P

Page. A young boy in the service of a knight. He might aspire to knighthood, and would serve his lord as did the *esquire. During battle the page would tend the *destriers not in use.

Paint. Term used in the making of stained glass for the mixture of ground glass, metal oxide and flux which is applied to glass and then fired. – Cf. POT METAL

Palatinate. Territory ruled by a *palatine. In England, usually a *county in which a *tenant-in-chief had powers normally reserved to the king, e.g. the right to appoint a *justiciar, hold courts of exchequer and chancery and to coin money. The king’s writ did not run in a county palatine.

Palatine. Lord of a territory or *county whose powers were similar to those usually only accorded a king. In a county palatine, the king’s powers of justice and moneying were held by the lord, not the king. [< L palatinus = chamberlain or officer of a palace] – Cf. previous

Pale. Her. An *ordinary: a vertical stripe taking up a third of the area of the *shield.

Palet. A helmet, cap or other head-covering made of cuir-bouilli.

Palfrey. French term for a small horse such as was often used by women; definitely not a war horse. [< L palfredus] – Cf. DESTRIER; ROUNCY

Palimpsest. A *parchment MS partially or wholly reused, old matter being scraped off; also a brass plate which has been turned over and reused. The word is a 17c coinage. [< Gr. palin = again + psestos = rubbed]

Palisade. Wooden fence enclosing an area built defensively as a temporary shelter, or temporarily awaiting something more substantial made of stone. [< L palus = a pole or stake]

Pall. Her. A *charge of three bands in the form of a Y, charged with crosses.

Pallagium. Toll paid to a lord when using his port or dock for loading and unloading goods.

Pallium [pall]. Vestment of an archbishop’s office; a band or belt worn round the shoulders with a flap or lappet front and back; by transference, the office of archbishop. The pallium was taken from the shrine of St Peter, which signified that the new archbishop’s authority had been delegated by the apostle’s successors. [< L pallium = a cloak (worn by philosophers)] – Cf. AD LIMINA; PETER’S PENCE

Palmer. A pilgrim, esp. one who returned from the Holy Land with a palm-leaf badge as a souvenir. The term was also used of *mendicant monks on a perpetual *pilgrimage from shrine to shrine. These latter often wore badges or small tokens as proof of having visited pilgrimage sites. Such tokens were sold at all sites. – Cf. SCALLOP

Paly. Her. Describes a shield divided into equal parts or stripes which are coloured or tinctured alternately. [< OFr. pale < L palus = a stake or stick]

Panarius. Latin word for that part of a church near the door from which bread was handed out to the poor. [< L panis = bread]

Pannage. The right to feed pigs in a wood on beech-mast and acorns in autumn; also the fodder itself. In Latin, pannagium. – Cf. AVAGIUM; FORAGIUM

Pannus stragulatus. Lit. ‘striped clothes’. The striped cloth given as part of their *livery to the servants of a lord or bishop.

Parage. Lineage or descent, particularly noble birth. ‘Parage’ was the English form. – Cf. IN PARAGIO

Parapet. Bank built on top of a wall for extra protection, or one built in front of a trench. [< Ital. parapetto = a breast-high wall]

Parcener. A partner; a person having a share in land with another. The Latin form is parcenarius. [< L partitio = divide, share] – Cf. IN PARAGIO

Parchment. The skin of a sheep or goat (and by extension often used more generally to include vellum), prepared for writing on; also used for the bindings of books. Preparation was a lengthy process: once the wool had been removed, the skin was soaked in lime to remove the flesh, then stretched on a frame, scraped with a *lunellum, and treated with chalk to whiten the surface. [< L pergamina = writing material from Pergamum; also Parthica pellis = Parthian skin] – Cf. next; PERCAMINARIUS; VELLUM

Parchmenter. The maker of *parchment. Before the beginning of the 13c, most parchment was made in the monasteries by those who needed it. With the growth of the MS trade, and the opening of the universities, the parchment trade expanded beyond the monasteries.

Pardoner. A secular clerk or friar who travelled the country with *relics, issuing pardons in exchange for payment; one who sold *indulgences. They were also known as questores, i.e. askers, since they asked what sins needed expiation. Their official title was quaestorii. The office was abolished by the pope in 1562.

Park. An enclosed piece of land, held by royal grant, specifically for hunting. [< OE pearruc = an enclosure]

Parliament. Before the Conquest, Norman dukes had a curia ducis, through which they did business. In England, the equivalent was the *curia regis, and a great council which met two or three times each year. Tenants-in-chief attended and advised the king; as did the Church’s prelates. Petitions for justice and other pleas were dealt with by the curia regis and other courts, as were political matters. The Commons were at first knights summoned by the monarch in 1254. In time, those magnates who attended arrived by personal summons, which gave rise to the House of Lords, while sheriffs issued a general summons for representatives of the shires. By 1295 shires and the boroughs were represented, as were magnates. The *Hundred Years’ War was the occasion for parliament to grant the king subsidies and taxes. All monarchs needed money and it was here that the Commons found its real power. In exchange for financial aid the crown made concessions and answered grievances. In the early 14c the Commons were meeting separately from the Lords, dealing with petitions and creating legislation to deal with grievances. By the end of the 14c, taxation was agreed by the Commons with the ‘advice and assent of the Lords’. [< Fr. parler = talk]

Parliament, Houses of. There is said to have been a royal palace at Westminster during the reign of Cnut where the present Houses of Parliament are to be found. In any event, a palace was created by Edward the Confessor and extended by William the Conqueror, remaining in use until destroyed by fire in 1512. The Commons met in St Stephen’s Chapel from the late 1540s. In 1834 fire destroyed the whole palace, after which the buildings we are familiar with were designed and built by Sir Charles Barry and Augustus Pugin. – Cf. TALLY STICK

Parmentarius. Latin word used of a tailor. The Norman-French was parmentier; tailleur was also used.

Parole. A prisoner’s word of honour. Knights and magnates were expected to abide by their parole when captured and not try to escape. Under these terms a prisoner was allowed great freedom. It would not be chivalrous to break parole for that was breaking one’s word – a great fault of honour. There was also a kind of bond here between equals, even if opponents in war. Indeed, the kinship appeared in their capturing each other, not killing each other. A captured knight, *baron or king, indeed, could be ransomed; a dead knight, baron or king was worthless. [< OFr. parole = something said.]

