word for this term is annates. This gratuity was paid by the new holder of an ecclesiastical post to his superior, which was ultimately the pope. Such offices were lucrative and these monies amounted to the annual revenue of the *benefice or see in question. These payments, which appeared in the 11c, were first made only to bishops and abbots; however, from the 14c popes also began to receive them. This closely resembled *simony, which was at times rampant, though severely and universally deprecated by the Church.

Fisc. A modern term for a king’s or prince’s private affairs and finances, his properties. [< L fiscus = a money bag or purse, the imperial exchequer]

Fitch. See FITCHEW

Fitché. Her. Term used of a cross with a pointed lower limb.

Fitchew [fitch]. A polecat; also its fur. [< OFr. fissel, fissiaulx, fissau]

Fitz. AN patronymic. It was also used as we would use ‘son’. For example, on the night King Edward I arrested his mother’s lover, Roger Mortimer, she called out to Edward, ‘Bel fitz! Bel fitz!’ – urging gentleness on him. (Bel as a cognomen meant ‘fair’, as in ‘handsome’.) Later, fitz was used of the illegitimate sons of princes. When names incorporating fitz were expressed in Latin, the translation was straightforward. Thus William fitz-Ralph became Willelmus filius Radulphi, i.e. William, son of Ralph (Radulphus). [AN < OFr. fiz < L filius = son] – Cf. next; BASTARD

Fitzroy. Name given to the *bastard child of the king, where *fitz signified illegitimate and roy = king.

Fiufé. AN for enfeoffed. – Cf. ENFEOFF

Five Boroughs. Derby, Leicester, Nottingham, Lincoln, Stamford. The word *fifburgingas was first used in 942 when the English under King Edmund I took over the towns from the Danes of York. They were within the *Danelaw.

Flancart. That piece of armour used to protect the thighs of a knight. His *destrier was also protected on its flanks by a similar piece known as the flançois. [< OFr. flanc = side, flank]

Flançois. See previous

Flected. See EMBOWED

Fletch. To put feathers on an arrow. [< fledge = of young birds becoming feathered] – Cf. next

Fletcher. An arrow-maker; one who sold arrows. Fletchers used a gum made from bluebells to fix feathers to their arrows. – Cf. previous; ATTILLATOR

Fleur-de-lys. The heraldic lily. When adopted as the French king’s device gold lilies were placed on a blue field. By the 13c, the number of lilies was set at three. Other senses: the royal arms of France until 1789; the French royal *standard; later the pattern of a brand applied to criminals in France; a mark of *cadency on the arms of a sixth son. It was adopted on the English king’s coat of *arms by Edward III, as a sign of his claim on the French throne, which was abandoned finally by George VI. – Cf. FLEURY

Fleuron. An architectural, flower-like decoration.

Fleuronnée 1. Elaborate penmanship, with ample flourishes. [< Fr. fleurir = to blossom, bloom]

Fleuronnée 2 [flourished]. Her. Highly decorated, e.g. with *fleur-de-lys or trefoils. [< Fr. fleurir = to blossom, bloom] – Cf. next

Fleury. Her. Decorated with *fleur-de-lys. – Cf. previous

Florin. English form of Latin florenus, a gold coin first issued at Florence in 1252.

Focage. Hearth-money. A tax paid on the number of hearths in a house. [< L focus = hearth, fire] – Cf. next; FOUAGE

Focaria. Lit. ‘a hearth-girl or kitchen maid’. The term was used of women living with priests who were meant to be celibate; though it could mean, in other circumstances, a concubine. – Cf. next

Focarius. Lit. ‘a kitchen boy’. The English term was ‘hearthman’. The servant of the royal household, indeed of all the great houses, responsible for the fire in the great hall between *Michaelmas and Easter. He was paid 4d a day. [< L focus = hearth, fire] – Cf. previous

Foin 1. Fur of the *marten, also known as ‘stone’ or ‘beech marten’ (Martes foina); also trimmings made from this fur.

Foin 2. Fencing term for a thrusting or stabbing attack with a sword.

