O

Oak Book. List of rules and regulations governing the use of the port of Southampton by shipping in the early 14c. It also contained a schedule of customs charges for the immense variety of goods being brought into England. Spices and dyes are notable: *brasil, cumin, rice, saffron, cloves and ginger are a few of the items specified. Sugar is one of these luxuries, referred to as zucre or soucre. The book is a useful record of just where shipping came from in the 14c: apart from places nearby such as Flanders and France, boats came from Genoa and nearby Savona, from Ancona, Venice, Catalonia and Portugal. Southampton shared this eastern trade via Italy with London: the Genoese traders tended to prefer Southampton, while the Venetians preferred London. Another part of the Oak Book set out local laws and regulations of the town of Southampton itself. These rules are all written in French.

Obedientiary. One who owes obedience. The word referred to that member of a monastery responsible for a particular aspect of the community’s functioning, e.g. *cellarer, *fraterer, *precentor, *sacrist. He was also required to render appropriate annual accounts, usually at *Michaelmas, 29 September. The Latin form was obedientiarius

Obit. Mass said in commemoration of a person on the anniversary of their death. A sum of money, or endowment, was given to a monastery to ensure this was done each year. Frequently, such endowments included provision for a *pittance for each monk in the monastery. – Cf. BEDE-ROLL; LIBRI MEMORIALES; TRENTAL

Oblate. A child given by his parents to a monastery to be raised there; less commonly, a lay person connected with a monastery but without having taken vows. The practice of child oblation created difficulties if, as an adult, the oblate did not wish to join the community, for example in what to do with any property donated with him or her. By the 13c the giving of boys had virtually ceased, although girls continued to be given for some time. [< L oblatus = offered] – Cf. next; DONATUS; NUTRITUS; OBLEY

Oblation. Something given to God or a sacrifice so made; a gift or bequest to a church. – Cf. previous; ALTARAGE

Obley. An offering; later the wafer of the *eucharist. – Cf. OBLATE; OBLATION

Obolus [obole]. Orig. a Greek coin; a weight used by apothecaries; later, any coin of little value. [< Gr. obolos = coin, a sixth of a drachma]

Occitan. See LANGUE D’OC

Octave. The seventh day after a Church festival (which, by including the festival itself, is the eighth day). ‘Octave’ could also mean the span of these days, i.e. a week. [< L octavus = eighth] – Cf. QUINDENE

Ocularium. The horizontal slit in the *visor of a knight’s helmet for seeing through. [< L oculus = eye] – Cf. ARMET; HEAUME

Oculus. An archdeacon; through him a bishop kept an eye on his diocese and exercised discipline. [< L oculus = eye]

Offertory. The placing of the bread and wine on the altar in the *eucharist; the *antiphon sung at this moment; time when the collection is made.

Oillagium. *Ullage. – Cf. -AGIUM

Oléron, laws of. Set of codes relating to maritime law thought to have been instituted in England by Richard I. They regulated all relationships between captains and their men, and their employers; they also had to do with the laws of wrecks. Some of the laws deal with violence onboard ship, e.g. if murder was committed at sea, the murderer should be tied to the body of the victim and thrown overboard. Another states that for punching someone a man should be ducked three times. They were first printed in 1494. (An equivalent collection of laws, though of earlier date, pertaining to France and Spain, was known as the Consolat del Mar.) The laws are to be found in the Black Book of the *Admiralty. Oléron is a small island in the bay of Biscay. – Cf. LEX MERCATORIA

Operatio castelli. Lit. ‘castle work’. One of the services often mentioned in charters, from which a tenant might on occasion be exempted. The work was unspecified – the assumption being all knew what it involved – but most likely repair of walls and embankments was meant or building a specified length of wall. – Cf. TRIMODA NECESSITAS

Opinicus. Her. The opinicus was a fantastical vivid creature somewhat like a griffin with a lion’s legs and body, an eagle’s head, wings and a *curt tail. – Cf. DRAGON; GRIFFIN

Opus Anglicanum. Lit. ‘English work’. In the 10c and 11c decorated textiles were often referred to as being distinctly English, notably gold embroidery. However, the reputation of this work lasted well into the 15c. By the 12c the very finest textiles were always assumed to be the work of English hands. (The English reputation for metal-work was equally high.) Most of this work was embroidery. St Dunstan is said to have designed stuffs to be embroidered, while the daughters of Edward the Elder were known for their skill. When William the Conqueror returned to Normandy the Normans were astonished by the richness of his English robes. The *Bayeux Tapestry, along with material (added in 934 by King Æthelstan) from St Cuthbert’s sarcophagus form some important early examples of opus Anglicanum; later medieval examples have survived more extensively.