Parvis [parvyse]. The space within an enclosure in front of buildings such as cathedrals or large churches. Parvis is a French word, a corruption of the Latin paradisus = paradise or an enclosed garden. There was a parvis at *St Paul’s Cathedral in London and it was there in the 14c that lawyers met for talk, disputation and consultation. – Cf. SERJEANT-AT-LAW

Parvus bussellus. Lit. ‘a small bushel’. This term was used in some manorial accounts for what was actually a half bushel. It was the same measure as a *skep. [< L parvus = small + bussellus = a bushel]

Pas d’armes. Lit. ‘passage of arms’. A variation of the *mêlée or joust in which a team or individual announced they would set themselves up to defend a particular place against any who chose to accept the challenge. These could well be lengthy affairs, with many contests using lance, sword, axe. One such contest in Burgundy, which involved 13 knights and squires, was spread out over six weeks – though without fighting every day. The challenge, in the form of shields fixed to a tree, or symbol thereof, would have been put up for any knight to accept. – Cf. PERRON 2; TREE OF HONOUR

Passant. Her. Term used of an animal which is moving to *dexter, i.e. to the right, with paws raised; in use the word follows the name of the animal it describes, e.g. lion passant. – Cf. GUARDANT; TRIPPING

Pastourelle. Song in which the heroine was a wise or foolish shepherdess; a form first found among *troubadours. – Cf. AUBADE; COURTLY LOVE; REVERDIE

Pasture, rights of. The right to graze animals on common land. The kinds of livestock permitted were always specified. – Cf. RIGHTS OF COMMON

Patent Rolls. Cf. LETTERS PATENT ROLLS

Paternoster. Lit. ‘our father’. The first two Latin words of the Lord’s Prayer; also special beads on a rosary, or a whole rosary.

Patonce. Her. A cross whose arms expand towards their ends, with floriate decorations. [ME < potent = a crutch with a cross-piece]

Patristic. Relating to the writings of the Church Fathers. [< L pater = father]

Patron. Someone who had the gift of a *benefice; someone who sponsored or supported another, e.g. an artist, writer, or building project. Attaching oneself to a lord or royal court was often the only path of employment for skilled artisans or writers, e.g. makers of illuminated MSS.

Patron saint. Saint associated with a trade or *guild; a particular saint to whom a person prays for protection through some specific association. Thus St Cecilia is patron saint of musicians, while St Jerome is patron saint of translators, and St Laurence of tanners.

Paul’s window. A strange phrase found in Chaucer’s Miller’s Tale used of a pair of shoes worn by a dandyish clerk. The upper parts of these fancy shoes were cut away, somewhat like tracery, allowing the red hose to show through. The reference is to a *rosace in the old St Paul’s Cathedral. The Latin phrase for these shoes was calcei fenestrati, i.e. window shoes.

Pavage. The right to take a toll towards the cost of paving the roads. – Cf. TRIMODA NECESSITAS

Pavilion. Her. A *charge representing a tent; any ornamented tent.

Pavis. Shield designed specifically as a protection against arrows, being larger than most and attached to the forearm, yet hardly hindering movement. The pavis was convex and large enough to protect the whole body, being used by infantry to protect themselves from whatever the enemy was firing at them. They were of particular use to crossbowmen, who took longer to reload than did longbowmen. A number could be set together to create a wall, something which was done at sieges. Such an arrangement was called a ‘pavisade’. They are named after the town of Pavia, in Italy, where they were originally made. – Cf. ARCHERY

Paynim. A pagan or non-Christian, e.g. a *Saracen or Muslim; the pagan world generally. [< L paganus = pagan]

Pean. Her. The *fur with gold points or spots on a black background – the reverse of *ermine.

Peasants’ Revolt. In 1381 a rebellion in response to government efforts to collect a much-disliked *poll tax, set at one shilling per man, confined largely to Kent and Essex, whose inhabitants marched on London, led by Wat Tyler. Jack Straw was named as one of the leaders, but that was most likely a pseudonym of Tyler’s. They attacked the *Savoy, John of Gaunt’s palace, and decapitated the archbishop of Canterbury. In June they were met by the young King Richard II, at Smithfield, where Tyler was killed. The Peasants’ Revolt was part of the general disturbance of the 14c, which had begun with bad harvests, followed by the *Black Death in 1348.

Pecia. Tanner’s term for a piece, used to refer to an animal skin treated and stretched, then trimmed, and ready for use as *vellum by scribe or illuminator. A section or pecia of a text was handed to several scribes, thus producing a MS quickly. [< medieval L pecia = piece] – Cf. QUIRE

Peck. Unit of measure for grain equal to one quarter of a *bushel.

Peculiar. Parish church owned by a monastery outside the diocese within which the church was, thus outwith the jurisdiction of its local bishop.

Pede pulverosus. See PIEPOUDRE

Pedesecus [sequipedus]. Lit. ‘beside, by the feet’. Title of a person of apparently lowly position, sitting at someone’s feet, but borne by a *thegn, close to his king. A grant of land made by King Æthelbert in 858 was witnessed amongst others by Eastmund, described as pedesecus. In the list of subscribers, Eastmund was third, following only the king himself, and Æthelmod, *ealdorman. In common with titles of apparently low status, the pedesecus, being a thegn, was likely very close to his lord. [< L pes = foot + secus = by, alongside] – Cf. ÆRENDRACA; STALLER

Pedites. Latin term for foot soldiers. [< L pes = foot]

Pele tower. Kind of fortification characteristic of the English–Scottish border. It was usually a small tower, perhaps a fortified house, designed as a refuge from raiding parties; sometimes surrounded by stakes and a ditch. Its size and strength were not intended to withstand a siege. – Cf. DUN

Pelican. A bird said to feed its young with its own blood by pecking its breast when needful; thus a symbol of self-sacrifice. The pelican was used in medieval art as a symbol of the Redeemer, i.e. Christ, the archetype of self-sacrifice. – Cf. VULN

Pelisse. Fur-lined overcoat, sometimes with sleeves, sometimes without. [< L pellis = pelt, hide, skin] – Cf. ERMINE 1; PELLETARIUS; PILCH

Pell. Two *rolls of *parchment, one of which records receipts and the other payments made by the *exchequer. The Pells was the office in which these documents were stored. [< AN pell < L pellis = skin]

Pellet 1. Her. A black spot, representing a cannon ball; a roundel. [< L pila = a ball] – Cf. ROUNDEL 2

Pellet 2. Small stone fired in large numbers from a mortar. [< L pila = a ball < pill]

Pellet bell. The bell on a tambourine whose striker is a small pellet; the bell on a clown or fool’s clothing and/or shoes. – Cf. BALDRIC

Pelletarius [pelleciarius]. A skinner; sometimes also known as a ‘fell-monger’. The Norman-French term was pelletier. – Cf. CORIARIUS

Pencel [pensil]. Small *pennon or streamer; also, in the late 14c, a token or favour, such as a handkerchief or scarf, given by a lady to a *knight at a *joust. The word is a form of *pennoncel.

