abstractions, deified 62
Aebutius 92–3
aediles (plebeian) 64–5; and ludi 101
Aemilianus (Publius Cornelius Scipio Africanus Aemilianus, consul 147, 134 B.C.) 109, 111
Aeneas 1–2 fig 1.1, 5, 53–4, 84, 89, 173, 257; in Carthage 333 fig. 7.3; and Magna Mater 198; in temple of Mars Ultor 200; and Parilia 175–6; and Vesta 189–90; in vici 185–7 fig. 4.3
Aesculapius: introduction of 69–70; name of 70; temple of (Map 1 no. 27) 69
after-life: Christian 290–1; Isis and 290; Jewish 290; Mithras and 290; in new cults 289–91; traditional attitude to 289
Agorius see Praetextatus
Agrippa (Marcus Vipsanius Agrippa, consul 37, 28, 27 B.C.): and the Saecular Games 202; and the Pantheon 257–8 fig. 6.1
Agripinilla, cult-group of 271; includes women 298
Alba Longa 89, 187 fig. 4.3, 189, 323
Alexander the Great see Scipio; Victoria, temple of
Alexandria: 254, 255; and Claudius 313
Alexandria Troas (colonia in Asia Minor): flamen in 329–30
altar(s): to Augustus in Cologne 352; to Augustus (three) in north-west Spain 352; at Carthage (two) 331–3 fig. 7.2, 7.3; of Lares 185–7 fig.4.3; of Augustus’ numen 207; see also Terentum
Ambarvalia (May) 50
Ambrose (bishop of Milan, c. 340–397): polemic against Symmachus 386
Antinous (companion of emperor Hadrian, died A.D. 130) 272; see also Diana
Antioch (colonia, in Pisidia, Asia Minor): cult of Men in, diminished 341
antiquarianism 110–13, 151–3; in practice 323–4
Antoninus Pius (emperor A.D. 138–61) see divus Antoninus
Antony see Mark Antony
Aphrodisias: Jewish community of 275, 293
Apollo 33 fig. 1.5 (c), 63; Augustan iconography of 199; Augustan temple of (Map 1 no. 14) 198–9; in Carthage 333 fig. 7.3; republican temple of (Map 1 no. 33) 198; and Saecular Games 203; games of see ludi
apotheosis see deification
Apronianus: Mithraic relief of 307; Isiac dedication of 307
Apuleius (writer and orator, born c. A.D. 125) 238; religio and 217; magic in 233, 235–6; claims initiations 235; The Metamorphoses 287–8
Ara Maxima (Greatest Altar, Map 1 no. 21) 2, 68,173–4
Ara Pacis (Altar of Peace, Map 1 no. 30) 203–4 fig. 4.6; in Carthage 331–3 figs. 7.2, 7.3
Aricia (Map 5): statue of Ceres from fig. 1.8
Arius (Christian heretic, c. A.D. 260–336): 370–1
army: auxiliaries in 324–5, 327–8; calendar of 251, 324–5; camps, religious structure of 326–7; Christians and 295; festivals in 325; local deities in 328; Mithraism and 293, 295, 325; religion of 324–8; vows in 325
Arval Brothers 194–6; Augustus joins 186, 194; pre-Augustan, our ignorance of 194; compared to Dura Europus calendar 251, 325; end of cult 387; post-Flavian 195; formulae of 353; membership 194, 229; rituals of 194–5, 251; and Romulus 194
Ascanius (alias Iulus): ancestor of Julii 89; in Carthage 333 fig. 7.3
Asia (Roman province of, modern Turkey): calendar, Roman, adopted in 343; priests of, controlled 341; see also Ephesus
assemblies (comitia) 179
assembly, provincial: and cult to emperor 349; at Lugdunum 353; in Syria 352; see also cults, provincial
astrologers 231–3; expelled 113, 161, 231; provincial 233; trials of 233
astronomy: Mithraic 285–6
asylum-rights: Greek 224; Roman 224
Ateius Capito (Gaius Ateius Capito, jurist, consul A.D. 5) 205
Athens: ancestral cults maintained/restored in 342; Augustus’ temple in 355; Hadrian honoured in 343; Julia Domna as Athena Polias of 355; Nero honoured in 343; Roman interventions in 343–3; see also mysteries, Eleusinian
atheotes (godlessness) 225–6
Attis 98, 164–6, 280; and Naassenes 311
Attus Navius 23–4
augur (augures) 18, 21–4, 27–8, 178; Aemilianus and 109; Augustus joins 182, 186; in coloniae 157; lists of 102–4; and obnuntiatio 110, 127; Romulus and Remus as 183 fig. 4.1; at Timgad 329; and revivalism 188; at Urso 328; at Zama Regia 329
Augustales 357–8; duties/obligations of, at Herculaneum 358; not imperial priests 358; as status group 358; see also seviri Augustan gods see gods, Augustan
Augustus (emperor, 27 B.C. – A.D. 14): his Achievements (Res Gestae) 170, 189, 196; and Apollo 191; edict on astrology 231; birthday of 343; city re-structured by 184–7 figs. 4.2, 4.3; on religious decline 118; divine descent of 200; becomes divus 208–9; family of 333 fig. 7.3; restores flamen Dialis 130–1; against foreign cults 228; forum of (Map 1 no. 9) 199, 331; as god in Thinissut 336; his horoscope 232; and Jupiter 200–1; and Mars Ultor 199–201 fig. 4.5; model to successors 186, 190–2, 206, 209–10; and ch. 4 passim; acquires name of Augustus 182; numen of 207, 354–5; Ovid on 207; Palatine house of (Map 1 no. 14) 189–92 fig. 4.4; permits his cult with Roma 353; as Pharaoh 313; and the pomerium 180; and priesthoods 186–92; provincial altars to 352–3; and Romulus 182–4; in Salian hymn 207; his shield (clipeus virtutis) 186–7 fig. 4.3; and Saecular Games 202–3; temple-building of 196–201; and the Vestals 193–4; and the vici 184–7 figs. 4.2, 4.3; vows for 206–7; worshipped with Roma 355; see also divus Augustus
Aurelian (emperor, A.D. 270–75): games of 263; and Sol 254; temple of, outside pomerium 269
auspices 21–2, 56–7, 179; for Augustus 182; in coloniae 329; patrician claim to 64; for Romulus 177, 182; at Urso 328
authority, religious 21, 27–30, 54–61; Augustus’ appropriation of 189–2; in coloniae 329; disputed 135; popular 135–7; in the provinces 320–1; Roman (over Italian cities) 95, 322, (over Magna Mater cult) 338
auxiliaries (in the army): cults of 327; at Emesa 327–8
Aventine (Map 1 no. 16): Diana of (Map 1 no. 19) 3, 330; Isiac group on 266, 287; Jupiter Dolichenus on (Map 2 no. 12, 3 no.35) 275, 281
Baal (Punic deity), cult of, in Thinissut 336
Bacchanalia 91–6; allies and archaeological evidence on 93–4 fig. 2.4; family and 96; geographical distribution of 93; group structure of 95, 226; Livy on 91–3; novelty of 95–6; senate on 95–6; social distribution of 93–4; suppression of 95–6; women in 96; see also cult, Bacchic
‘barbarian’, worships Tiberius 352
Basilica, Underground, at Porta Maggiore (Map 2 no. 31) 221 fig. 5.1; 273–4 fig. 6.4
basilica, Christian: for congregation 369; Constantiniana (now St. John Lateran, Map 4 no. 27) 368–9; design of 368; St. Peter’s (Map 4 no. 61) 368–9; see also church-building, churches, Peter (St.)