Folcland. Lit. ‘folk land’. A term which through its infrequency eludes precise definition. However, it is taken to indicate land which was not immune to the various rents and services owed for the king’s maintenance. It was probably ordinary land, i.e. land held under common law, being restricted in terms of inheritance within the family or *alienation outside the family. Such land is remembered in placenames like Faulkland in Somerset and Falkland. – Cf. next; BOCLAND

Folcriht [folkright]. This might be called AS common (folc) law (riht). It was the collective understanding of rule and custom (not necessarily written down) which could be appealed to – that appeal being immediately understood. – Cf. previous

Fold soke. The relationship between tenant and lord which tied a man’s sheep to his lord’s fold. The purpose was to ensure that the lord’s land was manured by the sheep. It was termed a consuetude, a custom – one most frequently found in East Anglia – which a lord could extract from a free man. The Latin term was consuetus ad faldam = tied to the fold, where consuetus meant something stronger than simply custom: an obligation, but one owed by a free man. – Cf. CUSTUMARIUS; FALDAGE

Folgere. A household retainer. A freeman who did not possess a house of his own and worked for another, being entitled to the produce of two fields, one of which he had to sow himself. [OE folgere = follower, attendant]

Folio. A leaf of *parchment or paper; in a post-Gutenberg book, a sheet of paper folded once to produce two leaves; a bifolium, i.e. four pages.

Folkmoot. A general assembly (*moot) of the people (folk) of a town in King Alfred’s time; but esp. of London where it was (probably) the city’s oldest institution and its first in dignity. It was summoned by ringing the great bell of St Paul’s Cathedral. Sessions were held at *Michaelmas, Christmas and Midsummer – save for occasions of emergency. It was the place for declarations of outlawry. The meeting was in open space a little to the north-east of St Paul’s Cathedral. [< OE folcgemot] – Cf. previous; GEMOT; SAINT PAUL’S CROSS

Football. The chronicler-monk who wrote the Miracles of King Henry VI described (c.1365–70) football in these terms: ‘The game … for common recreation is called by some the foot-ball-game. It is one in which young men, in country sport, propel a huge ball not by throwing it into the air but by stroking and rolling it along the ground and that not with their hands but with their feet. A game, I say, abominable enough, and, in my judgement at least, more common, undignified and worthless than any other kind of game, rarely ending but with some loss or accident or disadvantage to the players themselves.’ The breathless indignation concerning the doings of the young still rings fresh.

Foot-cloth. A highly decorated piece of cloth displaying a knight’s arms and large enough to cover a horse. A foot-mantle was a large cloak-like garment worn by women when riding. – Cf. TRAPPINGS

Foragium. Latin word used of forage, also for the obligation to provide it, as part of customary dues. – Cf. PANNAGE

Foreath. Lit. ‘a fore-oath’, one taken before the beginning of a legal suit.

Forelock. Clasp beneath the chin which secured a knight’s helm.

Forest. An area of land to which certain specific legal rights pertained, such as hunting. A forest was not necessarily wooded – a bare mountain could be a forest, provided the legal status applied to it.

Forest Assizes. 1184 and 1198. Punishment for taking animals from the king’s hunting grounds was fierce: castration and blinding were almost customary, while it was not unknown for the culprit to be executed. Crown lawyers sought to establish ancient custom for the king’s prerogatives in the *forest, resorting to forgery in the case of a code said to date from King Cnut’s reign. During Henry II’s reign, there were some 69 forests, estimated to cover perhaps one third of England. These were constantly watched over by foresters and agistors, while courts dealt with petty offences every six weeks. Offences involving venison were dealt with by special courts. A great deal of money flowed into the crown’s coffers from those who broke forest laws. However, mutilation and the death penalty were abolished in 1217. *Magna Carta, clause 47, stated: ‘All forests that have been created in our time shall be disafforested immediately.’ – Cf. next; HAMBLE; SWANIMOTE

Forest, Charter of the. Charta de foresta, 1217. Until this charter the penalties imposed by the crown for infringement of forest law were severe and horrible: mutilation and/or death. In the 1217 charter these penalties were repealed. However, 10 years later, Henry III reimposed them; by 1250 large parts of the country, esp. around London, were being treated as if *forest. It was said the forest had its own laws based not on the common law of the realm but on arbitrary legislation by the king. – Cf. previous; REGARDER

Forestallers, Statute of. Statuta de forstallariis, 1390. Forestalling was deemed to evade the *assize and was prohibited. The practice involved buying up goods before a market, for example, thus ‘cornering the market’ in a particular item. Trading times of markets were strictly regulated: anyone meeting those coming to market and buying early was deemed a forestaller and subject to public exposure. The statute specified that ‘names shall be presented distinctly and openly, and they be amerced for every default, or be judged to the *tumbrel, if they forestall contrary to the statute’.