Penitential pilgrimage. Sending a sinner on a long *pilgrimage was a good way of getting them out of the way. Thus a fornicating priest bringing disrespect on the Church might be sent to Compostella or Rome; or he might have to make such a journey year on year to different places. – Cf. INDULGENCES; JACOBIPETA; ROMIPETA; SCANDAL

Pennon. Long, narrow flag; an elongated triangle carried by a knight below the rank of *banneret. – Cf. next; PENCEL

Pennoncel. A small pennon worn on helmet or lance. – Cf. previous

Penny. The silver penny was the basic currency in England from the time of Offa (757–95) until Henry III. It was the only coin in circulation, though pennies were often cut in half or in quarters to provide halfpennies and farthings. Minting was confined to boroughs, most of which had a least one *moneyer. From the time of Edgar (959–75), coins regularly carried the names of both moneyer and minting-place, as well as that of the king who issued them. In 1279, there was an extensive recoinage when the halfpenny and *farthing were issued, as well as the *groat. For luxury items the gold *bezant was used and accepted from Byzantium to Carlisle or Dublin. A gold penny was issued by Henry III in 1257 worth 20 silver pennies, but it was not a success. – Cf. SCEATTA; STERLING

Pentecost. The seventh Sunday after *Easter. The occasion celebrated was the descent of the Holy Spirit on the disciples. The event is recorded in Acts 2. – Cf. WHITSUN

Pentecostals. Monies paid at *Whitsun by each household in a diocese to the mother church, as a token of obedience. These payments were sometimes known as ‘smoke-farthings’ as they were equivalent to a hearth tax. – Cf. previous

Penteulu. The captain or commander of a Welsh ruler’s *teulu or household troops. He was known in Latin as princeps militiae – Cf. DOMUS REGIS

Penthouse. Structure appended to the main part of a building; sometimes such an addition would have a sloping roof. By the 16c the word was also applied to the sloping roofs of a *real tennis court. [< L appendo = append] – Cf. next

Pentice. A first-floor extension, or projection, on the houses of the better-off, creating an extra room. Usually, they were supported by wooden columns or pillars. – Cf. previous

Penucella. See PENNONCEL

Pepper. An imported commodity, pepper was an expensive item for any household. In the early 15c, black pepper cost 16d per pound, white pepper 24d per pound. It was brought to England by Genoese and Venetian merchants. [< OE pipor < L piper = pepper] – Cf. next; PIPER

Pepperer. One of the many highly specific trades of the time. Pepperers dealt in pepper and spices; later they came to be known as ‘grocers’. [< OE pipor < L piper = pepper] – Cf. previous

Per colos. Lit. ‘by the spindle, *distaff’. When there was no male heir to an estate, who would have inherited entire, it went to daughters, who received equal shares. A version of the phrase might be ‘on the distaff side’.

Percaminarius. Latin term for the maker and seller of *parchment, a *parchmenter.

Perch. Measure of length = 5½ yards; a *pole was the same measure. [< L pertica = a measuring rod]

Peregre iter arripuit. Lit. ‘he set off on a pilgrimage’. Latin phrase used throughout the period, being found in Church documents, e.g. of someone sent on a *penitential *pilgrimage. The note of such a date might also be used to confirm a year in an *inquisition post mortem.

Peregrinus. Latin term used of both pilgrims and crusaders. – Cf. PILGRIMAGE

Perron 1. Block of stone used as the base of e.g. a market cross or similar. [< Fr. pierre = a stone] – Cf. ELEANOR CROSSES

Perron 2. Not unlike the previous entry, this was sometimes a mound, sometimes a pillar, which featured in the more elaborate writings and practices of knightly contests. Its use at real tournaments may have been taken from Chrétien de Troyes’s Ywain (c.1170–80) in which it served as the place where challenges were made; or if a pillar, where shields were hung waiting to be touched, which action served as the challenge. Sometimes there was a horn to be sounded to mark the challenge. – Cf. CLOUGES; CROSSES; PAS D’ARMES; TREE OF HONOUR

Pescary. See PISCARY

Peter’s pence [Rom-feoh]. Denarius Sancti Petri. A penny tax each year on every house in England, collected at midsummer, and paid to the Holy See. Just when it began is not clear. A letter from Canute in 1031 mentions the penny owed to Rome. Claims were made by Matthew Paris and William of Malmesbury for, respectively, Offa and Æthelwulf as the initiators. Matthew said that Offa, in beginning the payment, intended it to support the English school and hostel for pilgrims in Rome. What prompted its remission may have been Alfred’s payment c.882–4 of substantial arrears, sufficient for the pope, Marinus, to free the English in Rome of any tolls or taxes. After Alfred’s reign, there are intermittent records of the ‘pence’ being paid until the reign of Henry VIII. It was payable on St Peter’s Day, 1 August. – Cf. BENEFIT OF CLERGY; CHURCH COURTS; SCHOLA SAXONUM

Peytral [poitrel]. That piece of armour, heavily padded, which was designed to protect a horse’s breast during battle or jousting. [< L pectorale = breastplate]

Phala. One of the small buildings in the courtyard of a castle or fortified *manor house where weapons were kept.

Pheon. Her. A *charge displayed as the head or point of a javelin or arrow, with barbs on its inner side. These barbs are said to be *engrailed since they are indicated by round indentations.

Phlegm. One of the four bodily *humours of medieval physiology; being characterised as cold and moist, it was believed to induce apathy.