Bellona 41 fig. 1.7; and Magna Mater 280; temple of 133
Beneventum: Isis at 281; problems of interpretation 281–2
Bible 223, 277, 284; in Latin 295; views of Marcion on 309; scenes from, on Christian sarcophagus 378–81 fig. 8.2
Bibulus (Marcus Calpurnius Bibulus, consul 59 B.C): conflict with Caesar 126–9; watches heavens 126
birthdays: of Augustus 343; imperial 325; of Rome 206, 325, 362–3
bishops 241, 243–4; meetings of 305–6; of Rome ix, 299, 304, 306, 377, 388; derive authority from martyrs 377; see also clergy
Bona Dea: Clodius and 129–30; defiled 129, 138; men excluded from cult of 296
Bonfire night 7
books, priestly, 9–10, 25–6, 153, 205; see also texts, religious; Sibylline books
Britain: Druidism banned from 234; hybrid deities in 317
boundaries: augures and 22–3; between proper and improper religion 212–14, ch. 5 passim; in Christianity 306–7, 309–10; between Christianity and paganism 388; and Hippolytus 311
burial associations 270, 308; exclude women 297
Caecilian (‘orthodox’ bishop in Carthage) 369; see also heresy
Caecina (Aulus Caecina, first century B.C., Etruscan writer) 152
Caesar (Gaius Julius Caesar, consul 59 B.C., dictator after 49 B.C.): as augur 188; Romulus as god and 4; and collegia 184; conflict with Bibulus 126–9; divorce of 129; as divus Julius 140–9, 200, 208, 329–3; as flamen Dialis 131; forum of (Map 1 no. 10) 123 fig. 3.2, 145; on Gallic religion 234, 344; and the Parilia 176; as pontifex maximus 100, 191; writings of 117; and Venus 123, 145; see also divus Julius
calendar, Roman 1, 5–8, 25; army’s, compared to Arval 325; and the courts 262, 387; at Dura Europus 251, 324–8; of imperial festivals 356; in Asia 343; Isis in 250–1; in Italy 322; Numa’s 6; Parilia in 176; at Ptolemais 362–3; radical revison of 387; Roman system of 25; lack of copies, post-Augustan 25; statistics of 322
Calendar of Filocalus (A.D. 354) 250; paganism and Christianity in 378–80, 382–3; new festivals in 382–3
calendar, local, in Gaul 344
Callistus (Bishop of Rome, early third century A.D.) 299
Calpurnius see Bibulus
Camillus (Marcus Furius Camillus, dictator 390 B.C.) 168
camps: religion in 326–7
campus sceleratus 81
cannibalism: Christians and 225–6; charge discounted 226
canon, Christian 284–5
Capitolia (outside Rome): in the army 326; and Christianity 240–1; Cyprian on 241; extended to municipia 335; at Heliopolis 334; at Numluli 335; in Spain 334; as status-enhancing strategies 335–6; at Thugga 335; at Timgad 334; at Thubursicu Numidarum 335
Capitolium (Map 1 no. 25) 3,15, 39 fig. 1.6, 59–60; dedications by foreigners on 158; imperial sacrifices on 195–6; 372; Scipio and 84; superstition practised on 218–19; temple dedicated 59–60; temple restored 124
Cappadocia (Asia Minor): priesthoods Romanized 341
Caracalla (emperor, A.D. 198–217): and citizenship 241, 315, 362; and Sarapis 254
Carthage, influence of 82
Carthage (as colonia), altars ‘imitating’ Rome at 331–3 figs. 7.2, 7.3
Cassius Dio (historian, C.A.D.164–C.A.D.229) 170; on religious control 214; on the worship of the emperor 318
Castor, temple of (in forum Romanum) 39; festival of (with Pollux) 383; and Verres 115, 121; and Saturninus 140; see also Dioscuri
castration 164–5
catachumens (Christian initiates) 288
catacombs (Map 4): of Basileus (also known as Marcus and Marcellinus – Map 4 no. 40) 240; Christian 270–1; Jewish 270
Catiline (Lucius Sergius Catilina) 138, 140
Cato (Marcus Porcius Cato, consul 195 B.C.): and magic 154–5; his Origins 78
Catulus (Quintus Lutatius Catulus, consul 78 B.C.) restores Capitolium 124
Catullus (Gaius Valerius Catullus, poet, c.85–c.54 B.C.) 117, 155; Poem 63, 164–6
Cautes/Cautopates 286
Celsus (pagan writer, second century A.D.) see Origen
Ceres 64–5 fig. 1.8; temple of (with Liber Libera, Map 1 no. 18) 64–6, 70; ‘Greek cult’ of 70–1; priestesses of 70; and Saecular Games 71–2; and the plebs 64–6, 139; see also Liber, Libera
Cerialia (19 April) 45
change, religious: in coloniae 331–2 fig. 7.2; interpretation of 61–3, 119–21, 125–34, 319, 343–4
choice, religious 42–3, 245, ch. 6 passim; reduced in fourth century A.D. 375; paganism as a choice 375
Christianity: after-life in 290–1; and Apologies 310; appeal of 283–4, 288, 290, 293; attacks on 225–6, 276–7; authority in 304–5, 369–70; baptism in 288; bishops in 304–5; boundary of, with paganism 388; catachumens in 288; charity in 288; as city religion 302; and Constantine 364–72; councils, development of 305–6; deacons, female, in 298; distribution of 301–2; doctrine, disputed, in 306–7; exclusivity of 309; Greek and Latin in 295, 376; and heresy 284–5, 305–7, 369–70; hierarchy of 243–4, 299; lack of homogeneity in 236, 248, 284–5, 307–8; iconography of 378; limited to the Empire 303; ludi rejected by 262; moral code of 289; ‘nominal’, pointlessness of 380; membership of 291–3, 295–6; ‘orthodoxy’ in 284–5, 299, 369–70; paganism and ix–xii, 310–311, 378–80; receives imperial favour 364; role of poverty in 296; relations with Judaism of 226–7, 309, 310; as true religio 227; resurrection and 290–1; sacrifice rejected by 226; social control in 304; spread of 237–8, 276, 295, (after Constantine) 375–80; as superstitio 225; women’s role in 298–300, 375–6
Christians: attitude of, to emperor-worship 361; numbers of 267, 375–6; local office-holding and 293; persecution of 236–44, 365–6; (after A.D. 249) 239–42; Pliny on 238–9; social level of 276, 295–6, 300; trials of 237–9, 361; refusal of vows by 240; visibility of 267–71, 368–9
Christianus 308
church-building: by Constantine 368; under his successors 376; avoids city centre 369, 376; undertaken by élite, not emperors 376; see also basilica, Peter (St.)