Opus Dei. Lit. ‘the work of God’. Term used of the daily round of prayer and praise in a *cathedral, the organisation of which fell to the *precentor.

Or. Her. Orig. gold; also, the heraldic term for the *tincture gold. [< L aurum = gold]

Ora. See MARK 1

Oratores. See THREE ORDERS

Oratory. A small place for prayer, esp. private prayer; a small *shrine.

Orb. A globe of gold with a cross atop, part of the essential *regalia of a monarch, symbolising both the world and the power of the Church seen as blessing him who held it. – Cf. DALMATIC; SCEPTRE 1

Ordainers. The committee of barons and prelates who, opposing Edward II, imposed a series of ordinances (hence the name, Ordainers) upon the king for reform of government. The Ordainers were 21 in number. Among the demands of the barons were the following: the banishment of Piers Gaveston and other royal favourites who were seen to hold too great an influence over the king; the establishment of a baronial oligarchy to be the king’s natural advisers; the barons to have the power to control all appointments of chief officials in the government and royal household; the king should not go to war or leave the country without baronial consent. – Cf. ORDINANCES OF 1311

Ordeal, trial by. In trial by ordeal, proof of guilt or innocence was determined by God, the accused being tested by an ordeal which proved innocence if no mark was caused by the trial itself. In the laws of Athelstan anyone undergoing this trial had to be blessed by a priest and live on bread, water and vegetables for three days. One trial involved the accused walking blindfold over red-hot ploughshares. God, it was believed, would guide the steps of the innocent; the guilty would burn their feet. Something equally unpleasant was done with boiling water. After this, the wounds were bandaged. If after three days the wounds appeared to be healing, innocence was proved; otherwise guilt was evident. Dunking displayed a paradox: water being the medium of baptism, it was considered sensitive both to guilt and to innocence. Thus if the water ‘accepted’ the accused, whose hands and feet were bound, they were innocent; the guilty were ‘rejected’ by water and floated. The length of rope or depth of sinking was set at 1½ ells, or some 5½ feet. During the *Angevin period, eight out of ten ordeals were of ‘cold water’, which were taken by the unfree, i.e. serfs, villeins etc. (Hot iron was taken by free men and women.) Pipe Roll records show that of the cold water ordeals, two out of three passed and were shown to be innocent. A priest was required to be present on these occasions; but the Lateran Council of 1215 condemned the practice and instructed priests to take no part. – Cf. BATTLE, TRIAL BY

Ordinances of 1311. Ordinances imposed on Edward II by the barons through parliament in the midst of his military incompetence and over-dependence on favourites. While there is no doubt the barons sought control of the king, this episode was an important part of the growth of parliament itself. It saw parliament’s confidence in assenting to measures relating both to crown and to country. One of the provisions was the banishment of Edward’s favourite and presumed lover, Piers Gaveston. Beyond Gaveston, there was nothing politically radical in the proposals: rather they sought to bring Edward back to a king’s traditional advisers. They claimed the right to oversee senior appointments of the crown and household and also the right of assent to going to war. The group responsible for these ordinances was known as the *Ordainers.

Ordinary 1. An ordinance or regulation; a formula for doing something.

Ordinary 2. Her. A dictionary of heraldic bearings; one of the nine simple shapes or charges in *heraldry, sometimes called ‘honourable ordinaries’. – Cf. BEND; CHEVRON 2; CHIEF; CROSS CRAMPONÉE; PALE; PILE 2; QUARTER 2; SALTIRE

Ordo equestris. Latin term for the Order of Knights.