Pica. See next

Pie. Collection of rules used in the pre-Reformation Church of England showing how the coincidence of more than one office on the same day should be dealt with; an almanac and ordinal for reciting divine service. The Latin term pica is derisive, as it is associated with ‘pie’ = a magpie. It was criticised in the Book of Common Prayer.

Pied Friars. Colloquial term for the Friars of Blessed Mary, i.e. Friars De Domina; they were disbanded and obliged to join one of the major orders in the 14c. They were called ‘pied’ because of their brown and white *habit.

Piepoudre [pie-powder court]. Court presiding over a market, and all commercial dealings therein. It possessed the power to fine or expel any who transgressed, e.g. for short weights or low quality. The term comes from the French pieds = feet + poudre = powder. This was a reference to the dusty or powdery feet of pedlar or *chapman and other wandering sellers. The word was anglicised as ‘Pie-powder court’. The Latin form was pes pulverosus.

Pike. Long, pointed weapon carried by foot soldiers, usually some 18–20 feet (5½–6m) in length. Used properly the formation of a compact group of pikes could hold off an attack by cavalry. Pikemen were of course vulnerable to the *longbowmen and their arrows. The Scots were notably successful when using the *schiltron of pikemen. [< OE pic = a pointed tool]

Pikes. Long, pointed extensions to shoes worn by men of fashion in the mid-15c (something like the winkle-pickers of the 1950s). Pikes were worn throughout Europe, but were considered outrageous enough for the pope, in 1468, to forbid pikes longer than two inches. Pikes almost a foot long were not unknown. Like much fashion, part of their purpose was to demonstrate and flaunt impracticality: such shoes would have been useless, even dangerous, in battle or at a joust. Men of the court were displaying their distance from men of action or soldiers. At that time, a firepike was what we call a poker. [< OE pic = a pointed tool] – Cf. POULAINE

Pilch. Fur-lined garment; also a woollen or leather garment. [< late OE pylce = cloak < L pellis = skin] – Cf. PELISSE

Pile 1. A javelin or an arrow; also the sharp, pointed end of a lance.

Pile 2. Her. A triangular shape, like the head of an arrow, formed by two lines pointing downwards.

Pilgrimage. Adam was the first pilgrim: after the expulsion from Eden life became exile; within life there is the journey towards salvation. The great time of pilgrimage was the 12–15c, esp. for ordinary people. But even in the 9c monks and kings made pilgrimage to Rome. Indeed, Alfred the Great went twice, in 853 and 855. Then the journey took up to two months. One pilgrim in the early 10c noted 79 stopping-places or pilgrim hostels for overnight stops. Only after the First *Crusade was preached in 1095 did the idea of going further than Rome become widespread. It is important to note that around Jerusalem, in Palestine, and in Egypt, the Saracens and others were very tolerant of early European Christians. So long as fair money was paid for what was required there was little tension. Indeed even when war was waged against them by virtue of their not being Christian, they at first simply laughed at the idea, thinking it absurd to fight for no reason, as they saw it. The Latin used of both pilgrim and crusader was peregrinus. – Cf. AD LIMINA; CRUSADES; PEREGRE ITER ARRIPUIT; PLACES OF PILGRIMAGE

Pillard. Lit. ‘plunderer’. Term used in the phrase chevalier pillard = a plundering knight. Not all knights in Arthurian romance were noble and well behaved; rather there were killers and robbers in literature and the real world who could be called ‘knights’. The 14c Latin form is pilardus. The German equiv. was Raubritter. [< Fr. piller = rob, plunder; from which our pillage]

Pillory. A device which held an offender by head and hands or by hands and feet for public punishment, where public humiliation was intense. Offenders were to be amerced the first two or three times, so long as the offence were not too grievous. However, the pillory’s use was qualified: it was to be used without bodily peril to either man or woman. In the 12c Chester brewers of bad ale were put into the cathedra stercoris, i.e. the shit-seat or dung-seat. However, the pillory was not used as often as popular imagination has it. For instance, in London between 1347 and 1375 the pillory was only resorted to 23 times. – Cf. CUCK-STOOL; TOW

Pillory, judgement of the. In the mid-14c, this judgement provided articles of inquest into violations of assizes regarding bread and beer and their various measures; the price of wine was also included. A jury of 12 men gathered the various measures to be examined and everything was done publicly: nothing was concealed from public justice. A link was made between the price of wheat and that of ale, e.g. when a quarter of barley was sold for 2s, then four quarts of beer should be sold for 1d. Bakers were warned three times before sentencing to the *pillory if prices or weight of loaves were out of accord with the assize; butchers were punished if they sold contaminated, unwholesome or unfit meat or if the animal had died of *murrain. – Cf. previous

Pincerna. A pincerna was a butler in the household; from the 11c an important member of the royal household. – Cf. next; DAPIFER

Pincernarius. An officer of the buttery, i.e. a butler. – Cf. previous

Pinder [punder]. Officer of a *manor responsible for stray animals. In the Boldon Book, the existence of pinderland was mentioned. It indicated that whoever held pinderland should be the pinder, i.e. the officer responsible for strays. [< OE pyndan = to enclose or impound] – Cf. next; LEVANT; REEVE

Pinfold. A pen for holding stray cattle or sheep. [< OE pundfald = pund = a pound or enclosure + fald = a fold] – Cf. previous

Pipe Rolls. Records of the *exchequer, the financial section of the *curia regis; yearly accounts of the royal income from *county sheriffs and other financial officials. The account of each shire (or other district) was entered on both sides of a single membrane made of two sheets of parchment sewn end to end; the membranes were then sewn together at the top, like a modern calendar, and rolled up, so that, as the *Dialogus de Scaccario says, ‘they look like a pipe’. The earliest Pipe Roll dates from 1130; the continuous sequence begins in 1155–6. – Cf. TALLY STICK

Piper. Latin word for *pepper. Thus black pepper was piper niger; white pepper piper albus. Piperarius was the Latin title of a *pepperer.