churches: lack of, until third century A.D. 267, 303; rebuilding of 367; property of, restored 367
Cicero (M.Tullius Cicero, consul 63 B.C.) 114–16, 119–21; and Bona Dea 129; Clodius and 110, 114–16, 129–30, 138–9; compared to Livy 119–22; On Divination 150–1; haruspices and 115, 138–9; house of 114–15, 138; and Libertas 114, 138; as philosopher 116, 150–1; on Pompey 115; pontifices and 114; refuses temples 147; speeches of 138–9; on his daughter Tullia 116; attacks Vatinius 155–6; on Verres 115
circus 262, 325, 383; see also pompa circensis
cities, non-Roman 315–16, Roman citizens in 336–7; Roman control of 339–42; Romanization in 342–48; worship of emperor in 354–5; see also coloniae; municipia
citizens, Roman: cult associations of (eastern) 353, (western) 353–4; in non-Roman communities 336, 353; maintain religious identity 361–2
citizenship, Roman 63, 75, 213–14; Caracalla expands 241, 246, 315, 362; Christians and 237; and the army 324; and religion 317
Claudius (emperor, A.D. 41–54) 188; extends pomerium 178; conservatism of 209–10; uses fetial formula 210; not a god 313; revives haruspicy 228; temple of, destroyed 347; see also divus Claudius
Claudius (Appius Claudius Caecus, censor 312 B.C.) 68
Claudius (Appius Claudius Pulcher, consul 54 B.C), defends augury 152–3; necromancer (?) 153
Claudius see Marcellus
clergy, Christian: persecution of 241–2; protection of, from civic duties 366; see also bishops
clipeus virtutis see Shield of Virtue
Clodius (Publius Clodius Pulcher, tribune 58 B.C.) 110, 114–5, 129–30, 137–8, 139–4; and augures 127; and haruspices 137–8; and Libertas 114, 138, 139; accused of sacrilege 129–30
‘clusters’: religions seen as 249, 278, 307
Coelius (Lucius Coelius Caldus) septemvir epulo 101 fig. 2.5
coin-types 33, 77–8, 101–2, 367
colleges, of priests 18, 64; four major 100; élite control of 103–4; legislation on 134–7
collegia 42, 272, 287; suppressed 184, 230; soldiers excluded from 230; permitted for religio 230; see also burial associations
coloniae: defined 315, 328–34; Augustales in 357–8; calendar received by 356; choose Roman models 330–1; pontifices and augures in 328–9; religious change in 331–3 fig. 7.2, 7.3; Roman rituals in 329–30; subject to Roman direction 329–30; Zeus Kapitolios, in Greek 362; see also cities non-Roman; municipia
comitium 22
Commodus (emperor, A.D. 176–92) 210
Compitalia (December/January) 50; see also Lares Compitales
Compitum Acili fig. 4.2
Concordia (Concord): at Corbridge 326
conflict, religious 105–8, 114–16, 119–120, 125–30, ch 5 passim; appeal to plebs over 107; Tacitus on 107; see also expulsions; persecution of Christians
Constantine (emperor, A.D. 306–37) 364–72; and Arianism 370–1; benefactions of 367; buildings of 368; and chi-rho 367 fig. 8.1; conversion of 366; on Donatism 369–70; dream of 366; oath of, to Eusebius 366; relationship to pagans of 364, 371–3; as pontifex maximus 372; forbids sacrifice 371; and Sol 367 fig. 8.1; support of Christianity by 366–7; toleration by 366
Constantius II (emperor, A.D. 337–61): admires pagan monuments 381–2; appoints pagan priests 372–3
contracts, vows and 32–4
control see authority
conversion 42–3; to Christianity 276; of Constantine 366; to Judaism 275–6; see also Christianity; cults, new
Corbridge 326; cults of, compared to Dura Europus calendar 326
Cornelius see Aemilianus; Scipio; Sulla
councils, Christian: 305–6
Crassus (Publius Licinius Crassus, consul 205 B.C.): pontifex maximus 100
Crassus (Gaius Licinius Crassus, tribune 145 B.C.) 109, 136
creed, Nicene: 370–1
Cronius 277
cult, Bacchic 161–3 fig. 3.5; see also Dionysus
cult, imperial see imperial cult, so-called
cults, Egyptian 279; distribution of, in Rome 266; Isis and Sarapis 250–1, 264–5 fig. 6.2
cults, foreign 228; control of 91–6, 160–1; emperors and 228–9; élite avoid 229–30; expelled 230; see also cults, new
cults, of Greek East 211; adaptation of, to Rome 242–4; deities privileged in 224; interventions in by Rome 343–4; no radical change in 319, 342; Olympians prevail in 311–12; not replaced by emperor-worship 360; sanctuaries regulated in 224; vows in 320
cults, Italian: at Anagnia 222; Faliscan fire-walkers 222; Fortuna at Antium 322; Latin 323–4
cults, ‘official’ 250–9, 278–9; mostly male 296–7; become an option 312; maintained under Constantine 372
cults, new (previously called ‘Oriental’: see 246–7) 211–12, 246–7, 255–9; multiple allegiance to 307; attraction of 275, 278–91; seen as ‘clusters’ 249, 278, 307; demands made by 288–9; category ‘Oriental’ denied 246–7; distribution of 301–2; élite involvement in 291–3; élite patronage of 292; exclusivity of 307–12; homogeneity of 248, 302; hostility towards 299–300; languages used in 294; limited to the empire 303; local variations in 303–5; membership of 291–301; modified in fourth century A.D. 384–6; names of members of 294; infrequency of, in western local contexts 344; priesthood of 303, 383–4; self-description in 307; senators as priests in 383–4; social composition of 300–1, 383–4; social mobility and 300–1; visibility of 275; women’s roles in 296–301; see also Attis; Christianity; Elagabalus; Isis; Judaism; Jupiter Dolichenus; Jupiter Heliopolitanus; Magna Mater; Mithras
cults, provincial: for the emperor, 352; in the west 352–4; to the living emperor 354; priests of 357; simultaneous start of 356
cults, Roman: in the East, 215, 240, 322–3, 336–7; alleged decline of 243; accommodation of 314
cults, Syrian: Ba’al Romanized 281; of Elagabalus 255–6; Palmyrene 258–9, 294; of Doliche 275, 279, 281; Jupiter Heliopolitanus 283; Janiculum sanctuary of (Map 2 no. 16) 283, 292, 373, 384–5 fig. 8.4
Cumae (colonia, south Italy), Magna Mater cult in 337
Cumont, Franz 246
curator (of sacred buildings) 252–3; replaced by Prefect of the City 382
curiae 50
Cybele, see Magna Mater
Cyprian (Thascius Caecilius Cyprianus, c. A.D. 200–58) 241; trial of 242
Damasus (bishop of Rome), develops St. Peter’s 376–7