Forestel. Assault carried out on the king’s highway; an ambush on that highway. It was one of the offences reserved to the king’s judgement. The penalty was a fine of 100s. In the Latin records the offence was described as prohibitio itineris = hindrance of a journey. [< OE foresteall = hindrance (of justice), ambush] – Cf. FORSTEAL; HAMSOCN; MUNDBRYCE

Forinsec. Term used for the service one owed to the lord from whom one’s own immediate lord held his land, thus ‘outside’ the local *manor. This use survived in the Dorset placename Ryme Forinseca. However, it can still be found in the anglicised Rye Foreign. [< L forinsecus =on the outside] – Cf. next; INTRINSEC

Forinsecus. Title of the king’s outer marshal, known also as the *earl marshal. His first duties were the dispositions of the king’s army on the field before battle. (It is from this the title ‘field-marshal’ is derived.) In times of peace, his responsibility was to select where to halt – castle, monastery etc. – during the king’s endless *itinerary. He would also ensure all known malefactors in the virgata regis, i.e. district, or *verge were under lock and key during the king’s stay. [< L forinsecus = on the outside] – Cf. previous; INTRINSECUS; VIRGATE

Forma. The 12c Latin term for a *misericord, i.e. the ledge on the underside of a seat in the choir. – Cf. FORMULA

Formariage. See MERCHET

Formula. In the 12c, Latin term for the kneeling board in the stalls of a church or *cathedral. – Cf. FORMA

Fornagium. Latin term for payment to a lord for the obligation to use his oven; it was also a payment for the right to use one’s own oven. The anglicised version of fornagium is ‘furnage’. [< L furnus = an oven] – Cf. BANALITY

Forsteal. An offence mentioned in *DB relating the laws of the city of Chester. It meant violent affray in the streets. The penalty was a fine of £4 if committed on a feast day or a Sunday; on other days the fine was 40s. – Cf. FIHTWITE, FORESTEL; HAMFARE; HENGWITE

Fortunium. See VENTURE

Foss Dyke. The navigable canal between the Rivers Witham (at Lincoln) and Trent, thought to have been first cut by the Romans to drain the marshes. [< L fossa = ditch] – Cf. next

Fossarius. A builder of ditches and dykes. [< L fossa = ditch] – Cf. next

Fossatores. The forward part of an army responsible for cutting roads through woods, broad enough to preclude an ambush. They were much used by Edward I during his campaigns in Wales, c.1296–1300. – Cf. previous

Fosse. A ditch or trench; a defensive structure, thus a moat is also a fosse. – Cf. previous and next

Fosse Way [the Foss]. A road built by the Romans, running from south-west England to Ilchester, then Bath, Cirencester and Leicester, reaching *Ermine Street near Lincoln. It was known originally as ‘the Fosse’ because there was a (defensive) ditch on both sides; ‘Fosse Way’ is post-15c. Bishop Latimer said in 1553: ‘I live within half a mile of the Fossway and you would wonder to see how they [pilgrims] come by flocks out of the west country to [see] many images [and shrines].’ [< L fossa = ditch] – Cf. previous

Fouage. *Hearth tax imposed by Edward, prince of Wales and Aquitaine, in 1364. – Cf. FOCAGE; FUMAGIUM

Foumart. A polecat (Mustela putorius); also a foumart-dog, which was used for hunting.

Four banal. The community oven in France but common in English villages, where the bread was baked not as well as it could be. This bread was called ‘banal’ as it came from something of common use – from which we have our use of the word ‘banal’ = ordinary or commonplace. Banal is derived from the *ban, which was the lord’s power to punish in everyday matters. [< Fr forn < L furnus = an oven] – Cf. BANALITY; FORNAGIUM

Fraellum. See next

Frail. Rush basket used for carrying and packing raisins in particular; also the weight of raisins carried, approx. 70 lb. The Latin form is fraellum.

