T

T/O map. A conceptual diagram of the world, with a T-shape within an O creating three parts which represent the three continents, i.e. Europe, Asia and Africa. The O represented the ocean surrounding the world. The perpendicular bar of the T represented the Mediterranean, while the lateral bar represented the river Nile, separating Asia and Africa and the River Dnieper separating Europe and Asia. – Cf. MAPPA MUNDI

Tabard. Outer garment made of coarse material worn coat-like by peasants and ordinary town dwellers; later, c.1420–50, worn as an open garment by a knight over his armour and displaying his armorial bearings. – Cf. SARSENET

Table dormant. Table of fixed position in the hall or main room of a house. Most tables were trestle tables, to be dismantled after use, so creating more space in the main public room. A table dormant implied its owner had ample space and money enough for such a solid piece of work.

Tabor. Small drum used by minstrels as an accompaniment to other musicians. It was an instrument which required little skill but keeping time. It could also be used in conjunction with a fife, played by the same person. [?< tabira = Persian drum]

Taeog. An unfree Welsh tenant; equivalent of the English *serf.

Tail. Subsidy or tax levied by the king; an irregular, even, arbitrary impost. The Latin form is tallium. – Cf. TALLAGE

Taillé. Her. Term used to describe a shield divided in half by a line from *sinister *chief to *dexter base.

Taint. Damage or blemish in a hawk’s plumage due to poor diet. – Cf. ATTAINT 2

Tainus regis. Lit. ‘king’s thegn’. Although *DB occasionally applies the term to great pre-Conquest landholders subject only to the king, it is primarily used of lesser royal officials, whose expertise was necessary to the incoming Norman administration and who therefore continued to hold land in 1086. These taini regis held their lands by *thegnage, a tenure analogous to *serjeanty and soon amalgamated with it. Many 13c serjeanties can be traced back to lands held by taini regis in 1086. – Cf. THEGN

Tale. Payment by tale was the literal counting out of the coins, rather than by weight. – Cf. AD PONDUM

Tallage. Tax imposed by both the Norman and the early *Plantagenet kings upon towns and *demesne lands of the crown. Royal tallages were sometimes imposed before parliament claimed its right of review of money matters. A *villein would also have to pay his lord tallage among other dues. Tallage became the word for any impost demanded by a superior. The Latin is tallagium. [< OFr. taillet = a subsidy or tax] – Cf. next; TAIL

Tally stick. A stick marked with cuts or notches, which indicated payment made, it was then cut in half lengthwise by the talliator so each party to the transaction had a copy of the exchange, in effect a receipt. These sticks were also used as money within departments of the *exchequer for instance. Tally sticks continued in use until 1826. [< L talea = a stick] – Cf. previous

Talu. An accusation; also a claim, i.e. to a piece of land. [< OE talu = statement, claim, action at law] – Cf. AGNUNG

Tang. That unseen part of a sword securing it within the handle.

Tanner. A man who tanned skins and hides using tannin (made from bark). He was not permitted to make shoes from his finished work. The Latin is tannerus. – Cf. CORIARIUS; TAWYER, WHITE

Tappestere. A woman who served drink in an *ale-house; a female tapster. [< OE tæppian = to open a cask or barrel] – Cf. -ESTERE

Targe. Small round shield, also known as a *‘buckler’, used by troops on foot.

Tasse [tasset]. That part of a suit of armour making a skirt of scales or overlapping plates designed to protect hips and thighs.

Tau cross. A (walking) stick with a T-shaped handle carried by a bishop as a sign of his office. [Gr. tau = a letter resembling the letter T]

Taw. Verb used for the preparation of leather, esp. without tannin. Such a craftsman was known as a *‘tawyer’. From the OE noun taw = an implement, the modern ‘tool’ is derived. Then as now, taw and tool, share the same slang reference to the male genitalia. [< OE tawian = to prepare, make ready]

Tawdry lace. Cheap goods sold at the annual St Audrey’s fair, whose name time garbled into our ‘tawdry’. St Audrey (d. 679) was Æthelthryth (Etheldreda), foundress of a double monastery at Ely. – Cf. VERNICLE