Daniel, Book of 240 fig. 5.4 (caption); Porphyry’s date for 277
Dea Dia 195
dead, the 31, 50; Christian 270–1; Jewish 270; un-Roman burial of 321–2; not to be touched by flamen, flaminica 357; pontifices’ concern with 322
de caelo spectare (watching the heavens) 127
decemviri sacris faciundis 82; lists of 102–4; and Saecular Games 111; see also duoviri; quindecimviri
Decius (emperor, A.D. 249–51): decree of, 239, 240–1; anxiety for tradition of 243; his fear of bishops 243–4, 304
Decius (P. Decius Mus, consul 340 B.C.) 35–6
‘decline’, religious 117–18,120–5; and ch. 3 passim; Augustus on 118, 120; Horace on 118; Varro on 118, 120
dedication: provincial law of 321
deification 4, 140–2, 351; Augustus’ 208–9; Caesar’s 185–7 fig. 4.3; disputes over 148–9; and divine honours 146–8; Romulus and 148–9; triumph and 44–5, 141
deisidaimonia, not the same as superstitio 225
deities: assimilation of humans to 31, 141, 143–5, 145–9; early character of 10–11, 13–16, 30–2, 46–7; Egyptian 233 fig. 5.3; categorization of 14–16, 48; evolution of 30–1, 40, 62–3; identification with 44–5, 142; protection from 144–5; relations with humans of 36–7, 40–1, 44–5, 74, 142; representation of 11, 33 fig. 1.5, 44; 40 fig. 1.7, 63; spread of 314; see also animism, deification
Demeter 70
demons 310
dendrophoroi 308
deprivation thesis, critique of 301 n.170
Diana: on Aventine (Map 1 no. 19) 3, 330; association of Antinous and 272–3, 287; Aventine, as model in coloniae 330; Planciana 123–4
differentiation, structural 26, 149–56, 161
di Manes 31
Diocletian (emperor, A.D. 284–305): bans astrology 233; persecutes Christians 241, 242
Dionysius of Halicarnassus (Greek historian) 4, 40–1; and Roman myth 169, 172–3
Dionysus 161–4 fig. 3.5; family-cult of 271, 298; priest of, as rebel 347; see also Bacchanalia
Dis Pater 71–2, 111, 202; altar of, with Proserpina (Map 1 no. 37) 202; not in Augustan Games 203; see also Saecular Games
diva Plotina (deified wife of Trajan), temple of 253
diva Faustina (deified wife of Antoninus Pius), temple of 253
diva Livia, temple to at Vienne 356
divae, sacrifices to 325
divi 208–10; official list of 251; cult of, in the army 325; temples of 253; see also divus Julius; divus Augustus; divus Claudius; divus Traianus; divus Antoninus
divination: assimilated to magic 372; banned 374; control of 230–2; criticism of 150–1; private, forbidden 372; see also haruspices, augures, astrology
divus Antoninus: temple of (in forum Romanum) 253
divus Augustus: ascension observed 208–9; flamen of 209; sodales of 209; cult of with Roma 352, 353; temple of 209; temple to at Vienne 356; worship of at Tarraco 354, 356; see also Augustus
divus Claudius: satirised 210; temple of (Map 1 no. 3) 253, 347; see also Claudius
divus Julius: and asylum-rights 224; in Carthage (doubtful) 331–3 fig. 7.2; at Ephesus 353; flamen of 208, 329–30; statues of in Italy 322; temple of (in forum Romanum) 208, 253; see also Caesar
divus Romulus: temple of 260
divus Traianus, temple of (Map 1 no. 8) 253; see also Trajan
Doliche (in Syria) see cults, Syrian; Jupiter Dolichenus
Domitian (emperor, A.D. 81–96) 228; temple to Minerva 253; obelisk of 264–5; punishes relatives for Judaism 276
Domitius (Domitius Ahenobarbus, censor 115 B.C.) 112 fig. 2.7 (caption)
Domitius (Cnaeus Domitius Ahenobarbus, consul 96 B.C.) 136–7; motives of 136
Donatus (alternative bishop in Carthage) 370; see also heresy
Druidism: anti-Roman prophecy in 347; human sacrifice and 233–4; repression of 341; as superstitio 221–2
duoviri sacris faciundis 18, 27, 62; see also decemviri; quindecimviri
Dura Europus (Syrian frontier): calendar of 251, 324–8; Christians at 267; Mithraeum of 302, 325
Earth see Tellus
Easter: disputes over 306; relation to Passover of 310
eclecticism, religious: 386–7
Egeria 31
Egypt 340; massacre of Jews in 348; religion of, regulated 340; religious propaganda in 347; Zeus Kapitolios in 362–3
Egyptians: as superstitious 221–2; expelled from Rome 230–1; priest as rebel 347; see also Isis, Osiris
Elagabalus (Syrian god) 255–6; in the army 327
Elagabalus (Marcus Aurelius Antoninus, emperor A.D. 218–22) 255–6; temple of, on Palatine (Map 2 no. 11) 256; suburban temple of, perhaps with Palmyrene gods (Map 2 no. 14) 256; see also Sol Invictus
Eleusis see Mysteries, Eleusinian
élites, Greek 223–4; compared to Roman 224; decline in piety of 243
élites, local: local cults, not supported by 338–9; follow Roman model 341–2; profit from holding priesthoods 359
Emesa (Syria), army cults in 327–8
emperor(s): attitudes to foreign cults 228–9, 254; honours to 325; images of 207; incorporation of in state cult 206–8; and innovation 252; as gods or protected by gods 361; and local deities 350–2; monopoly on temple-building 196; not building churches 376; patronage of 192–3, 195; as pontifex maximus 252, 254, 374; and religio 216; as sacrificer 186, 350 fig. 7.5; taurobolium for 338; vows for 195–6, 206–7, 252; worship of 206–10, 318, 336, 348–63; see also priesthood, Augustus, Constantine, divae, divi
Empire: British 317; Inca 316; Japanese 316–17
Empire, Roman ch. 7 passim; expansion of 73–4; religious control over 321; Roman influence on 156–60; integration of 316; see also dea Roma
Ennius (Quintus Ennius, poet, 239–169 B.C.) 78, 151
Ephesus (Asia Minor): Artemis of 359; other cults of 311–12; Roman regulations in 343; worship of emperor in 349; Roman citizens’ association in 353
epulones see triumviri, septemviri epulones
epulum Iovis 40, 63, 66–7, 100–101 fig. 2.5; see also triumviri, septemviri epulones
equestrians: as Christians 291–2; vow for Livia of 322; as Luperci 260–1; as minor priests 229, 261; as patrons of new cults 292; as seviri at Narbo 358; Latin priesthoods of 323–4
Erichtho 220
Etruscans: influence of 20, 54, 59–60, 101–2, 152
Eugenius (emperor, A.D. 392–4): temples restored under 382, 386, 387