Franchise [fraunchyse]. Local justice in this period was exercised by a lord. Franchise is sometimes referred to as a ‘liberty’, as it allowed a lord some immunity from royal officials, such as the *sheriff. For instance, a writ could only be delivered within a franchise, not executed. (The Latin term for this was *retorna.) Within his franchise, a lord was possessed of a part of royal power, which permitted him to judge and punish in his manorial court through *sake and soke and *infangen-theof. A town might also be granted various liberties and privileges, which were called a ‘franchise’, for which considerable sums of money were given to the king. A further use of the term was involved with the *guilds. A guild member who offended his fellow members could ultimately be disenfranchised and thus lose the freedom to pursue his craft or trade. Also *Magna Carta (1225) offers a defence in these words: ‘If anyone has been disseised of or kept out of his lands, castles, franchises or his right by us without the legal judgment of his peers, we [the king] will immediately restore them to him.’ The Latin term was franchisa. [< OFr. franche < L francus = free] – Cf. DISSEISIN; FIERI FACIAS; FRANKLIN; WRITS, RETURN OF

Francigenare. Lit. ‘to become French’. Latin term for those who tried to ‘Frenchify’ themselves after the Conquest. Accommodating the new Norman power in the land, they hoped to advance themselves. – Cf. FRANKLIN; PLEADING, STATUTE OF

Franciscan. A friar or nun of the order founded by St Francis (d. 1226) in 1209; also known as Grey Friars or Friars Minor. It was the least intellectual of the monastic orders, with members taking vows of poverty and preaching in emotional ways on the sufferings of Christ.

Franciscan observant. Member of a branch of the *Franciscan order which followed a stricter regime than others. They were known colloquially as ‘Cordeliers’.

Frankalmoign. The term for tenure of land held in perpetuity by a religious body in return for prayers for the donor’s soul and his/her descendants. The land was free of all obligations bar the *trimoda necessitas. Fealty was not owed to any lord. This was the tenure by which the majority of monasteries held their land. [< frank = free + *almoign] – Cf. OBIT

Franklin. Free man who held land but not of noble birth, a peasant immigrant; also known as francigena and francus homo in *DB, i.e. Frenchman, a free man. The term derives ultimately from the Germanic tribes known as *Franks. – Cf. FRANCIGENARE; VAVASOUR

Frank-marriage. Tenure by man and wife of land given by the wife’s father; the land was directly heritable for four generations with only *fealty owing. Few families survived three generations, let alone four, in direct line of male heirs – one reason why the family name of so many earldoms did not persist.

Frank-pledge. Members of a *tithing were responsible for each other’s actions – if one was fined, all were responsible for part of that fine; thus a potent kind of neighbourhood watch grew up in which the liability to a share of a penalty ensured attentiveness. Members were also obliged to report one who committed a crime. A number of tithings were organised into a *leet or ward. The sheriff held a ‘view’ of the frank-pledge twice a year, fining those not within it. *Bracton has this to say: ‘Every [male] who has reached the age of 12 years must take an oath at the view of frank-pledge that he does not intend to be a thief nor a party to thieving. All who hold land and house, who are called householders, ought to be in frank-pledge, and also those who serve them, who are called followers.’ Women could not be outlawed because they were not within a frank-pledge, nor could a boy younger than 12.

Franks. The Germanic tribes who invaded Gaul, what is today France, after the collapse of Roman rule in the 5c; particularly successful was Clovis I during the years 484–507. Their dynasty was named Merovingian, which lasted until the 8C, when it was displaced by the Carolingians under Pepin. They gave their name to France. They were so named after their favoured weapon, OE franca = a javelin.

Frater. The dining room or hall of a religious house; a refectory. [< OFr. fraitur = refectory] – Cf. next; RECREATION

Fraterer. The *frater or refectory was the fraterer’s sphere of influence. He saw to it that tables were laid, that tablecloths were clean and repaired; he kept a count of cups and spoons. He was also meant to keep the wash-room (*lavatorium) clean and supplied with towels. [< OFr. fraitur = refectory < L refectorium] – Cf. OBEDIENTIARY

Free man. In *DB, liber homo indicates a free man with land who was not noble. The phrase was sometimes used of a *thegn.

French. From the Conquest in 1066, all English kings down to Henry IV spoke French before English. French was the language of court, the law courts (with Latin) and the new aristocracy which William I created. A linguistic curiosity which remains is the wording of the monarch’s assent to a bill from parliament: kings sign Le Roi le veult; queens La Reine le veult. – Cf. ENGLISH; FRANCIGENARE

Friar. Member of one of four (male) *mendicant orders who lived in the world, outside the monastery, whose purpose was to preach, living off donations. This was resented by some who thought such money should more properly be given to the local parish church. By living in the world they were bypassing the earlier idea that monks should be of fixed abode. In time they became rich, receiving gifts from wealthy sinners, losing their moral edge, even though they were not burdened by the extensive properties as monasteries were. The Franciscans (first arrived in England in 1224) and Dominicans (first arrived in England in 1221 at Oxford) were evangelists from c.1220, esp. in the towns. [< Fr frère, fredre = brother] – Cf. AUGUSTINIAN; AUSTIN; CARMELITE; LIMITOUR

Frith. Safety, security, peace; later, a deer park or forest; also a place where fish were kept. The word is still to be found, e.g. in Chapel-en-le-Frith (Derbyshire) or Frithville (Lincolnshire). As a verb, frith = to fence something in (and to protect).

