R

Rache. [ratch] A hunting dog, one which tracked by scent; a setter. [< OE ræcc = dog, a setter < OE geræccan = to reach, obtain] – Cf. GREYHOUND

Radman. A tenant who owed his lord the duty of armed escort. [< OE rad = riding, expedition] – Cf. GENEAT; RODKNIGHT

Ragemannus. Document from which were suspended tags with seals. – Cf. RAGMAN ROLL

Ragler. The chief officer of a *commote. The Latin documents used raglottus. [< W rhaglaw]

Ragman Roll. English term for the record of instruments of *homage made by the Scottish king and nobles to King Edward I in 1296. Later the Latin phrase indenture ragmannice was used. In Piers Plowman, ragman roll refers to a papal list with the names and seals of bishops attached. – Cf. RAGEMANNUS

Ramé. Her. Describes the antlers of a stag as of a different *tincture from its body. – Cf. ANIMÉ; BEQUE; CRINED; MEMBERED; UNGULED

Rampant. Her. Describes an animal, e.g. a lion, rearing up and standing on its hind legs, its fore legs raised. [< OFr. ramper = to climb]

Rampart. Mound of earth built defensively with a surrounding wall upon which there was space for defenders to walk around on patrol.

Ransom. A useful way of raising money during war; it was in each side’s interest not to spill too much blood, as noble opponents were worth much more alive and ransomed than dead. The conditions of the captive were very different from those of a hostage and drew upon the chivalric tradition. Between England and France there was a great deal of ransoming in this period. The conditions of restraint were the captive’s *parole. Thus, a French lord in England was treated as his rank demanded, being free and trusted to move about as he wished – anywhere but home. Froissart lamented the killing of captives. Chaucer was ransomed for £16 – paid by Edward III – after being captured at Rheims in 1360. [< OFr. ransoun < L redemptio = redemption] – Cf. RESTAURATIO EQUORUM; HOSTAGES

Rape 1. An administrative division of Sussex – Arundel, Bramber, Chichester, Hastings, Lewes, Pevensey – each of which comprised several hundreds. [< OE rap = rope; land was defined by being roped off] – Cf. LATHE; THACK AND RAPE; YOKE 1

Rape 2. Orig. the taking of a person or thing by force; if a woman was taken, the word did not necessarily imply sexual assault (which was a capital offence). The word was also used of elopement. [< AN raper < L rapio = to take by force]

Raven. Legends of the raven banners carried before *Viking armies proliferated both in England and Scandinavia from the 12c onwards. At least one such did exist: the levies of Devon captured it from a Viking force invading the *county in 878.

Ravissant. Her. About to pounce on prey.

Real. Royal, regal. Still found in use in ‘real tennis’, where real = royal. Thus realty is found on occasion = royalty. [< OFr. real = royal] – Cf. RYAL

Realgar. Red pigment composed largely of arsenic disulphide; also known as ‘red arsenic’ or ‘red *orpiment’. [< Ar. reh al-gha = cave powder]

Reap-silver. Money paid in commutation of harvest work once owed to a lord, particularly by townsmen. [< OE ripan = to reap] – Cf. SOR-PENNY

Rearing. Term used for setting up timber-framed houses. They were almost prefabricated in sections, with plaster and flooring to be added later. Whereas peasants’ houses might last only two or three years and were then replaced close by, these timber-framed houses could be dismantled and moved to a new site.

Reaver. A thief or robber. [< OE reaf = plunder, booty; reafian = to plunder]

Rebate 1. To remove the sharpness of a sword for safer use in a *tournament; also, to bring a falcon back to its handler’s hand. – Cf. ARMS, STATUTE OF

Rebate 2. Her. To remove a part of a *charge; having points cut off.