Eusebius (Church historian, c. A.D. 260–339), on Constantine’s conversion 366
evocatio 34–5, 62, 82–3, 111, 132–4
exclusivity, religious 212–14, 249, 307–11; of Christianity 309–11; of Isis cult 308–9; of Magna Mater cult 308; of Judaism 309; of Mithraism 308; and multiple allegiance 307; and self-descriptions 307–8
exegesis, religious 284–5
expulsions 244; from Italy and Rome 322; see also astrologers; diviners; Isis; Jews
extispicy 9 fig. 1.4, 22, 35–6
Fabius Pictor (senator, late third century B.C., author of Greek Annals) 40–1
Fabius Pictor (mid second century B.C., antiquarian writer) 112
familia 49
family: religion of 24–6, 48–54, 95–6, 271
family, imperial: on arch at Lepcis Magna 350 fig. 7.3; calendar of festivals for 356
Faunus (temple of, Map 1 no. 28) 31, 89
Faustina see diva Faustina
felicitas: Scipio and 86; temple of 90; Pompey’s temple of 144–5
fertility 53, 204 fig. 4.4; and Pales 282
festivals: agriculture and 45–6; in the army 325; the family and 50–1; of fourth century A.D., listed 378–9; individuals and 48–51, 260–1; interpretation of 47–8, 175–6, 388; marginalized 387; popularity of, in fourth century A.D. 377, 388; Roman 5–8, 46–7, 260–1; war and 43; work and 48; see also calendars; Ambarvalia; Cerialia; Compitalia; Consualia; Fordicidia; Lemuria; Liberalia; Matralia; Lupercalia; Neptunalia; Parentalia; Parilia; Robigalia; Saturnalia; Sementivae; Vestalia; Vinalia
fetialis (fetiales) 3, 18, 26–7, 43, 111–12, 210; changed practice 132–4; Augustus joins 186; membership 229
finance 205, 251; in Athens 342; of temples 44, 87–8, 341, (abolished) 386; in the East 243; in Egypt 340; in Ephesus 343; in Judaea 341
fish: and magic 235
flamen (flamines) 1, 15, 19; and fig. 1.3, 28–9; conflicts with pontifex 105–8, 119, 193; minor 19, 260; restrictions on 56, 106, 112, 131, 193; rules changed 193; obligations of 131; in western provinces 341
flamen Dialis 15, 19, 28–9, 106, 112, 130–2, 193; in Latin towns 323; model of, followed in provinces 357; in north Italy 323; not replaced 130–2; restored 193; wife of 296
flamen divi Julii: in Rome 208; otherwise only in coloniae 329–30
Flamininus (Titus Quinctius Flamininus, consul 198 B.C.) hymn to 146
Fordicidia (15 April) 45; Vestals and 53
foreignness 10–11, 20–2, 62–3, 87–98, 141, 160–6; and magic 154–6; and new cults 278–9; and questioning 165–6; and Romanization 338; see also ‘barbarians’; Greeks; Etruscans; Carthage; Persians; Phrygians
formulae, religious 32–6
Fortuna Equestris (Equestrian Fortune) 322
Fortuna Muliebris (Fortune of Women; Map 4 no. 69): cult of senatorial women 297; restored by Livia, by Septimius Severus and Julia Domna 297
Fortuna Primigenia (Primordial Fortune), temple of (Map 1 no.25) 89
Fortuna Virilis (Fortune of Men; festival 1 April) 297
Forum, Roman (for map, see 4.7) 39, 53, 208, 253
Forum of Augustus (Map 1 no. 9) 199, 331
Forum Boarium (Map 1 no. 20) 80–1, 174
Forum of Caesar (Map 1 no. 10) 123 fig. 3.2
Forum of Trajan (Map 1 no. 8) 253
France see Gaul
freedmen see liberti
funeral, imperial 208–9
Furius (Lucius Furius Philus, consul 136 B.C.) 111
Furrina 283
Gaionas (Marcus Antonius Gaionas) 283, 292
Gaius Caligula (emperor, A.D. 37–41) 228; claims divinity 209
Galatia (Asia Minor), priesthoods Romanized 341
Galerius (emperor, A.D. 305–311), ends persecution 367
games see ludi
Gaul: anti-Roman prophecy in 347; ban on Druids in 234; interpretation of gods of 344–5; cults of Mars in 339, 345; social level of dedicants in 339, 345; zodiacal table from 232–3 fig. 5.3
Gaul, Narbonensis: flamen of province of 357; flaminica of 357
Gauls: and Vediovis 89; burial of, see Greeks and Gauls
Gelasius (bishop of Rome, end of the fifth century A.D.) ix–xii, 388
genius: Augusti 185–6 fig. 4.2; of the Emperor 325
gentes, cults of 67–8; gens Julia 67, 89, 123, 145; gens Potitia 68; gens Valeria 68; and priesthoods 103–4
Germanicus (Germanicus Caesar, 15 B.C. – A.D. 19): his funeral honours 330; and magic 234
gods, goddesses see deities
gods, Augustan 351–2
governor(s), provincial 235, 237, 238, 239, 241–2, 320; Pliny as 237–9; Claudius not obeyed by 313; accompanied by haruspices 320, 330; religious role of 321
Granius Flaccus (antiquarian, first century B.C.) 152
Gratian (emperor, A.D. 367–83), resigns as pontifex maximus 374
Greeks, influence of 62–3, 64–6, 69, 70–1, 75, 79–80, 141, 161–3, 165; architectural 90; on divine honours 145–7; and mystery-cults 247; on Roman mythology 172; in philosophy 151
Greece (mainland): cults not radically changed 341; adaptations to Roman rule 342–4; see also Athens
‘Greek rite’ 2, 27, 70–1, 173–4
Greeks and Gauls, burial of 80–2
groups: ethnically based 271–2; elective 272–3; initiatory 287–8; moral rules of 288–9; specifically religious 42, 95–6, 98, 161, 231–3, 273–8; of Bellona 273; of Diana and Antinous 272–3, 287; of Magna Mater 273; see also Christianity; collegia; heresy; cults, new; Isis; Judaism
Hadrian (emperor, A.D. 117–38): against foreign cults 228; and the Pantheon (Map 1 no. 310) 257; statue in the Parthenon 343; temple to Venus and Rome (Map 1 no. 6) 257, 263
haruspex (haruspices) 19–20 fig. 1.4, 101–2, 113, 137–8; accompany governors 320, 330; in the army 326; not a college 20, 100; debate over 137–8, 261; senate decree about 101–2, 113; in fifth century A.D. 387; foreignness and 20; importance of 102; prodigies and 38, 137; tolerated by Constantine 372
health-cults: in Dolomites 344; see also Aesculapius; incubation; votives
hearth, cult of 51–3, 191 see also Vestal Virgins
Hecate: senators as priests of 383–4
Hannibalic War 79–87
Heliopolis (Baalbek), and Jupiter Heliopolitanus 283; Capitolium of 334; see also Jupiter Heliopolitanus
Hephaestus 12
Herculaneum, list of Augustales from 358
Hercules 2, 68, 90,173–4; Olivarius 91 fig. 2.3; and Pompey 122; and Septimius Severus 255
hermaphrodites see prodigies
heresy 248, 284–5, 302, 305–7; Arianism 370–1; Donatism 369–70; Montanism 305