Tawyer, white [whittawer]. A craftsman who prepared and dressed leather without recourse to tannin – hence the use of ‘white’. Instead of tannin, he would use a mixture of alum and salt. The result was a pale or white, soft leather. – Cf. TAW

Tealby coins. Hoard of 12c coins found in the Lincolnshire village of Tealby. They were 90 per cent silver pennies, all bearing the name Henry II, and dating between 1158 and 1180. Such coins are named Tealby as those found in the village serve as exemplars. – Cf. SHORT-CROSS PENNY

Team. Right of a lord to supervise the vouching for the quality of goods and the presenting of evidence of the right to sell presented goods. [OE getieman = to vouch to warranty] – Cf. TOLL AND TEAM; VOUCHING TO WARRANTY

Tegnus. See THEGN

Teithi. A breeding stallion. It was deemed to be a teithi if it could cover two mares in quick succession. At this time, the quality of offspring was thought to be the ‘gift’ of the stallion, not the mare.

Templars. See KNIGHTS TEMPLAR

Temple. The church of the *Knights Templar. The first to be built in England was in Holborn, not far from today’s Chancery Lane, then known as New Lane, after they acquired the land in 1130. The church was built with a round nave, after the Holy Sepulchre in Jerusalem. This became known as the Old Temple when a new site was found on the banks of the Thames. The New Temple was consecrated in 1185.

Tempora minutionis. Lit. ‘times of lessening’. – Cf. BLOOD-LETTING

Temporalities. Used of the lay or secular possessions of the Church, but particularly of those which provided income and revenue for religious establishments and senior clerics such as bishops. [< L temporalitas = the temporal world] – Cf. DE INTENDENDO; GLEBE; SPIRITUALITIES

Tenant. In this period, the king was the great landlord; from him downwards land was held by tenure with various dues and obligations. A tenant could be duke or peasant. [< L teneo = to hold] – Cf. next; FEE SIMPLE

Tenant-in-chief [tenant-in-capite]. – In the great chain of feudal allegiance from monarch down to peasant, the tenant-in-chief held his land directly of the king; the Church and earls were all tenants-in-chief. In *DB the tenantsin-chief were listed at the beginning of each county, each being given a separate section. The term *honour is used of all the fiefs held by a tenant, even if in more than one *county. – Cf. ALIENATION; IN CHIEF

Tenement. The holding of land of a lord by freehold or other kinds of tenure; later, any building used as a living accommodation. [< L teneo = to hold]

Tenné. Her. Tawny or orange-brown *tincture.

Tenser. Someone who lived in a town but who was not a free man, having to pay for the privilege of remaining there. – Cf. next

Tenseries. Protection money. During the *Anarchy of Stephen’s reign, rebel lords imposed tenseries on towns: arbitrary impositions to raise money. Failure to pay made the towns’ people liable to torture or a speedy death. These are mentioned in the *ASC for the year 1137. Tenseria was the 12c form. [< L tenso = to protect] – Cf. previous

Tenter. Frame on which material was secured by hooks so as to dry without shrinkage or loss of shape. From this we have ‘on tenter-hooks’. [< L tendo = to stretch]

Terce. Third canonical hour of the day for prayer, i.e. 9 am; one of the Little Hours of the divine office. [< L tertius = third] – Cf. HORARIUM; NONE; SEXT

Termagant. Imaginary god supposed by ill-informed Christians to be worshipped by Muslims.

Termor. A person who held land for a set term, i.e. a number of years or until he died. [< AN terme = set period of time]

Terra regis. Lit. ‘the king’s land’. Phrase used in *DB for all the land still in the king’s possession, i.e. that which had not been given to one of his barons or other person in return for services. The term continued in use well into the 12c, when there was still much land held by the king himself. Such land was known as the ‘royal *demesne’. However, this was not a static portfolio.