Rebec [ribible]. Three-stringed musical instrument played with a bow. [< Ar. rabab = a stringed instrument resembling a fiddle] – Cf. LUTE; RIBIBOUR

Rebus. Her. An image which hints at or indicates the name of the bearer. Thus Shakespeare’s rebus would show a man shaking a spear. – Cf. CANTING ARMS

Receiver. Modern term for the chief administrators of the estates of the 13c and 14c magnates and later. A receiver would be based at the *caput honoris from which all other manors were administered; he might have a *steward as his immediate junior, below whom there would be reeves and bailiffs on the various estates, tending to daily matters. Each year there would be an accounting of all monies, overseen by auditors. On some estates there would be a *view should the need be felt. – Cf. Rectitudines Singularum Personarum

Recet. That part of the field, at both ends of the lists or tilting lanes, where the knights waited before riding to make their pass against each other. [?< L receptaculum = a place to keep something L] – Cf. BERFROIS; TILT

Reclinatoria. See LEANING STAFFS

Recluse. Unlike a *hermit, a recluse never left his cave or hovel. Caves were used by a succession of recluses, each modifying the accommodation as he felt best.

Recreantia [recreantisa]. The state of being defeated in a *duellum, and the acknowledgement of that defeat, for which a fine of 60s was payable, according to *Glanville. The AN word was recreuz; ‘recreant’ or ‘recreancy’ are English forms of the word, still carrying the sense of bad faith or apostasy. Glanville added that if a duellum could be avoided the prospect of death was obviated, as well as ‘the opprobrium of a lasting infamy, of that dreadful and ignominious word that so disgracefully resounds from the mouth of the conquered champion’. That dreadful word was *craven. At this time the attempt to avoid a duellum was provided for in law, and was even considered desirable; however, the older chivalric sense of failure persisted in Glanville’s words. *Bracton also mentions ‘the hateful word’ which was to be uttered at the end of a duel prompted by an accusation of theft. In this case the defeated had to admit theft as well as say ‘Craven!’ [< L recreantia = acknowledgement of defeat; OFr. recroire = surrender]

Recreation. Orig. a meal or nourishment, but after the 13c it signified a substantial meal taken outside the monastery’s *frater and implied lax or nil observation of the monastic rule. – Cf. CONVENTUALIS

Rectitudines Singularum Personarum. The Rights of Individual People. An essay on estate management written c.1025, probably in Mercia. It treats of the various obligations and duties owed on an estate in late AS England. There are two versions: the earlier is in OE; the later is a Latin translation made in the 12c, which is taken to be accurate. The text is useful for the evidence it offers of agrarian conditions in England shortly before the time of Edward the Confessor; it shows also some of the features of the organisation of a *manor. – Cf. RECEIVER

Recursant. Her. Describes any figure – but most often an eagle – shown with its back towards the viewer. – Cf. REGARDANT

Reek-silver. Lit. ‘smoke silver’. A hearth tax. – Cf. FUMAGIUM

Reeve. Generic term for an official, esp. a royal official. The king’s estates were administered by reeves. It was a reeve who in *ASC 787 rode out to meet the *Viking ships which turned up near Portland, Dorset, and was killed by them – the first recorded English victim of the Vikings. After 1066, the term is used of a village headman, the peasants’ spokesman at the *manorial court. He cited the manor’s customs, refuting demands by the lord’s *bailiff or *steward. However, so reluctant were some men to accept the post that in some custom rolls it was noted that every holder of a *virgate could be compelled to accept. The reward was exemption from some or all labour services. The Latin term in the documents for the reeve was *praepositus, i.e. the one ‘in command’ or ‘in front’; also *praefectus. The title of ‘reeve’ is to be found in the placename Reaveley in Northumbria. [< OE gerefa, refa = a high official, steward, reeve] – Cf. SHERIFF and FABLIAU

Regal. A reed-organ, small enough to be carried about by a minstrel band.