Frithborh. A *frank-pledge. – Cf. previous

Frithsoken. A *sanctuary or an asylum. – Cf. FRITH; SOKE

Frithstol [fridstool]. A peace-stool, i.e. a refuge, or sanctuary; a seat near the altar of a church where sanctuary was found. It should be noted that not all churches had such power, which was carefully regulated. – Cf. FRITH; SANCTUARY

Frontlet. A band worn by women across the forehead and secured beneath the chin. It often formed the basis of headwear. During the 15c black became an increasingly fashionable colour, perhaps by way of contrast when framing a white forehead and face. – Cf. ATOUR

Fructed. Her. Bearing fruit. [< L fructus = fruit]

Frumenty. A dish of wheat, hulled or husked, then boiled in milk with spices such as cinnamon and sugar. Venison with frumenty is one dish of the period.

Fugator. Two ploughmen worked a plough and team of oxen. Fugator was the Latin term for the man who drove the eight oxen; the other, known as the *conductor, handled the plough itself. The fugator would usually carry a long stick and whip with which to encourage his charges. Fugator was sometimes also used of animal drovers and of hunters, i.e. a horse for hunting. A hunter was also known as a fugatorius. [< L fugo = to chase or drive] – Cf. PLOUGH-TEAM

Full. The process of cleaning and giving body to cloth, originally by treading on it in a trough. This process was called ‘cloth walking’. By the 13c the procedure had changed and feet were replaced by wooden bars. – Cf. FULLER’S EARTH; FULLERY; TUCKER; WALKER

Fuller. A person who fulled cloth for a living. – Cf. previous; WALKER

Fuller’s earth. A fine-grained clay used as a cleaner in the process of fulling cloth. – Cf. next; FULL

Fullery. A place for fulling cloth; a fulling mill. – Cf. previous; FULL

Fulwite. Lit. ‘the full fine’. The Latin equivalent is plena wita. When imposed for an offence, it indicated the maximum fine was being imposed; however, on some occasions it could mean twice the normal fine. This penalty was incurred when there was resistance to paying church dues. This was payable in English districts in the 12c. In the Danelaw the offence was known as *lahslit. – Cf. WITE

Fumagium. A hearth-tax, used in *DB. It was also known as *‘reek-silver’. – Cf. FOCAGE

Fur. Her. Animal skins; a *tincture representing tufts of fur. There are eight main furs: *ermine, *ermines, *erminois, *pean, *vair, *counter-vair, *potent and *counter-potent.

Furlong. Length of a furrow in a field of the kind ploughed by a team of eight oxen. It was 40 perches or 220 yards in length. This made one part of the measure of an acre, the other being 22 yards in width. This was the area of land deemed ploughable by a team in one day. The Latin term used in *DB is quarentina = 40. [< OE furh = furrow + lang = long] – Cf. ACRE; ROOD 1

Furnage. See FORNAGIUM

Fusil. Her. A *charge in the shape of a long lozenge.

Fuster. A maker of saddle-trees, which were the skeletons or frameworks of saddles.

Fustian. Fabric made from a mix of flax and cotton; later, used of pompous, bombastic language or speech. – Cf. BUMBACE

Fylfot. Pattern like a swastika; also known as a *‘cross cramponée’. [< fylfot = fill-foot = design to fill the foot of a stained-glass window.]

Fyrd. Lit. ‘a military expedition’, hence host. Before the Norman Conquest, the *AS militia or military host. Fyrd-service formed a part of the *trimoda necessitas owed to the king. Failure to present oneself was subject to heavy fines: a *thegn was liable to forfeiture, while a retainer would owe his lord 40s for not attending. In Henry I’s reign the fine was 120s. – Cf. EXERCITUS; EXPEDITIO; HERE 1; SCUTAGE

Fysilver. Lit. ‘fish silver’. Cash payment to a lord replacing the supply of fish to meet the lord’s requirements during Lent, or on Fridays, when meat could not be eaten.