Terrae carucae. Lit. ‘plough-lands’. The long, narrow field of the long acre was necessitated by the plough-team of eight oxen. Such rigs were cumbersome and could not turn so neatly as the small team of two animals – or even people – pulling the light plough known as the aratra, a plough known to the Romans. The oxen needed more space to turn in, making the ‘long acre’ a practical solution. – Cf. ACRE; ARATURA; CARUCA

Terrae datae. Lit. ‘land given’. Broad term used of land which had been granted by the king. The term was used in the *exchequer for accounting for diminished income from the counties via the *sheriff. Land which had been granted to a tenant no longer contributed to the *county *farm.

Terram depopulare. See CHEVAUCHÉES

Terrier. List of tenants with details of their various holdings, rents and duties; it later became a detailed record of boundaries and acreages. [< L terra = land] – Cf. CADASTRAL MAP

Tester 1. Although originally used of the canopy over a bed, it was also used of the canopy or the sounding-board of a pulpit. [< OFr. teste = a head]

Tester 2. Head-piece of a suit of armour. [< OFr. teste = a head]

Teston. Shilling coin issued by Henry VII.

Teulu. Welsh ruler’s household troops, or the royal body-guard, maintained by him, and who fought closely with him and were expected to die with him if need be. – Cf. COMITATUS 1

Textura. Modern term for a form of *black letter script used from the mid-14c. Letters were formed by vertical strokes – known as ‘minims’ – often close together and joined top and bottom, making it difficult to read today. It is most often found in the opening words of charters and inscriptions on monuments. – Cf. INSULAR; MINUSCULE

Thack and rape. The thatch cover of a hayrick and the supporting rope ties. [< OE þæc = roof]

Thane. See next

Thegn [thane]. Originally meaning a servant, the term was applied from the late 9c to members of the AS aristocracy, whose *wergeld was 1,200s. In Latin texts they were called ministri, which carries the same connotations. The standing of a thegn depended on that of his lord: one who served the king was a king’s thegn; one who served a lord other than the king (i.e. bishop, abbot, earl or greater thegn) was a median (i.e. middling) thegn. All were noble and outranked the *ceorl; distinctions between them were marked by the amount due as *heriot. Duties of the median thegn were set out in *Rectitudines Singularum Personarum: ‘The law of the thegn is that he be entitled to his bookright, and that he shall contribute three things in respect of his land: armed service, and the repairing of fortresses and work on bridges [the *trimoda necessitas]. Also in respect of many estates, further service arises on the king’s order such as service connected with the deer fence [*deorhege] at the king’s residence, and equipping a guardship, and guarding the coast, and guarding the lord, and military watch, almsgiving and church dues, and many other things.’ Such duties were owed by the king’s thegn to the king himself. The latinised forms are tainus, teignus. [< OE ðegen = servant, follower] – Cf. TAINUS REGIS

Thegnage. The holding of land in return for service; a holder could be a royal officer (*tainus regis) or a lesser *thegn. It was analogous to *serjeanty, with which it was amalgamated after 1066.

Thesaurarius. Latin word for a treasurer.

Theta. The Greek letter theta was a symbol of death in this period (the Greek for death is thanatos). It was also used in the various account books to indicate a cancelled entry. Arab mathematicians recognised its value and incorporated it in the mid-10c as zero, a concept of Indian origin.

Thing. Norse word for a meeting or assembly. The word can be found in placenames such as Thingoe in Suffolk, which comes from the ON Þinghaugr = assembly mound, or Tynwald, the still-existing Manx parliament; in Scandinavia and subsequently in England the burial mound of a chieftain was often used as a meeting place.

Third penny. The earl’s share of the revenues accruing from his *shire; the other two pennies went to the king.

Thomipeta. Term used of a person going on a *pilgrimage to St Thomas Becket’s shrine in Canterbury. [< Thomas + L peta = seeker] – Cf. JACOBIPETA; ROMIPETA

Thrall. A slave.

Three Orders. A concept common both in England and the continent. It first appears as a developed idea in King Alfred’s writing where he says: ‘a king must have his land fully manned: he must have praying men (gebedemen), fighting men (fyrdmen) and working men (weorcmen)’. In Latin texts they were oratores, *bellatores and laboratores – broadly, monks and priests, warriors and the peasants upon whose labour all depended. This idea was not intended as a literal description of society, rather it was a vision of the ideal community in which all worked together and contributed to the common good.