Regalia. Crown, orb, sceptre and other ornaments used at the coronation of English monarchs. In October 1216, King John lost his baggage train in crossing the Wash; amidst much royal treasure, the ancient regalia were lost, including the crown of Edward the Confessor. At Henry III’s coronation at Gloucester Abbey, in lieu of a real crown, i.e. the one lost by John, the papal legate is said to have placed a chaplet or coronal of flowers on the childking’s head. An early representation of the regalia in use can be found in the *Bayeux Tapestry showing King Harold’s coronation at Westminster in 1066. After Charles I’s execution (1649) all royal regalia were melted down or sold off. [< L regalis = royal] – Cf. CHARING CROSS; ROYALTY; SUMPTER

Regalian right. Lit. ‘royal right’. The right claimed by a monarch to the estates, income and other dues of a vacant bishopric. This claim often led to considerable delays in the election and appointing of a new bishop. [< L regalis = royal] – Cf. previous

Regard. Extra money paid by the king to one of his captains for each three-month period the captain kept a 30-man troop in service in France during the *Hundred Years’ War. It was introduced in 1345. This could amount to some 100 marks a quarter or £300 a year. – Cf. CONTRACT CAPTAIN; VADIA GUERRE

Regardant. Her. Describes a lion looking back over its shoulder. – Cf. RECURSANT

Regarder. The regarder was a knight responsible for checking local woods and forest areas every three years, reporting back to the forest court. There were 12 such knights. This inspection was known as the ‘regard’, which also referred to the area under his charge. He was required to check the metes and bounds of the forest and all things to do with the king’s rights. These duties were set out in the Charter of the *Forest, 1217. The Latin was regardator. [< AN regardour]

Regent master. See SCOLAS REGERE

Regrate. The action of buying up goods in order to sell and make a middleman’s profit. – Cf. next; FORESTALLERS, STATUTE OF

Regrator [regrater]. The middleman in the scheme of medieval trade where artisans and bakers or brewers etc. sold their own produce. The regrator bought bread or fish or other goods to sell on his own behalf, perhaps as a street-hawker. He or she was bound by the terms of the relevant *assize which dealt with what was sold, e.g. he was not allowed to sell dearer than the price specified by assize. In Oxford, a certain number of regrators were licensed; in York, 14c city ordinances bound regrators tightly to the assize. Frequently, women were the petty traders in towns, finding their way into the courts for forestalling or as a regrator. [< OFr. regrattier/regratteur = a huckster] – Cf. previous and next; FORESTALLERS, STATUTE OF; HUCKSTER

Regratorie. The retail trade, that carried on by a *regrator. The word carried distinctly negative connotations: ‘sharp practice’ or ‘hucksterism’ are apt synonyms.

Regular clergy. Monks and nuns whose lives were subject to a rule, e.g. the Benedictines, Carthusians, Cistercians, Premonstratensians. The Latin regula = a rule.

Relics. Parts of the body or clothing of a saint or martyr or other person considered holy. They were an important part of religious life in this period. Small parts were particularly favoured, such as a finger, leg bone or part of a skull. Pieces of the Cross were esp. valued. Pilgrims would return to England having bought a relic as a memento of their journey and a sign of their faith. – Cf. RELIQUARY

Relief. Payment made to a lord on the taking up of an office or on inheriting an estate. In the case of bishoprics, it is not to be confused with *simony. Relief was one of the *feudal incidents and was a different kind of payment from the *heriot, which was a death payment. However, there were times when the two payments were used interchangeably, since both were the concomitants of a death. Attempts were made to curb the claiming of extortionate sums of money: *Magna Carta specified that a barony should have a relief of £100. This was intended to prevent excessive exactions on inheritance. The Latin word was relevatio. – Cf. CONTENEMENT

Reliquary. Small box or chest in which a saint’s *relics were kept. As a saint’s renown grew, so the reliquary played its part as the focus of pilgrimages. The *Bayeux Tapestry shows (the later King) Harold taking an oath to accept William, duke of Normandy, as king on Edward the Confessor’s death. Harold’s hand is seen to be resting on an object covered by decorated cloth; only afterwards did Harold learn that beneath the cloth was a reliquary, greatly enhancing the sanctity and power of his oath.