hierarchy: Christian 243–4, 299; of Jupiter Dolichenus 275; in Mithraism 295
High Priest: (in Egypt) controls priesthood 340; (in Judaea) appointed by governor 341
Hippolytus (Bishop, c. A.D. 170–C. 236) on heresy 311
Hispala 92–3
Hispellum (modern Spello): warned of superstitio 371
Honorius (emperor, A.D. 393–423), extends St. Peter’s Basilica 377
Honos (Honour) 105; see also Virtus
honours, divine 146–7, 148; to Pompey 147; see also deification, divi
Horace (Quintus Horatius Flaccus, poet, 65–8 B.C.), on religious decline 118, 181–2; on fratricide 183–4; Saecular Hymn of 203
Hostilius see Mancinus
hyenas, women as 298
identity, religious 41–2, 212–14, 288–9; Roman 313, (adapted) 333; Isiac 308
image: of Elagabalus 256; interpretation of 319
imperial cult (so-called) 169, 318, 348; Cassius Dio on 318, 349; importance of, exaggerated 360; see also emperors: worship of
imperialism: and religion 156–7, 313; and ch. 7 passim; re-interpretation of 313
incest, charges of 225–6; discounted 226
individuals 42–3, 48–51, 79; see also cults, new
initiation 50, 247, 287–8; Bacchic 162–3; of Jupiter Dolichenus 275; repeated, of Lucius in The Metamorphoses, 287–8; Mithraic 288
initiative, in cult of emperor, 356; ascribed to locals 356
innovation, religious 61–72, 79–84, 244, 252, 256, ch. 8 passim; mediation of 70, 80, 84
integration see Romanization
intercalation 46–7
Isaura Vetus 133
Isis, cult of: after-life in 308; Apuleius on 287–8; devotion required by 289, 308–9; geographical distribution of 301; Egyptian emphasis of 279, 281, (questioned) 281–2; élite members of 291–2; exclusivity of 308–9; expulsion of members of 161, 180, 222, 230, 250; graffiti of 266; homogeneity of 302; incorporation of other deities into 281; initiation into 287–8; Isiaci 307; origins of members of 294; Plutarch on 277; outside pomerium 269; priests of 264, 294, 308; senators as priests in 383–4; and ‘transformation’ 287–8; use of Egyptian language in 294; use of texts in 279, 284; women’s roles in 296, 298, 308–9
‘Isiac’ 307
Isis (goddess): hymns to 281, 298, 302, 303; lands in Egypt conceded to 340; sanctuary of, with Sarapis (Map 2 no. 26) 250–1, 264–5 fig. 6.2; temples of, in Italy 281–2; worshippers’ conspicuousness 308
Italy 94–5, 204 fig. 4.4; Isis temples in 281–2, 293; as core of Empire 321; Magna Mater in 337; priesthoods in 323–4; religion of 321–4; Roman authority over 95, 322; Roman priesthoods in 323; Roman calendar paraded in 322; un-Roman customs in 321; see also Bacchanalia
Iulus see Ascanius
ius divinum (sacred law) 105; disputes over 105–8
Janiculum (Hill, Map 1 no. 38) 283, 373
Janus 33 fig. 1.5 (e); temple of (Map 1 no. 24) 1; doors of temple, closed 207
Jerusalem: importance of 280, 303; as symbol 280
Jews 263, 266–7, 270, 275–6, 280, 298, 304, 309; at Aphrodisias 275, 293; catacombs of 270, 381; diaspora 303; distribution of 301; and emperor-worship 361; expelled from Rome 230–1; Gaius and 362; and God-fearers 275–6; languages used by 294; massacre of 348; as proselytes 275–6; revolt of 223 fig. 5.2, 303, 348; sacrifices of, for Rome, cease 347; separation of 288; synagogues of, in Rome 269, 381; tax on 303, 341; women’s role among 298
Judaism 222–3; antiquity of 223; in Aphrodisias 275, 293; attraction of, 275–6; charity in 288; exclusivity of 309; Galen on 277; godfearers in 293, 309; homogeneity, lack of 248; not limited to the empire 303; Jerusalem and 280, 303; legislation against 371; and magic 227; pluralism of 304; rabbis in 304, 320; as superstitio 218, 221–2, 371; use of texts in 284; visibility of 266–7
‘Judaeus’ 307–8
Julia Domna (wife of Septimius Severus): as Athena Polias 355; and Fortuna Muliebris 297; on arch at Lepcis Magna 350 fig. 7.5
Julian (emperor, A.D. 361–3) 373–4
Julius see Caesar; Obsequens; Proculus Julius
Junius Bassus (Christian, fourth century A.D., Prefect of the City): his sarcophagus 378–81 fig. 8.2
Juno 15, 16; and Astarte 82; Regina (of Veii) 82, 133; Sospita 82–3 fig. 2.1, 89; evoked from Carthage 111, 133
Jupiter 33 fig. 1.5 (d), 34, 140; at Corbridge 326; among the Danigi 346; displaced by Elagabalus 256; interpretation of, in Spain 345–6; see also epulum Iovis; Jupiter Capitolinus; Jupiter Dolichenus; Jupiter Heliopolitanus; Jupiter Stator; Jupiter columns
Jupiter Capitolinus 15, 44, 59–60; Augustus dreams about 201; in army 327; dedications by foreigners to 158; temple of 59–60, 341; identified with Jupiter Heliopolitanus 334; importance of 59–60, 201; Jewish tax paid to 341; loss of importance of 201; at Maryport 326; triumph and 59–60, 143, 201; Scipio and 84–6, 143; as Zeus in Egypt 362–3; see also Capitolium
Jupiter Dolichenus 230, 275, 279; Aventine sanctuary of (Map 2 no. 12) 275, 281; and Ba’al 281; and Capitoline triad 281; cult of, compared with Mithraism 282–3; cult, distribution of 301; élite patronage of 292; cult, homogeneity of 302; incorporates other deities 281; origins of adherents 294; other sanctuaries of (Map 2 nos. 7, 8); women excluded from cult of 298; visibility of 275
Jupiter Feretrius 1
Jupiter Heliopolitanus 283; and Furrina 283; as Optimus Maximus at Heliopolis 334; cult Romanized (?) 283; sanctuary of (Map 2 no. 16) 283, (as rebuilt) 384–5 fig. 8.4; human sacrifice to (?) 385; other deities associated with 385–6
Jupiter Latiaris 31
Jupiter Optimus Maximus see Jupiter Capitolinus
Jupiter Stator: temple of 90–1, 260; Cicero on 138–9
Jupiter Tonans, as door-keeper 201
Jupiter Ultor: replaced 256; restored 256
Jupiter columns 346–7 fig. 7.4; iconography of 346
Justin (Justin Martyr, c. A.D. 100–65) 227; his view of Judaism 309; his Apology 310
Juturna, temple of (Map 1 no. 32), restored 124
kings, Hellenistic 141
kings, Roman 1–5, 14; dress of 59–60; replacement of 54–61; tradition of 60; see also Numa, rex sacrorum, Romulus, Servius Tullius, Tarquin the Elder, Tarquin the Proud
Laelius (Gaius Laelius, consul 140 B.C.) 109
Land, religious status of: provincial 320–1