Oriflamme. The silk banner of St Denis (patron saint of France), coloured sacred red or orange-red, which was given by the abbot of St Denis to the Capetian kings of France when they set out to war. The banner was known as Monjoie, the French battle-cry, and is often mentioned in the Song of Roland.

Original writ. Legal instrument bought by a plaintiff commanding the court of common pleas to deal with a particular case. This purchase only initiated the procedure, it did not buy a result.

Originalia Rolls. Rolls issued by the *chancery to the *exchequer with notification of payments, such as fines which were to be collected.

Orillion. A projection built onto a *bastion, reaching beyond the rampart.

Orphrey. Item of rich embroidery, made with gold; sometimes used for an elaborate *amice. [< L aurifrisium, a corruption of aurum = gold + Phrygium, thus Phrygian gold]

Orpiment. A yellow pigment, composed largely of arsenic trisulphide. [< L aurum = gold + pigmentum = colour] – Cf. REALGAR

Ostiarius [hostiarius]. Usher or doorkeeper, usually of *minor orders. By the late 13c, the ostiarius had become a member of the hanaper – responsible for rendering accounts – where he was next below the controller, himself next below the *chancellor. – Cf. HANAPER 2

Ostium ecclesiae. Lit. ‘church door’. A distinctive feature of 15c ecclesiastical architecture was the spacious church door. They were places where business was done, contracts exchanged and wedding ceremonies began. Sometimes they were built with a room above, where the priest and *sacrist would sleep; this was convenient for their early start of the day with mass. This room was also useful for teaching choirboys.

Ostmen. Lit. ‘eastmen’. *Viking settlers who created colonies in Ireland at Dublin, Waterford, Wexford and Limerick. The Irish Ostmen were driven out by Richard de Clare soon after he landed in Ireland in August 1170.

Outlaw. A person deemed unworthy of the protection afforded by the law. He was placed beyond justice and its benefits, much as *excommunication placed a person outside the Church and beyond salvation. It was relatively easy to become an outlaw. [< OE utlaga, utlah = an outlaw] – Cf. FRANK-PLEDGE

Outremer. Lit. ‘overseas’. The title given to the lands held by crusaders in the Holy Land. – Cf. CRUSADES

Overslop. A cassock or gown; a loose, baggy garment; those worn by butchers identified their trade; abbr. as ‘slop’, whence our ‘sloppy’.

Overt. Her. Describes a bird with wings spread about the fly. [< ME overt = open]

Ox. The main plough-beast until well after the 14c. In the 14c, an ox cost 13s 1¼d. In comparison, a sheep fetched just 1s 6d, a cow 9s 5d.

Oxford, Provincial Synod of. Held in 1409, this *synod determined to prohibit the translation of the Bible into English. It was thought that an English Bible would become a weapon in the hands of those without proper respect for authority, who would also begin to use it without being instructed in its proper use. Were they able to read for themselves, such readers might then ignore the glosses that explained the text in terms of received Church doctrine.

Oxford, Provisions of. These were set down at the parliament held at Oxford, June 1258. There was agreement between Henry III and the barons to reform royal powers in 1258 and to cut through bureaucracy – esp. regarding writs in common law which were stifled by *chancery and its standardised procedures. A council was established responsible to the barons in parliament. It was also felt that centralised bureaucracy gave the king undue power to interfere in the process of justice (e.g. forbidding writs to be issued against family or friends), which clearly breached both spirit and letter of clause 40 of *Magna Carta. It was a technical matter, but with profound implications for justice and access to it. – Cf. BARONS’ WAR; MARLBOROUGH, STATUTE OF; QUERELA; WESTMINSTER, PROVISIONS OF

Oxford, University of. Though well established by 1167, it was not until 1571 that the university received from parliament an act of permanent incorporation. Until that act, the work of Robert Dudley, earl of Leicester, the university had been required to get a fresh charter with every change of monarch.

Oxgang. One eighth of a ploughland (*carucate); equiv. of a *bovata.

Oyer and determiner. Lit. ‘hear and decide’. Oyer is the legal term for the hearing of a case in court. However, the complete phrase is a ‘commission of oyer and determiner’ for a judge in *eyre to hear cases. Oyer shares its roots with Oyez = Hear me! uttered by the town crier, summoning people to hear his message.