Remembrancer. Member of the *exchequer, whose function it was to enrol all matters that required ‘remembering’. The king’s remembrancer was responsible for collecting debts owed the king; the lord treasurer’s remembrancer noted down matters of interest to his master.

Replevin. Conditional return of goods and *chattels distrained improperly. The condition was that the case should be heard in court; also that the court’s decision be accepted. – Cf. DISTRAIN

Reprisal, right of. This right concerned unpaid bills. Town A was entitled to hold a man from Town B if a man of Town B owed money in Town A and was found there. It applied when town burgesses had done nothing about the complaint. The system was ended in 1287. – Cf. next

Reprise. Annual charge or payment made from a *manor’s income.

Reproach. Medieval knights, those members of one of the chivalric orders or confraternities, were intended always to be without reproach, i.e. to remain a chevalier sans reproche. Breaking faith or defaulting on a promise involved, for example, being set free on condition of raising a ransom and not doing so. The means of making known such bad conduct could be to display the wrongdoer’s coat of *arms upside-down. In one case, the aggrieved knight displayed the defaulter’s arms reversed and attached to his horse’s tail. Cowardice was a gross offence, as serious as treason. In these cases expulsion from the order followed. As a symbol of this the sword was broken and the spurs were cut from his heels – the dressing with spurs being an important part of the knighting ceremony. – Cf. CHIVALRY, ORDERS OF; CRAVEN; PAROLE

Requiem. Mass said for the repose of the souls of the dead, the first words of the *introit being Requiem eternam dona eis = Give them eternal rest.

Rere-brace. That piece of armour which covered the upper arm; later it was lengthened to cover the elbow.

Rere-dorter. Lit. ‘rear of the dormitory’. A latrine accessible from the *dorter. It was sometimes referred to also as the necessarium, lit. ‘the necessary’. All monasteries were founded close by running water. The rere-dorter was built where it would be constantly flushed by that water. – Cf. LONGAIGNE

Rere-mouse. Her. A bat; they were depicted ‘spread-eagled’.

Ressort. In the 13c, the right of appeal available to any French *vassal to his lord’s lord. It applied equally to the vassals of English kings in e.g. Gascony. Thus a French vassal could appeal over the English king’s head. This was potentially a source of mischief to the English king, who was a vassal of the French king for his lands in France. The English kings sought to avoid the inherent complications, while the French king wished to perpetuate the situation as a means of controlling, in some small measure, the English.

Restauratio equorum. Lit. ‘restoration of horses’. A 13–14c benefit scheme under which a man-at-arms’ horse would be valued, so that compensation could be made if the animal died or was lost on active service. In 1360, at Rheims, the owner of a horse received £6 13s in recompense, a substantial sum of money. This system, however, was confined to the period of the three Edwards; by about 1370 the practice had been largely replaced by greater division of the spoils of war for the man-at-arms. – Cf. PROFFER ROLL; RANSOM

Retinentia. Term used of someone in the retinue of a lord or magnate. It did not distinguish between a follower, who owed his lord a life-time’s service, and those who accompanied him on a particular campaign, in temporary employment. All members of the lord’s *meinie could be counted within his retinentia but not the other way round. [< AN retein < L retineo = retain] – Cf. CONTRACT CAPTAIN

Retorna. See WRITS, RETURN OF

Retorted. Her. Twisted; used of serpents or snakes entwined around each other.

Revelins. Heavy shoes of undressed leather worn by English peasants.

Reverdie. Type of song brought to England by the court of the Angevins. They were spring songs, sung to celebrate the season of new growth and love. [< OFr. reverie = rejoicing < rever = to revel] – Cf. AUBADE; PASTOURELLE

Rex Anglorum. Lit. ‘king of the English’. Latin phrase used from the 10c until late in the 12c, when it began to be replaced by rex Angliae. The first rex Anglorum was Æthelstan. Titles used by English and Norman kings were various but all were kings of people not of places. King John was the first rex Angliae.