Thrimsetel. A throne. [< OE þrim = glory + setel = seat; thus the throne is the ‘glory seat’] – Cf. SIEGE 1

Thrymsa [trymes]. AS gold or silver coin minted from c.630, at first copying Roman style, then after c.660 adopting distinctive AS decoration. Though initially issued in gold, by c.650 the thrymsa was being alloyed with silver; by 675 it was a wholly silver coin. In c.1000 the thrymsa was equal in value to 3d. [< L tremis = a Roman coin]

Thwaite. Naturalised Norwegian word = a clearing in a wood or land reclaimed for arable. It is commonly found for example on the NW coast of England, indicating settlements of Norwegian sailors who came from Ireland. [< ON þveit]

Tierce. Her. A *charge divided into three equal parts, each differently tinctured.

Tilt. Barrier separating knightly jousters designed to prevent converging horses from colliding with each other. The word came by transference to apply to the sport of jousting; also the place became the tilt-yard. The use of a barrier emerged when jousting was becoming more a sport and display of skill, rather than just practice in an art of war. While still dangerous, the intent was not to cause injury so much as simply to unseat one’s opponent and thereby gain praise; indeed points were scored by various hits. It was at this time that *chivalry was becoming self-conscious and tournaments expensive shows. There is a tilt-yard at Kenilworth Castle which may date to Richard I’s reign. – Cf. RECET

Timber. Term used for a collection or bundle of 40 furs or skins. The Latin word was timbria; tymbris was also used.

Timbre. *Crest worn on a knight’s helmet; also, the crest placed over the heraldic shield.

Timbrel. A popular instrument in this period, very like the modern tambourine.

Tincture. Her. Term for a colour, *metal or *fur used in coats of *arms and blazons. [< L tinctura = a dye]

Tippet. A long piece of material, like a scarf, or streamer, worn at the neck or arm, sometimes attached to a hood. It was also like a small cape and was worn like a shawl. These latter were worn both by men and women, plain and fancy. In the 19c a ‘Tyburn tippet’ was the colloquial phrase for the hangman’s noose. – Cf. TYBURN

Tir gwelyog. See GWELY

Tire. Clothing in general; it is a form of ‘attire’. Later, in the 15c, ‘tire’ was used of a fashionable woman’s headdress; it was *atour anglicised.

Tirones. Young men, young soldiers. The Latin word on the *Bayeux Tapestry = pueri. At one point Odo, bishop of Bayeux, is shown encouraging them. The word was also used, somewhat later, for the young fighters who hired themselves out as champions in civil duels. As their name suggests, they were young, beginners, tiros; certainly they were unknighted. When hired they would have had servants with them, adding to the costs of their employer. [< L tiro = a young soldier, a beginner, a young recruit] – Cf. DUELLUM; PUER

Tithe. A tenth part. It referred to the tenth part of the harvest, or general agricultural produce, for the support of Church and clergyman. Tithes were also referred to as ‘greater’ and ‘lesser’ tithes: the greater were those of wood, corn, hay; the lesser comprised milling and fishing, salt-making and young animals. – Cf. next

Tithing. Orig. one tenth of a *hundred; later, the 10 householders of a *frankpledge. A later Latin word is *decania. – Cf. previous

Tithingman. The leader of a tithing and parish peace officer. – Cf. previous

Tod. A measure of weight equal to 28 lb, used in weighing wool. However, such measures were liable to much local variation.

Toft. Site of a homestead and its various outbuildings; a field larger than the space occupied by a house; a small hill in an area of flat land. The word is found in placenames in the East Midlands, e.g. Huttoft (Lincs) = a homestead on a hill-spur, Sandtoft (Lincs) = a homestead on sandy soil.

Toft and croft. A holding comprising both homestead and its associated arable land.

Toison. Her. French word used sometimes for a fleece (of a lamb) when used as a *charge.