Piscary. The ancient right to take fish from ponds and pools and streams; the Latin word used in records was piscaria. [< L piscis = fish] – Cf. next; RIGHTS OF COMMON

Piscina. A fish-pond, often attached to monasteries (for eating fish on Fridays); a swimming pool; the large wash-basins found in monasteries. [< L piscis = fish] – Cf. previous

Pittance. A gift to a religious house for the provision of food and wine on special occasions, e.g. on the donor’s anniversary, when prayers were said for his or her soul or on other specific festivals. Such gifts were most commonly for the provision of extra food and wine. [< L pietas = pity] – Cf. next; OBIT

Pittancer. That member of a monastery charged with the distribution of pittances. – Cf. previous; OBEDIENTIARY

Placebo. Lit. ‘I shall please’. The *vespers of the dead, placebo being the first word of the *antiphon sung during the office of the dead.

Places of pilgrimage. There were four major sites of pilgrimage for the English: SS Peter and Paul in Rome, which included visiting the shrines in the city for 40 days, a quarantine; St James of Compostella in Spain; St Thomas at Canterbury; and the Three Kings at Cologne. – Cf. PILGRIMAGE; THOMIPETA

Placitum. Latin word for a law suit or plea; a case heard before a court. [< L placeo = to please]

Plague. Colloquial term for the disastrous outbreak of disease, esp. in 1348, and known in the words of Henry Knighton (d. 1396) as ‘the general mortality of the world’. [< L plaga = a wound; later, a pestilence] – Cf. BLACK DEATH

Plainsong. Generic term for the unaccompanied music of monks singing in unison, e.g. *Gregorian chant. The rhythm of the song was and still is determined by the natural accents of the text being sung. The word ‘plain’ refers to the single line of melody, its monophony, and to the lack of a set rhythm.

Plantagenet. The dynastic kings of England from Henry II to Richard III, 1154–1485. ‘Plantagenet’ arose as the nickname of Count Geoffrey of Anjou (d. 1151), father of Henry II, apparently from his practice of sporting a sprig of broom (planta genista); another suggestion is that he favoured broom as cover in his hunting grounds. The plant was adopted as the family *crest. However, the use of the name dates from the 15c.

Plea Rolls. Rolls recording the proceedings of the court of common pleas, which was known as De banco = of the bench (of justices). The rolls date from 1190 and show the court met at Westminster. Most of the work involved civil disputes between private persons and such problems as land transactions.

Pleading, Statute of. Enacted in 1362, the statute stated that ‘all pleas [in the king’s courts] … shall be pleaded, shewed, defended, answered, debated, and judged in the English tongue’. – Cf. ENGLISH

Pleas of the Crown. The crown reserved certain grave crimes to its own jurisdiction, e.g. the harbouring of outlaws, ambush, forcible entry into a house. This ensured that local pressure or influence would not play a part in judgement.

Pleas of the Hall. One of the functions of the court of the *verge, to hear cases arising within the royal household and also within the verge itself, i.e. the surrounding area.

Plena arma. Lit. ‘fully armed’. A knight or lord was required to possess *hauberk, shield and sword when answering the call to military service.

Plenary indulgence. Phrase used when a complete remission of punishment was granted. These were at first granted only on special occasions; in time more frequently. Pope Urban II (d. 1099) allowed such *indulgences to all crusaders when he remitted all their penances for full confession.

Plenus villanus. Lit. ‘full villein’. A term sometimes found in reference to a *villein able to supply two oxen for the *plough-team. A villein able to supply one ox was known as a dimidus villanus.

Plough Day/Monday. First Monday after Epiphany (6 January), which marked the beginning of the ploughing season, when the ground had to be newly broken. – Cf. MIRACLE PLAY

Ploughland. See CARUCATE

Plough-scot. The *AS levy or tax of one penny paid each year on a plough, intended to fund local churches. – Cf. CIRICSCEAT; MORTUARY; SCOT; SOUL-SCOT

Plough-team. Two men worked the eight-ox plough-team: one guided the plough itself, and was known as the *conductor; the other, the *fugator, drove the oxen and also tended them during the year. There is a particularly good illustration of such a team and its two men in the Luttrell Psalter (fol. 170r). [fugator < L fugo = to drive; conductor = a guide, leader]

Plumbaria. A lead mine. Lead mines and mines for other mineral deposits on royal lands were rarely given away. A lead mine would make renders of lead slabs, of perhaps 250 slabs a year. [< L plumbum = lead] – Cf. PLUMBUM ALBUM

Plumber. Orig. a person who worked with lead, after the Latin plumbum = lead. Indeed English plumbers were in great demand on the continent: English lead roofed both Clairvaux and Rouen cathedrals in the 12c. However, lead was also used for rain-pipes and guttering, and the Romans had used it for carrying fresh water. The abbey at Bury St Edmunds had a two-mile-long system of lead pipes for its water supply. In 1091, the bishop of Coutances requested an English plumber be sent to mend the roof of his *cathedral which had been damaged by lightning. One Brismet, the plumber, was sent to help. – Cf. previous and next

Plumbum album. Lit. ‘white lead’, i.e. tin. – Cf. previous; PLUMBARIA

Plummet. A piece of lead, shaped like the modern pencil, used for drawing and marking lines on MSS. [< L plumbum = lead]

Pluralist. A cleric who held more than one Church office, e.g. *prebend or *benefice. It was common practice in this period. Many pluralists were foreigners appointed by the pope; such men were doubly resented. However, some senior members of the Church, e.g. Bishop Grosseteste (d. 1253), forswore the practice, encouraging others to do the same, esp. foreigners unable to speak English.

Po. A peacock or peahen.

Poitrel. See PEYTRAL

Poitrine pour justes. Armour breast-plate designed only for use in a *joust and not as sturdy or heavy as one built for real battle. [< Fr. poitrine = breast + pour justes = for jousts]

Pole. Unit of measure equal to 5½ yards; also known as a ‘perch’. – Cf. ACRE; FURLONG

Poleaxe. A formidable weapon used in combat on foot by dismounted knights. It carried an axe, as its name suggests, but two other weapons were integrated: a hammer and a long spike. Poleaxes were usually long-handled, giving extra force to the blow delivered by a long swing, most effectively against the head. [< OE pollax = poll (i.e. head) + axe] – Cf. HALBERD

Policraticus. A work finished in 1159, written by John of Salisbury (c.1115– 80), erstwhile secretary to Thomas Becket and later bishop of Chartres. Referred to sometimes as the Statesman’s Book, it was intended as a philosophy of the contemporary state. The Policraticus is of real importance for being a truly medieval statement, appearing as it did before the work of Aristotle was available, which profoundly influenced later thinking.