Rhetor. A teacher of *rhetoric. [< Gk. rhetor = teacher of public speaking]

Rhetoric. The art of using language so as to persuade or influence others; a crucial part of the *trivium. A set of rules was observed by either speaker or writer to achieve effective and persuasive expression. – Cf. previous

Rial. See RYAL

Ribald. A retainer who performed the meanest functions in a royal or noble household; also used of such men when recruited as an irregular soldiery. – Cf. next; RUTA; SCULLION

Ribaudaille [ribauz]. The men and women who followed an army and did much of the dirty work; a violent, unpleasant crowd. [< OFr. ribauld < OFr. riber = to pursue pleasure, to be licentious] – Cf. previous

Ribible. See REBEC

Ribibour [ribiber]. A lute-player. [< Ar. rabab = stringed instrument] – Cf. REBEC

Rider. According to *ASC, in 1085 William I dubbed his son Henry (later Henry I) a ridere at Westminster. The word ridere is used here synonymously with ‘knight’.

Riding. One of three districts into which Yorkshire was divided, i.e. East, West and North [< ON þriðjungr = third part]

Rights of common. There were five rights of common: of pasture; of *estovers; of *turbary; in the soil; and of *piscary. – Cf. RIPARIES

Rinceau. Term for the foliate patterns used as a background in stained glass, or in moulding. The acanthus leaf was much favoured. [Fr. rinceau= foliage]

Riparies. The rights to the fish in river, stream or pond was jealously guarded by those entitled to them. Freshwater fish were a valuable source of protein, and were eaten every Friday (a fast day). When water-mills are mentioned in deeds, notice was always taken of fishing rights. Meadows also had their fishing rights added into their value. [< L ripa = a river bank] – Cf. RIGHTS OF COMMON

Riveling. A shoe made of untreated, i.e. raw skin.

Rockingham, Council of. Held in 1095, it was a part of the investiture controversy, concerned with whether a king or pope had the right to invest bishops. Lay investiture was seen by the Church as an encroachment. It was centred around Anselm’s appointment as archbishop of Canterbury by William II Rufus in 1093. The controversy lasted for some two years. The council decided it could find no fault with Anselm, whose appointment was confirmed by the pope. The matter of lay investiture was resolved with a compromise by Henry I in 1107.

Rod. See PERCH

Rodknight. Holder of a form of *serjeanty or tenure of a fief, the service for which was riding with his lord or lady as specified by *Bracton. He was also known as a *‘radman’.

Rogation. Prayers and litanies said on the Monday, Tuesday and Wednesday before Ascension Day form part of the ‘Minor Rogation’. The ‘Major Rogation’ took place on 25 April, when prayers were said for the growing harvest.

Rolls. A class of documents used throughout medieval government. They were literally rolls of *parchment, going under a variety of names indicating their kind or which department of government generated them. Always in Latin, they were known collectively as rotuli (rolls). – Cf. next; FINE ROLLS; LETTERS PATENT ROLLS; PIPE ROLLS

Rolls Series. The collection of original source materials for the history of Britain during the medieval period. The Rolls Series is the short name for this series of texts published ‘under the direction of the Master of the Rolls’ and called The Chronicles and Memorials of Great Britain and Ireland during the Middle Ages. Publication began in 1858; some 250 volumes have been published since then. There are many associated volumes, such as Foedera and the Calendars of State Papers.

Romance 1. One of the many tales in verse popular at this time. Many dealt with legends and fables; others told chivalric stories or those involving heroic adventures. [< OFr. romanz]

Romance 2. The French language as used in this period, being distinct from Latin. More recently, the term includes all languages descended from Latin as a distinct language group. [< OFr. romanz]

Rome-scot. See PETER’S PENCE

Romfeoh [Rompenig]. See PETER’S PENCE

Romipeta. Term used in medieval documents for a pilgrim going to Rome. [< Rome + L peto = to make for] – Cf. JACOBIPETA; THOMIPETA

Rood 1. Measure of land = one quarter of an acre. The word was also used for a *perch.