Toll and team. Term describing wide-ranging rights of a lord. In AS law, ‘toll’ indicated the lord’s right to take payment, i.e. commission on the sale of cattle or goods within his estate. ‘Team’ indicated the lord’s right to take the fines from those accused of stealing cattle; also it indicated the power to oversee the presentation of evidence of the right to sell presented goods. When new town charters were granted, ‘toll and team’ was usually included from the beginning. It was one of the rights granted in the Charter of the *Cinque Ports of 1155. [< 11c L teloneum = toll, tax < Gr. telos = tax] – Cf. next

Tollere. A tax gatherer. The job is remembered in the name of Tollerton (tollere + *-ton), in north Yorkshire. [< 11c L teloneum = toll, tax < Gr. telos = tax] – Cf. previous

-ton. Placename suffix = homestead. In early examples, the probable meaning = estate, as in numerous instances of Kingston = king’s estate. Increasing use of -ton after c.900 has been taken to indicate the rise of compact estates in the hands of *thegns, e.g. Wigston in Sussex = Wigstan’s homestead, also Alston, Derbyshire, = Alwine’s. From tun we have ‘town’. [< OE tun = fence, hence enclosure round a house, hence homestead, village, town] – Cf. -BY

Tonsure. The shaving of the head on acceptance into a religious community, in imitation of Christ’s crown of thorns; its style however was a source of contention between branches of the early Christian Church. The Irish tonsure up to the 8c was different – the front of the scalp was shaved. The adoption of the Roman style was a sign of the final dominance of Roman over the Irish or Celtic Church. [< L tondeo = to cut or shear]

Torche-cul. Straw for use in a latrine. The phrase can be read in two ways, offering a nice colloquial play on words. Torche can mean either a ‘torch’ for the giving of light for which straw could be used, or as a noun meaning ‘wipe’. Thus torche-cul means either an ‘arse-torch’ or an ‘arse-wipe’. – Cf. LONGAIGNE

Tornatio. Term used for the collision of two knights charging each other, whether in real war or during a *tournament. [< L tornus = a turn] – Cf. TILT

Torse. Her. Wreath-like band of material worn around a helmet. It was useful for identification and could be highly decorative at a *tournament. – Cf. COGNISANCE

Torteau. Her. A *roundel *gules, representing a round loaf of bread. [< OFr. tortel = cake]

Totus comitatus. Phrase used in charters of earldoms granted by William I to his followers in the great distribution of land following the Conquest = the total or complete rights of an earl. As a *tenant-in-chief, such a lord would not worry about others’ powers within his shire, only the king’s. Such a *fief would have the power of appointing the *sheriff, the collection of the *third penny, and other matters. The earl might or might not have the right of acting as *justiciar in his shire. Although the phrase suggests a clear-cut set of rights and privileges, in fact each was resolved on its own merits.

Touch. Term used for an assay mark. In a statute of 1423 provincial assay towns were required to have ‘divers touches’ so that each town could be identified by its touch. All smiths had to add the touch before any item was ‘set to sell’. – Cf. HALLMARK

Tourn. Circuit of his *county or jurisdiction made by a *sheriff twice each year; the visit of the court to each *hundred. [< OFr. tourner = turn, rotate]

Tournaments. Introduced to England as *Conflictus Gallicus, a tournament was a somewhat chaotic affair, known as a *‘mêlée’ – from which our use of the word. At first, the mêlée took place in open countryside, with a large number of knights and their attendants. The purpose was to take as many prisoners as possible, in conditions very similar to real conflict, so that they could be ransomed, for substantial sums of money, as well as to capture horse and weapons, expensive items. It was a dangerous business. In time, rules changed, as did the climate of ideas. With the emergence of *chivalry as an ideal, the conduct of tournaments was constrained somewhat. Single combat emerged, in which knights broke lances and scored points, in a joust, before fighting on foot with sword and mace. The Church banned them, seeing them as a waste of energy and lives which could be better used in defence of the Church. In England they were banned by Henry II. However, in Richard I’s reign they were permitted under licence. The tournament became fashionable, with lords competing against each other in organising the most elaborate and extravagant shows, both in England and in France. *Prowess in a tournament was good for a man’s reputation at court, while also being excellent practice for war. Henry IV was a great hero in England before he took the crown because of his prowess as a jouster. Much of the conduct of tournaments owed a great deal to literature, in particular to Froissart and the Arthurian Cycle. Turneamentum was the Latin form; ‘tourney’ was also used. [< OFr. tournei < L tornus = turn] – Cf. JOUST OF PEACE; JOUST OF WAR

Tourney. See previous.