Polinctor. Latin word for an undertaker. In a parish, the undertaker might also act as bellman and lamplighter.

Poll tax. Poll = head, as in head count. This tax was imposed on three occasions in the last quarter of the 14c. The first was that of 1377; this was followed in 1379 by a graduated tax. The latter’s failure resulted in the removal of the *chancellor, Richard Scrope. In 1380, parliament permitted a further tax through the new chancellor, Simon Sudbury, archbishop of Canterbury. The tax was assessed as three groats on every man and woman over the age of 15. Its consequence at both times – 1379 and 1380 – was civil unrest, though the *Peasants’ Revolt of 1381 was more serious, esp. in the loss of life.

Pollard. One of the false silver coins which entered England after Edward I’s recoinage of 1279–80. They were so called because of the head they depicted. [< ME poll = a head] – Cf. CROCKARD

Pomace. The mash left after apples had been crushed in the making of cider. [< Fr. pomme = an apple] – Cf. next

Pomeis. Her. Round green shapes or roundels representing apples. [< Fr. pomme = an apple] – Cf. previous

Pommel. Spherical ornament at the top of tent or flag pole; the part at the front of a saddle. The term was also used of the knob or boss on the handle of a sword. These could be plain or ornamental but there were a great many styles. [< OFr. pommel = apple, fruit < L pomus = fruit]

Pone. A writ by which a suit was transferred from a *county court to a higher court. *Bracton said of it: ‘When a plea begun by writ of right has, at the petition of the demandant, been transferred to the great court by pone, the tenant must be summoned to be present there to answer the demandant with respect thereto.’ [< L pono = to place]

Pontage. The right to charge tolls to cross a bridge. The OE form was brudtholl, i.e. the right of toll; the Latin term was pontagium. In return the toller was required to maintain the bridge – a requirement frequently ignored. Often a small chapel was attached to a bridge. Hermits were known to take residence in such chapels and were givens alms by travellers, though often the *hermit was an unlicensed impostor. [< L pons = a bridge] – Cf. BARRAGIUM; RECLUSE; TRIMODA NECESSITAS

Pontarius. Latin term for a bridge-maker.

Pontifical. Book of office with the forms for the various rites performed by a bishop and the pope as bishop of Rome, e.g. ordination, consecration of a church, confirmation. [< L pontifex = a bishop]

Popinjay. Target for archers made from feathers or plumage attached to a pole; they resembled birds and were hung free to move.

Porcaria. Latin term for a pig-sty; the word was also used of that part of a *manor which was devoted to breeding pigs. Such farms would need access to pannagium. [< L porcus = a pig] – Cf. next

Porcarius. A pig-keeper, swineherd. – Cf. previous

Port. A walled town, esp. a market town; also gate or gateway set into the wall of such a town. [< L portus = a haven] – Cf. PORTMAN; PORTREEVE

Portcullis 1. Heavy grating of wood and metal which slid up and down, securing the entrance of a fortress or castle. [< OFr. port = door + coulice = sliding] – Cf. HERSE

Portcullis 2. Her. Vertical and horizontal lines crossing each other over a *field. – Cf. HERSE

Portcullis 3. Her. One of the four *pursuivants of the (English) College of Arms. The other three are *Blue Mantle, *Rouge Croix, and *Rouge Dragon. He is so named for the portcullis depicted on his badge. – Cf. ARMS, COLLEGE OF

Porteous. A portable *breviary. [< OFr. portehors < porte = carry + hors = outside]

Portman. Term for a town *burgess used before the 14c. *Port was the term used for a walled town, esp. one with a market. A portman was one of a group chosen to be responsible for a town’s administration. – Cf. next; JURAT; PORTREEVE

Portman-moot. The gathering, i.e. *moot, of the men of a *port; sometimes also referred to as a portmote. As a court, it was distinct from any seigniorial/lord’s court, as was the burh-moot. – Cf. MOOT

Portmote. See previous

Portreeve. Chief officer of a town; someone with a rôle similar to mayor; also, the officer responsible for looking after the king’s interests in London. [< OE portgerefan] – Cf. PORT and REEVE

Posse comitatus. Lit. ‘force of the county’. The early English institution consisting of a shire’s able-bodied citizens, who would be summoned to help a *sheriff or other officer of the law in maintaining public order, or chasing felons and such like. – Cf. COUNTY

Possessory assizes. Assizes established during the reign of Henry II dealing with questions of possession, as the name suggests. They were particularly important after the *Anarchy of Stephen’s reign. – Cf. MORT D’ANCESTOR; NOVEL DISSEISIN

Posset. A drink, considered a delicacy, made from hot milk curdled with wine and sweetened with sugar, to which spices might be added.

Postern. Small side door to a castle, useful for getting in or out discreetly.

Pot metal. Technique for making stained glass by adding one or more metallic oxides to molten glass. – Cf. PAINT; YELLOW

Potell. A liquid measure equivalent to four pints. [< pot + -ell as dim.]

Potent [potencé]. Her. A T-shape or crutch. The term refers to one of the heraldic furs shown alternately as *argent or azure patches arranged so as to resemble a crutch. – Cf. COUNTER-POTENT

Potentiores. Lit. ‘the powerful’. Term used of the senior men of the great London *guilds, those who controlled their guild and with others sought to influence and control London. The word was also used of men outside London, those who were wealthy and influential, being involved in local politics and sitting on town councils. The word was sometimes used to refer to the council on which the men sat. [< L potens = powerful] – Cf. BUZONE; POOR; PROBI HOMINES

Potestas. Lit. ‘power’. In this period, in which all men up to the king had a lord, such men were said to be under the potestas of their lord. This power required service from the tenant and reciprocal protection for the tenant from the lord. Sons were also under the potestas of their father. This might be ended with the father’s death, but also by the permanent banishment of the father, which was known as a ‘civil death’.

Pottum fimare. The dung-cart, a necessity in every town and *burh. [< L pottum = pot + fimare = dung, clay]

Poulaine. Long-pointed and very fashionable shoes; known in the AN as souliers à la poulaine as the shoes’ style came from Poland. They were also known as ‘crakows’. – Cf. PIKES

Poulter 1. That member of a noble or royal household whose duty was the provision of poultry and other foods; also the member of a monastery similarly charged. [< OFr. poulet = a chicken] – Cf. OBEDIENTIARY

Poulter 2. Metrical form of a poem written in lines alternating between 12 and 14 syllables.