Rood 2. The holy Cross. Many legends and lessons grew up around the symbol. One has the Cross itself being made of three kinds of tree: cypress, cedar and pine. This was seen as a symbol of the Trinity. These trees had grown from seeds given to Seth by an angel, which had been placed under the tongue of Adam on his death. One of the earliest English poems is the Dream of the Rood, parts of which were carved on the stone cross still to be seen at Ruthwell in Scotland.

Rosace. Modern term for a rose window, with plentiful stained glass, of the kind found in cathedrals, esp. of the 14c. – Cf. PAUL’S WINDOW

Roses, Wars of the. Dynastic conflict between the houses of York and Lancaster, taking place from roughly 1455 and ending at the Battle of Bosworth Field, 22 August 1485. At Bosworth, Henry Tudor defeated Richard III (the last king of England to die in battle); he later married into the house of York. In 1487 an impostor named Lambert Simnel claimed to be Edward, duke of Warwick, and the nephew of Edward IV. He succeeded in having himself crowned in Dublin as Edward VI. In England he was supported by the earl of Lincoln. At Stoke Simnel’s followers met the king, Henry VII, whose forces won the day. With surprising leniency, Simnel was not executed but given a job in the royal kitchens.

Rota. The pope’s signature set within a circle which was put on certain solemn documents issued by the papal chancery at Rome.

Rotulus. Latin word for a parchment roll of the kind used in medieval – and later – government administration. – Cf. ROLLS

Rouge Croix. One of the four *pursuivants of the (English) College of Arms. The other three are: *Blue Mantle, *Portcullis and *Rouge Dragon. – Cf. ARMS, COLLEGE OF

Rouge Dragon. One of the four *pursuivants of the (English) College of Arms. The other three are *Blue Mantle, *Portcullis and *Rouge Croix. – Cf. ARMS, COLLEGE OF

Rouncy. French term for a cob-like horse; an ordinary saddle-horse, particularly not a *destrier yet suitable for carrying a soldier or for use as a packhorse. – Cf. PALFREY

Round house. A small round building, usually in a conspicuous place in a town, where local miscreants and runaways were imprisoned for a short time.

Roundel 1. Piece of circular metal attached to the handle of a sword to prevent the hand slipping.

Roundel 2. Her. Solid-coloured circular *charge whose meaning is defined by that colour. – Cf. POMEIS

Rousant. Her. Describes a bird in the act of taking flight.

Routier. Term for those we call *mercenaries. The Low Countries were a principal recruiting area for these very cosmopolitan bands of soldiers. They were made up from outlaws, spoiled priests, and any unsuited to civilian life and wanting adventure. During the 12c these men pillaged and ravaged their way through the lands of their foes and nominal friends fairly indiscriminately. Often uncontrollable, typically when their paymaster was short of funds and unable to pay, they would plunder promiscuously. The Latin form is *ruptarius. – Cf. BRABANTERS; RUTA; MERCENARIES; TRAILBASTON

Royalty. The right of a monarch to jurisdiction, a prerogative from which accrued payment in kind or coin. [< OFr. roialte] – Cf. REAL

Rubric. Heading of a chapter or document; these were intended to be distinctive and were therefore written in red ink. [< L ruber= red] – Cf. next; ILLUMINATION; MINIUM

Ruddle. Red ochre used by shepherds to mark their sheep. [< OE rudu = red] – Cf. previous

Runcinus. See ROUNCY

Ruptarius [rutharius]. Latin form of *routier. [< L rumpo = break, destroy] – Cf. RUTA

Rushes. Basic floor covering of rooms in a medieval castle, *manor or hovel. In a manor or castle hall tables were removed after eating and bedding set down on the rushes. – Cf. TABLE DORMANT

Ruta. Collective noun for a band or company of *routiers and their *sequela.

Ryal. English coin of Edward IV’s reign, 1465; it was also known as a ‘rose noble’. – Cf. REAL [< OFr. real = royal]