Tow. Cheap coarse hemp or flax for low-quality spinning. Tow was bound on a *distaff which was carried by a woman on her way to the *pillory for punishment. To have ‘tow on the distaff’ meant one had ample work. – Cf. DISTAFF

Tractatus de Legibus et Consuetudinibus Regni Angliae. Treatise on the Laws and Customs of the Kingdom of England, c.1188. Attributed to Ranulph de Glanville (d. 1190), this is a text on English common law. Crucially, Glanville concentrated on decisions of justices as a basis for that law, i.e. on *jus, or on what had been done and decided in the past.

Trailbaston. Violent thugs and bandits – *mercenaries – who hired out their services during the reign of Edward I; later, the ordinances issued to control them. The first commissions of trailbaston were instituted by Edward I in 1304, a time of public disorder. They were intended to deal not only with outlaws but also those who supported them and benefited from their crimes. There is an outlaw’s song dating to c.1305 in which the need to bribe sheriffs is lamented. [< trail + baston = a club, thus a person who trails a club; as we say someone’s ‘knuckles scrape the ground’.] – Cf. BASTON; ROUTIER

Traiz. The game of draughts, played in a manner very similar to the modern game. [< OFr. trait = a move, in chess or draughts]

Transfluent. Her. Term used of water shown flowing through the arches of a bridge.

Transfretation. Modern term for the crossing of the Channel by English monarchs in this period; based on the 12c Latin transfretatio = crossing the sea. [< L trans = across + fretum = a strait or narrow sea]

Translation. The transfer of a bishop between sees; also, the removal of the remains of a saint from one place to another. In this latter case the move was usually to a specially prepared and dedicated shrine, done with solemn ceremony.

Transumpt. Word sometimes used for a copy or transcript of a record or legal document. [< L transsumo = to transcribe] – Cf. ENGROSS 2

Trapper. See next

Trappings [trapper]. The decorated or ornamental cover of a horse’s saddle or harness, sometimes with mail beneath; the more elaborate trappings covered the animal completely but for eye-holes and an opening for the muzzle. [< Fr. drap = a cover]

TRE. Acronym used in *DB, being the scribe’s shorthand for tempore regis Edwardi = in the time of King Edward (the Confessor). DB was ordered in 1085 to ascertain contemporary values of land and to compare them with those of King Edward’s reign, i.e. in 1065.

Treason. The breaking of allegiance to the crown and state; it often entailed plotting against the reigning monarch, i.e. high treason. ‘Petty treason’ was the killing of someone owed allegiance. Treason was the favoured charge of convenience used by one court faction to do down another. [< L trado = to betray]

Trebuchet. Machine for throwing or catapulting rocks during a siege. The device got its power from a counterweight which, when freed, released an arm which slung a missile. It was more accurate than its cousin, the *mangonel. The trebuchet was used to create further alarm and despondency among those it attacked when human and animal corpses were thrown into the castle or town under siege. [< OFr. trebucher = to overturn, to stumble, to overthrow] – Cf. CUCK-STOOL

Tree. In many poems and prose texts of this period, the ‘tree’ had become a symbol of the Cross. By the time of John Wyclif (d. 1384), it had become almost a commonplace. Central to Wyclif’s thought was the excessive worldliness of the Church; one of his Twelve Conclusions was set firmly against the use of images ‘of tre and ston’ – tre also signified the Cross, here and in other medieval writing.