Lares Augusti 185–6 fig. 4.2, 4.3, 333; liberti supervise 357; cult of, spreads through the west 355; at Pompeii 355; at Ostia 355
Latin right 315
Latins 323; league of 3, 323–4; in Saecular prayer 205
Latinus 31
Lavinium (Map 5) 12, 13, 66, 323; rituals at 323–4
Law: religion and 25–6, 181; see also jurists
lectisternium 63
Lepcis Magna (colonia, north Africa), arch of 350 fig. 7.5; Septimius Severus and 255
Lepidus (Marcus Aemilius Lepidus, triumvir) 188–9
lex Aelia Fufia 109–10
lex Cornelia: covers magic, as form of poisoning 233, 235
lex Peducaea 137
lex Ursonensis see Urso
Liber 64; and Septimius Severus 255; see also Ceres
Liberalia (17 March) 50
Libertas (Liberty): in Cicero’s house 114, 139
liberti (ex-slaves): roles of 260, 294; and Augustales 357–8; Christian 295, 299; and cult of Lares Augusti 357; in Magna Mater cult 337
Licinius see Crassus
litatio 35–6
Livia see diva Livia
Livy (Titus Livius, historian, 59 B.C. – A.D. 17), History, 8–10, 17, 76–7, 169, 182; on Bacchanalia 92–4; bias of 77, 80; Camillus’ speech 167–8; compared to Cicero 119–21; on patricians/plebeians 134–5; on priest-politicians 104–8; priestly lists 102–3; temples and 87–8
Lollia Paulina 233
Lucan (Marcus Annaeus Lucanus, epic poet, A.D. 39–65): on lustration 178; on magic 219
Lucretius (Titus Lucretius Carus, poet and philosopher, c. 95–55 B.C.) 116
Ludi 40–l, 66–7, 100–101; in the circus 261, 263; crowds at, in the fourth century A.D. 377–8; and emperors 382–3; of imperial times 261–3; gods and 40, 66, 261; increase in days of 263; numbers involved in 263; women at 297; see also triumviri, septemviri epulones, Saecular Games
ludi Apollinares 102 fig. 2.6 (e)
ludi Cereales 102 fig. 2.6 (c)
ludi Megalenses 91, 102 fig. 2.6 (d), 138, 164
ludi plebeii 40–1, 66–7, 102 fig. 2.6 (b)
ludi Romani 40–1, 66–1, 102 fig. 2.6 (a)
ludi saeculares see Saecular Games
Lugdunum (colonia, modern Lyons): citizen association at 353–4; provincial assembly at 353; taurobolium at 338; putative Vatican of 338
Lupercalia (15 February) 41, 260–1, 323; in fifth-century A.D. Rome ix–x, 388
Lupercus (Luperci) 260–1; equestrians as 229, 259–60
Macrobius (Macrobius Ambrosius Theodosius, fifth century A.D. antiquarian) 388
magic: Christians accused of 225–6; charges of 372; control of 231–6; curse-tablets and 220; death and 234–5; definition of 219; differentiation of 154–6; distinct from miracle 227; fear of 221; human sacrifice in 233–4; increase in, debated 220; Jews and 227; love and 235–6; magical papyri 220; poisoning by 233; scene of 221 fig. 5.1; superstitio and 218–21
Magna Mater (Cybele) 80, 164–6, 386; archaeology of 98; Attis and, 97–8, 164–6; at Cumae 337–8; galli and 160, 164–6; group-structure in worship of 272; introduction of, 92, 96–8; last dedication to 387; limitations on cult of 97–8; modification of cult of, in fourth century A.D. 384; and the Naassenes 311; priests, priestesses of 260, 298, (as ‘quindecimviral’) 337; provincial cults of 337–8; and the quindecimviri 337–8; status of (at Ostia) 280, (improving) 337–8; temple of (Map 1 no. 13 = Map 2 no. 3) 83, 96–7, 197–8; taurobolium for 338, 384; visibility of cult of 263; see also Attis;; galli; taurobolium
Mancinus (Gaius Hostilius Mancinus, consul 137 B.C.) 111–12
Manichaeism: banned 242; not limited to the Roman Empire 303
Marcellus (Marcus Claudius Marcellus consul 222, 215, 214, 210, 208 B.C.) over-ruled by priests 105
Marcus Aurelius (emperor, A.D. 161–180): on Anagnia 222; dedication for at Thugga 351; games for, in fourth century A.D. 382–3
Marius (Gaius Marius, consul 106, 104–100, 86 B.C.) 143
Marius Gratidianus (praetor 86 B.C.) 143
Mark Antony (Marcus Antonius, triumvir after 43 B.C.) 208
Mars 15–16, 31, 33 fig. 1.5 (a), 43, 47, 68, 146 fig. 3.3; in Gaul 339; in a Mithraeum 282
Mars Alator (in Gaul) 339
Mars Ultor (Avenger), temple of (Map 1 no. 9) 199–201 fig. 4.5; in the army 325; on Carthaginian altar 331–3 fig. 7.2; iconography of 200–2; and military glory 199; crosses pomerium 180
Maryport: altars of 326
martyrs 305; buildings for 368, 369; Peter and Paul as 377; Roman list of 379
Mater Matuta, temple of 50
Matralia (11 June) 50–1
Men (Phrygian god): sanctuary of, reduced 341
menorah, in triumph 223 fig. 5.2
Miletus, cult of Roma in 158–9
Minerva 33 fig. 1.5 (b); and Pompey 122; temple of 253; see also triad, Capitoline
Minucius Felix (author, third century A.D.) 296
misogyny: the Orient and 299–300
Mithraeum, beneath S. Prisca (Map 3 no. 37): other deities in 282–3; closed by imperial official 373: see also Mithraism; Ostia, Mithraea
Mithraism 230, 272; apogenesis 290; appeal of, 279–80, 282–3, 285–6, 288, 293, 294–5; army and 293, 295, 300–1; astronomy in 282, 285–6; catechism of 303; caves in 266, 279, 285; Christian attacks on 310; distribution of 301; élite patronage of 292–3; exclusivity of, 307–8; foreignness and 279–80; grades in 285, 288, 295, 300–1, 308; homogeneity of, 303–4; initiation into, 288–90, 303; last Roman record of 387; local variation in 303–4; membership of, 293, 294–5, 298, 300–1; sacrifice in 279, 285–6; slaves, ex-slaves in 294–5, 300–301; soldiers in 294–5; transformation of soul in 290; visibility of, 266; origins of, 279–80; other deities in sanctuaries of 282; Persian origins disputed 279–80; Porphyry on, 277–8; senators, fourth century A.D., priests in 383–4; social mobility and 300–1; symbolism of, 285–6; use of Greek in 294; absence of women from 298
‘Mithraist’, as modern term 307
Mithras: allegiance to 308; in the army 325; and Jupiter Dolichenus 281; sacrifice by 279, 285
mola salsa 52
monotheism: development of 286–7
Montanus 305–6; see also heresy
Mucius, see Scaevola
municipia: 334–6; Augustales in 357–8; calendar received by 356; Capitolia of 334–5; defined 315; priests in 334; see also coloniae, cities non-Roman
mysteries: category of 247; as Greek 247
Mysteries, Eleusinian 153, 223; enhanced 342; allowed by Constantine 374