Pound. English unit of weight derived from the Roman libra ponda; in currency 20 silver shilling coins or 240 pennies weighed 1 lb. Hence abbr. of monetary pound libra = L, stylised as £.

Praedial. Service or due owed a lord by a *serf or tenant which was attached to the *fief or tenure. These are distinguished from other services known as *‘aids’, which were deemed personal.

Praefectus. Latin term with varying uses. It was sometimes translated as *reeve (gerefa); but was also used of a town’s head man and of the man in charge of a royal estate.

Praemunire, Statutes of. The statutes of 1353, 1365, 1393 were attempts to prevent the referral of English court judgements to a foreign state – which in effect meant appeals to the papacy, thus invoking papal authority. Later Henry VIII would use them in his conflict with Cardinal Wolsey in 1529. [L praemunio = safeguard, fortify, defend in advance]

Praepositus. The *reeve was so named in Latin records. [< L praepositus = placed in command; the person in front, representing the lord] – Cf. HIGH REEVE

Prebend. Stipend/income granted to a *canon or *prebendary; the money was provided via an endowment. [< L praebeo = to supply, to provide]

Prebendary. One who holds a *prebend; a *canon whose stipend was derived from a prebend.

Precarium 1 [precatio]. Additional services or *boon work required by a lord over and above those which formed a part of tenure. These were ad precem = at the request (of the lord). [< L prex = a request, a prayer]

Precarium 2. A loan received as a benefit by a tenant from a landowner. No set term or charge was specified. Often, too, the landowner was the patron of the tenant, his protector and lord. The land was held in *usufruct. The closest English word is ‘loan’. Like any loan it could be called in; from this that we have ‘precarious’.

Precentor. The director of singing in a *cathedral who was also responsible for choral services. His other responsibilities included being librarian and archivist. Further duties were maintaining the *mortuary roll and ensuring prayers for the dead were said when required, and choosing texts to be copied in the *scriptorium. [< L praecentor = leader in singing] – Cf. OBIT

Precursores. See PURVEYOR

Preequitator. Title used in royal account books for one of the attendants of the king’s baggage train. He was a kind of outrider, working in conjunction with *sumpter men and the carters. [< L prae = before + equitator = rider on horseback] – Cf. BAGGAGE TRAIN

Premonstratensians. The monastic order was founded by St Norbert in 1120, at Prémontré in France. Its members wore a long white cloak and hood over a white cassock and were known as White Canons. They also wore a white cap or biretta. Like the Cistercian order, they preferred remote, unpopulated places, and were unafraid of hard manual labour. Again like the Cistercians, all their churches were dedicated to Our Lady. They arrived in England in 1143, founding their first house at Newham, eventually growing to 31 abbeys.

Prest. A financial device which enabled payments to be made in advance to members of the royal household and also departments of the household. It was often used outside England, when clerks and knights for example were away from their sources of income. Magnates had their own bankers, but most people relied upon prests, authorised by the treasurer of the *king’s wardrobe. The accounts were maintained in a book known as prestita privata, i.e. private prests. [< OFr. prester = to lend]

Pretium corii. Lit. ‘skin price’. This was the price required from a slave on his manumission: 30d had to be paid to the lord before witnesses. The *LHP adds that the skin price was ‘a token that [the slave] may be worthy of it for ever’. – Cf. HYDGELD

Prime. The first of the hours of canonical prayer. – Cf. HORARIUM

Primer seisin. The claim of a lord to hold an estate after the death of its tenant until the heir had paid an appropriate *relief. Primer seisin was one of the *feudal incidents. If there was no heir, the land would *escheat to the lord. – Cf. SEISIN

Primum mobile. The tenth and outermost of the spheres which were thought to make up the universe in the system devised by Ptolemy, astronomer of Alexandria (d. c.165). This tenth sphere caused all other inner spheres to move in its revolution of 24 hours. [L primum = first + mobile = moving, i.e. first mover or first moving thing]

Prior provincial. The head of a province in the *Dominican order.

Prior. Superior of a religious house of canons or friars but deputy to an *abbot.

Priory. A house of canons regular; a monastery ruled by a *prior or a *convent by a prioress. – Cf. ALIEN PRIORY

Prisage. Toll levied by royal officials on provisions, esp. on wines. Prisa was the Latin term from the 11c. [< AN prise = to take]

Privy Council. The body of advisers appointed to advise the monarch. It was an offshoot of the *curia regis composed of the king’s tenants-in-chief, household officials, and indeed anyone else the king chose. From it grew larger councils, which in turn emerged as *parliament. It was named ‘privy’ as it was for the private advice of the monarch, although it lacks executive power.

Privy purse. A part of the *king’s wardrobe. Purchases of such things as household stores, and the disbursement of small sums or payment to *mercenaries, were made through the purse; it was also used for receipt of payments made while the king was on his *itinerary.

Privy seal. A privy seal was in use during the reign of King John. From c.1230 – during Henry III’s reign – it became a permanent feature of royal administration, being used to authenticate letters less formal than those issued by the *chancery. It was usually kept by the controller of the *king’s wardrobe until 1313, when the post of keeper of the privy seal was created. By this time the keeper was an important officer of state and the office went out of court. Acquiring further importance, the privy seal was replaced for more secret purposes by that of the *signet. The privy seal ranked between the *great seal and the signet; it was known sometimes as a secretum, i.e. something separate, kept apart and thus secret. The office was abolished in 1884. – Cf. SECRETARIUS REGIS; SIGNET SEAL, OFFICE OF THE

Pro amore. Lit. ‘for love’. Phrase used of certain grants made by the king. Part of a magnate’s power resided in his ability to protect and advance those who owed him allegiance. Thus, a man favoured by the king was able to elicit pardons from the king – for a suitable sum of money. With such a grant, the magnate’s own status was further enhanced. However, by the reign of Henry II such grants had disappeared from the records.