Tree of honour. Such a tree served as the place where knights’ shields were fixed by way of challenge. Any knight wishing to take up the challenge would tap one or all the shields; terms and time and place would then be agreed for the jousting and fighting on foot. – Cf. CLOUGES; GAUNTLET; PAS D’ARMES

Treflé. See BOTONY

Trefoil. Her. Decoration in three parts, as a clover leaf; the word is also used architecturally. [< L trifolium = with three leaves]

Trencher. Piece of wood on which meat was carved. The word had orig. been used of the knife which carved. It was also a thick piece of bread which served as a plate and was given to the poor or the dogs when the meal was finished. A mid-15c rhyme describes how to ‘cut [venison] in the pasty and lay it on trencher’. [< OFr. trenchier = a cut, a cut through] – Cf. MANCHET 1

Trental. Church term for 30 masses said for the dead. An *obit might specify a number of trentals to be said for a named person; money being bequeathed for trentals. [< L trentalis = 30] – Cf. LIBRI MEMORIALES

Trespass. Transgression or offence other than *treason or felony; a civil wrong for which payment might be a redress; particularly an offence against another’s property. [< OFr. trespasser = to go or pass beyond]

Treuga Dei. See TRUCE OF GOD

Trial by combat [trial by battle]. An aspect of Norman law brought to England by the Conquest of 1066. It was believed that right would always triumph, even in physical contests. The practice had largely died out by the late 13c, though examples can be found as late as the 15c. – Cf. DUELLUM

Trian. Her. ‘In trian aspect’ refers to a figure showing only three-quarters, turned partially forwards.

Tribal Hidage. A document whose purpose and origin are not entirely clear. It comprises a list of assessments, using the *hide as the base unit. These assessments are thought to be for payments of *tribute to an unknown overlord. It is believed to date to the 7c; but the only extant MS is 11c. The ‘tribes’ enumerated included Mercians, South, West and East Saxons, men of Kent and Lindsey, and many others. However, Northumbrian peoples are not included. This suggests two possibilities: that the Tribal Hidage was produced for a Mercian king with no power over Northumbria, or for a Northumbrian king who required no list of his own territory and attendant tributes.

Tribute. Payment by a *vassal to his lord; money (usually) paid to ensure protection, e.g. money paid to Vikings at various times to stop raiding or to ensure peace.

Triduum. The three principal days of Easter, i.e. Maundy Thursday, Good Friday and Holy Saturday.

Trimoda necessitas. Three obligations, i.e. necessitas, owed by AS tenants and landholders: armed service in the *fyrd, the repair of forts and bridge building. These obligations were the only ones ever exempted from any grants of immunities. Sometimes one finds trinoda rather than trimoda; the English phrase ‘common burdens’ is also used. [< L trimoda = three modes or ways + necessitas = obligation] – Cf. THEGN

Trinovantum [Troynovant]. Name given to an ancient London by Geoffrey of Monmouth. He claimed that Trinovantum actually meant Troia nova, or New Troy. This ties in with the legend of Britain being founded by *Brutus, the great-grandson of Aeneas, after the fall of Troy. – Cf. BRUTUS

Trippant. See next

Tripping [trippant]. Her. Term used of a stag or deer depicted walking and looking to the *dexter side with one front foot poised off the ground. When animals other than deer were shown the term used was *passant.

Triton. Her. Triton was one of the minor gods of classical mythology. Heraldically, the word indicated the shell of a sea snail.

Trivet 1. Iron tripod arrangement for holding a kettle or cooking pot over a fire. – Cf. next

Trivet 2. Her. A charge showing a tripod or a stand with three feet. – Cf. previous

Trivium. The three disciplines of grammar, rhetoric and logic, which made up part of scholastic study; the trivium was viewed as preparatory to the more advanced *quadrivium.

Tron. Weighing machine used in public places, e.g. a market; later, the word came to be used to name a place in a town. The official who weighed goods was known as the tronator. [< OFr. trone < L trutina = a pair of scales, a balance] – Cf. next

Tronage. Charge for weighing goods on a *tron; also the right to levy such a charge. The Latin equivalent was tronagium.

Trope. A trope was a word or phrase added and sung as embellishment during divine office or the mass. After the 12c, the word was used of a book containing sequences of tropes.

Troubadour. A 11–13c writer of songs about *courtly love and *chivalry in Provençal. [< Fr. trouer = to find, invent, compose] – Cf. next; FABLEOR; SKALD

Trouvère. The northern equivalent of the *troubadour; from the 11c to 14c trouvères were composers of *chansons de geste and fabliaux. The difference in temperament between the two is striking, the Provençal courts being smaller, less powerful, yet wealthier than those of the north. – Cf. SKALD

Truce of God. Latin Treuga Dei, or Treva Dei. In the 10c Wido, bishop of Puy, persuaded knights and peasants to swear to protect Church property and not to plunder. At a more formal level, it can be traced back to the *Synod of Elne in 1027, which suspended all warfare from Saturday night until prime on Monday. This oath-taking spread widely, with the pacific intent deepening until, in theory, there were left only 80 days in any year in which waging war was permissible. To begin with, war was not permitted between sunset on Wednesday and sunrise on Monday of each week; saints’ days also were included, as were festivals. The truce lasted during the seasons of Lent and Advent, the three great vigils and feasts of the Blessed Virgin, and those of the 12 apostles and a few other saints. The Synod of Thérouanne decreed a Truce of God in 1063, while the Council of Clermont in 1095 pronounced a truce for all Christendom. Such a truce was impractical, but it grew from a noble impulse. It was precursor to the king’s peace in England, where the kind of private warring which occurred on the continent, at which the truce was aimed, was not possible. The avowed purpose of the ‘truce’ was to prevent Christian from fighting and killing Christian, esp. when there were so many infidels in the world and the Holy Land needed liberation. – Cf. FIGHTING SEASON

Truncagium. Latin term for the obligation of some tenures which required the supply and carting of timber. The English form is ‘truncage’. [< L truncum = a trunk (of a tree)]

Truncheon. Something broken or cut off, a fragment, usually of a spear or *lance; also, the shaft of a spear; the stump of a tree; then a thick stick or cudgel; a staff of office. When, in the 14c the king witnessed a duel at Smithfield or Cheapside, and he threw his truncheon onto the field, it was a sign the duel was to end, usually to prevent a death. – Cf. BATON 2

Tucker. A finisher of cloth; someone who fulled and dressed cloth. [< tuck = to fold or flatten] – Cf. FULLER

Tufter. Dog trained to drive deer out of cover.

Tumbrel. From the 16c a contraption for the ducking in water of minor criminals, named from the tipping cart which carried and tipped night soil; the sense of earlier usages is not clear. – Cf. CUCK-STOOL

Tun. Container of wine holding c.200–250 gallons. In 1201, an audit of King John’s wine-holdings showed that he had 700 tuns in various palaces, castles and hunting-lodges. – Cf. BUTT 1; HOGSHEAD

-tun. See -TON

Tunicle. Part of the vestment worn by a bishop next to the *dalmatic during celebration of the *eucharist.

Tunnage [tonnage]. Duty levied on imported wine arriving in tuns or casks, after the 13c.

Turbary, rights of. The right to dig and take turf and peat for fuel. [< OFr. turberie < L turba = a turf] – Cf. RIGHTS OF COMMON

Turret 1. Small tower projecting outwards from the main structure of a castle; later a movable construct to be moved against an enemy gate or wall with troops within, protected from hot oil etc.

Turret 2. Her. One small tower on top of another larger.

Twelve Conclusions. Twelve articles, demanding Church reform, which were posted on the doors of Westminster Hall and *St Paul’s Cathedral in February 1395 by Lollards. (Cf. Martin Luther’s similar action with his theses at Wittenberg in October 1517.)

Tyburn. Stream in London (no longer visible), which gave its name to the place of public execution used from c.1300 till the late 18c, from which the gallows are known as a ‘Tyburn tree’. Tyburn was near to the modern Marble Arch. [OE ty < tynan = to enclose + burn = a stream]

Tynell. Word used occasionally for the king’s household. [?< OE tynan = to enclose]

Tywysog. Welsh title, the Latin for which was princeps, adopted by Owain Gwynedd (d. 1170). Although he had done homage to Henry II, Owain chose the title princeps rather than *arglwydd, which other Welsh rulers were using in place of *brenin.