Probi homines. Lit. ‘honest, discreet men’. A rather vague term used to describe men deemed suitable to be councillors or men of local influence. They were necessarily free and successful, i.e. well off, having a business and possessing property. Today we might call them upright and middle-class. They were also known as *potentiores, or in French bons hommes. – Cf. next; BUZONE; UCHELWR

Procer. Generic term used in Latin records for one of the men of power, or a leader, i.e. barons, lords, nobles, tribal chiefs etc. A more direct translation = magnate. – Cf. previous

Proctor. Someone employed to manage another’s business affairs; a steward; also, a lawyer who worked in courts of *canon law. The term was used in the 13c and later of the official today called ‘churchwarden’. He was responsible for managing the funds for a parish church’s fabric maintenance. In the north of England, the proctor was also known as ‘kirkmaster’ or ‘church *grieve’.

Proffer roll. A list compiled at feudal military musters by the *marshal or a deputy. Under the heading for each *tenant-in-chief they would list the names of all the *men-at-arms who were to serve; also included was the number of horses at the muster. – Cf. RESTAURATIO EQUORUM

Proper 1. Parts of the mass which change with the liturgical calendar or for a particular occasion; section of *breviary or *missal which contains the proper of the mass and offices proper to holy days.

Proper 2. Her. Describes an object as represented in its natural colours as opposed to (heraldically) conventional tinctures.

Protonotary. The chief clerk in the court of *chancery. [< Gk. protos = first + L notarius = notary, clerk]

Proux [preux]. Proud. A word 11c Norman aristocrats applied to themselves as they sought to become recognised as natives of Normandy – assimilated into the wider world of Franks – and not as new incomers or descendants of Vikings. – Cf. CHEVALIER; PROWESS

Provisor hospitii. Lit. ‘provider of hospitality’. A *dapifer, as overseer of a large establishment, was assisted by a provisor hospitii, who was his deputy and responsible for the daily work of supply.

Provisors, Statute of. Statute of February 1351 intended to prevent the pope from exercising authority within the Church of England and from giving his often non-English candidates lucrative benefices in England. The statute ordained that election to bishoprics was to be free; that patrons should be free to present their choice to a benefice; that should this not happen, the king would have the right to present; that anyone who sought recourse to papal authority would be under penalty. – Cf. PRAEMUNIRE, STATUTES OF; PROUX

Prowess. This was an essential quality of a knight, being a combination of skill with both daring and valour. Such a skill was both developed and demonstrated at tournaments, whether in the *mêlée or in single combat on foot with a sword or jousting. Before the Battle of Najera in 1367, the Black Prince said in a prayer that he was there ‘for the maintenance of right, and for prowess and nobility … to gain a life of honour’. Prowess shares its etymology with *proux. [< OFr. prou = worthy, valiant, brave] – Cf. COURAGE

Prydein. The Welsh name for Britain and Britannia; the Irish form is Cruithin. The English ‘Britain’ is derived from Prydein, the initial letter having changed over time. – Cf. BRUTUS

Psalters, illuminated. Psalters were illuminated as early as the 8c and 9c and until the beginning of the 14c they are easily the most numerous of illuminated MSS. Around 1220, portable MS volumes supplanted the huge tomes favoured in the preceding century. The change in size resulted in a more angular and necessarily more compact script. For example, the initial letters were smaller, and the text was written in double columns. – Cf. BREVIARY; ILLUMINATION

Psaltery. Plucked stringed musical instrument. – Cf. DULCIMER

Puer. Lit. ‘a boy’. While usually meaning a boy, puer was also used to refer to a *vassal. This use is found in the *Bayeux Tapestry, when the text refers to the bishop of Bayeux’s followers. The word is also found in the Lincolnshire placename Ashby Puerorum = Ashby of the boys, so named for its being a *prebend for the support of Lincoln Cathedral’s choir boys.

Pui. An association formed in London in the 14c on the model of earlier puis established in France, for the encouragement of the art of chanson writing and singing. Ballads were particularly popular in the royal court at the time. The members of the Pui were all merchants of London, both English and French. The association had a ‘prince’ at its head, with the apostolic number of 12 companions, who were elected annually from all brothers of the association. Each year, after the election of the new prince who had written the best chanson of the year, all members processed through the streets of London.

Pulpitum. Double screen with a central doorway, separating monks in the choir from lay worshippers in the nave. During the service, both Epistle and *Gospel were read from it. It was also where the organ was housed. [< L pulpitum = a stage, a platform or scaffold]

Punder. See PINDER

Purfle. To decorate with embroidery or fur; also that decoration. – Cf. GRIS

Purpresture. Illegal enclosure of another’s land; this included encroaching upon another’s land and using it illegally. The word was used of raising fences to keep animals from cropland, such animals being of the *forest and the king’s sport. Bracton also says, ‘he who occupies [land], by exceeding the limits and boundaries of his land, is said to have committed a purpresture upon the king’. [< OFr. porprendre = to usurp, occupy < L praehendo = to take possession, to occupy] – Cf. DISSEISIN

Purpure. Her. The *tincture purple. It was indicated in black and white illustrations, by showing lines drawn from the shield’s *sinister chief to *dexter base, i.e. from top left to bottom right. [< L purpura = purple-dyed cloth]

Pursuivant. One of the officers of the College of *Arms; junior to a *herald.

Purveyance. Provision or providence. During war in the 13c and 14c there was compulsory purchase of food for the king’s army. However, it functioned like a levy as the buyer set the prices – which were lower than the current market. Additionally the food was frequently taken but not paid for. In 1352, Edward III accepted parliamentary legislation demanding his purveyors abide by regulations for fair prices and payment. This had little effect. – Cf. next

Purveyor. A royal official who arranged the king’s accommodation during his itineraries. Traders were required to allow the king’s purveyors first choice of all the goods on sale. Although payments were prescribed, a fair rate was rarely paid for supplies. Indeed there were frequent complaints that suppliers were not paid at all. Also, there were many impostors requisitioning for themselves. The name was changed from purveyor to achatour = buyer, in an attempt to eliminate corruption – a hopeful but futile exercise. The Latin term was praecursor. – Cf. previous; CLERK OF THE MARKET; ITINERARY

Put-log. As large buildings such as cathedrals were being constructed, putlogs were used as scaffolding to build up on what had been built before. Today rectangular holes in the walls of cathedrals can still be seen where these substantial pieces of wood were inserted. ‘Put-log’ is a 17c term.