Mysteries, Villa of, 161–4 fig. 3.5
myth, Roman 1–5, 10–11, 23–4, 53, 148–9; in Augustan Rome 171–2; in Chios 157–8; in Dionysius of Halicarnassus 169–70, 172–3; foundation 174; place in ch. 4 passim; see also Aeneas; Attus Navius; Numa; Romulus
myth, Indo-European 14–16; 171
myth, Greek 172; purified in Rome 172–3
Naassenes (heretics), and Attis 311
Narbo (colonia, in Gaul): cult of numen of Augustus in 355; seviri Augustales in 358
Navius see Attus Navius
neglect, religious: accusations of 139–40, 181–2; denied 125–6, 130–4
Neptune: temple of 101 fig. 2.5 (caption); at ludi 262
Neptunalia (23 July), in the army 325
Nero (emperor, A.D. 54–68): as supernumerary priest 188; investigates magic 219; and Christians 237; inscription of, over Parthenon 343–4; Jupiter column (prototype) in honour of 346
Nicaea (Greek city in Bithynia): and Capitoline triad 336–7; Council of 370
Nigidius (Pubilius Nigidius Figulus, praetor 58 B.C., scholar) 152; and magic 153–4
Nikopolis (near Actium): Apollo of 199
Numa (king, traditionally 715–673 B.C.) 1, 5, 18, 31, 43, 169
Numenius 277
Numluli (town near Carthage, later municipium), Capitolium of 335
obnuntiatio 110
Obsequens, Julius (writer, fourth-fifth century A.D.) 38
October horse (equus October, 15 October) 47–8; Vestals and 53
opposition, religious 347–8
‘Oriental’ cults, see cults, new
Origen (Origenes Adamantius, Christian writer, c. A.D. 184 – c. 254), Against Celsus 227, 277, 296; orthodoxy, Christian 284–5, 306–7; and Council of Nicaea 370–1; privileges for 371; see also heresy
Osiris 386; rustic festival of 387; Seneca against 218
Ostia: Magna Mater at 280; Mithraea of 266; Mithraists of 294–5; synagogue of 267
Ovid (Publius Ovidius Naso, poet, 43 B.C.–A.D. 17) Fasti: 6–7, 170, 174–6; on Augustus 207–8; on Romulus and Remus 184; on Magna Mater 197–8
‘pagan’ 302
paganism 312; as a choice 375; and Christianity 364–5; and Christianity (in volume of A.D. 354) 378–80; resistance of 387–8; classified as superstitio 372; monuments of, listed 381–2; restored 282
Pales 174, 183; in a Mithraeum 282
Pantheon (Map 1 no. 31) 257, 285
Parentalia (13–21 February) 31, 50; Vestal Virgin at 50
Parilia (21 April) 45–6, 50, 53, 174–6, 261, 282; in the army 325; as birthday of Rome 325, 362–3, 383; in fourth century A.D. calendar 383; circus games at 263; Hadrian and 258; and purification 174–5; and Saecular Games 206; Vestals and 53
participation, popular 48–52, 185–7, 203, 243, 259–63
pastoralism 175
patricians 17–18, 63–8; priests 64, 134–5
Paul (St.) in Rome 237, 268, 305, 376–7; in Philippi 240; see also Peter (St.)
Paullus (Lucius Aemilius Paullus, consul 182, 168 B.C.) 143
Pax (Peace): temple of 253; see also Ara Pacis
Persians: and magic 155–6, 234; Manichaeans 242; and Mithraism 279
personifications see abstractions, deified
Peter (St.), 305; tomb of (Map 4 no. 61) 268–9 fig. 6.3; Basilica of (Map 4 no. 61) 368, 369, 376–8
persecution of Christians 236–44; Decian 239–41; Diocletianic 242–4; ended by Galerius 367; explained 242–4
Philippi 240
Phrygians: influence of 197–8; as priests 197, 261
Pietas (Piety), temple of 90
pilgrims to Rome 377
Plancius (Cnaeus Plancius, aedile mid-50s B.C.) 124
Plautus (Titus Maccius Plautus, dramatist, active c. 205–184 B.C.) 75, 78; on Bacchists 93
plebeians 17–18, 63–8; as priests 64, 134–5
Pliny the Elder (Gaius Plinius Secundus, A.D. 23/4–79) Natural History 9; on magic 155, 219; on fire-walkers 221
Pliny the Younger (Gaius Plinius Caecilius Secundus, C.A.D. 61–c.112): on Christianity 225–6, 237–9, 243; and priesthood 192–3; religio in 216
Plotina see diva Plotina
Poem against the Pagans 386–7
politics and religion: early republican 27–30, 54–61, 64–7, 68; late republican 101, 104–8, 109–10, 115–18; 125–30, 134–40, 143; in the Empire 359; in the late Empire 370; separation of, proposed 359
Pollux see Dioscuri
Polybius (Greek historian, c.200–c.118 B.C.) 7; and Scipio 85–6; on Roman religion 108–9
polytheism 212
pomerium (Maps 1–3) 23, 83, 174, 175–6, 177–81; Apollo inside the 198; Augustus and 180; burials excluded from 180–1; coloniae and 157, 329; extension of 177–8; limits authority (civil) 178–9, (military) 179–80; lustration of 178; markers of 177
pompa circensis 40–41, 59–60, 262, 383
Pompeiastai 147
Pompeii: Isis in 293
Pompey (Cnaeus Pompeius Magnus, consul 70, 55, 52 B.C.) 115; divine honours to 147; and Sulla 145; temples founded 122, 144–5; theatre of 122–3 fig 3.1; and Venus 122, 144
Pomponia Graecina, trial of 229
pontifex (pontifices) 1, 19, 24–6, 27–8, 39; Augustus as one of 186–92; authority of, in Italy 322; calendar and 25, 46; on Cicero’s house 114; citizens and 24; on Clodius’ sacrilege 129; in coloniae 157; under Constantine 372; and family sacra 25, 49; replace flamen 131; law and 24; lists of 102–4; lustrate pomerium 178; minor 260; recordkeeping by 9–10, 25–6; rulings of 105; at Salona 329; at Timgad 329; at Urso 328; Vestal-trials by 137; scribes of 19; significance of 268–70; at Zama Regia 329
pontifex maximus 19, 21, 55–8; Augustus as 186–9; authority of 55–8, 100, 107–8; Caesar as 100, 191; Constantine as 372; Crassus (consul 205 B.C.) as 100; election of 68, 99–100, 136; emperors as 252; conflicts with flamines 106–8, 119; Gratian resigns as 374; house of 189; Lepidus as 188–9; multa (fine) of 106–7; and the provinces 320–1; and the rex sacrorum 57–9; Tiberius as 193; and Vesta 189–91; and Vestals 57–9; see also pontifices; priests
Porcius see Cato
Porphyry (pagan philosopher, A.D. 234–C. 305): on churches 268; on Mithraism 277–8, 285; against Christianity 277
Porta Maggiore, Basilica of, see Basilica, Underground
portents see prodigies
Praeneste (Map 5), Fortuna of 89
Praetextatus (Vettius Agorius Praetextatus, pagan senator, c. A.D. 320–84): defends Eleusinian mysteries 374; attacked for paganism 386
Prefect of the City: Junius Bassus as 378–81; restores pagan monuments 382; restores Minerva 382; rituals of, in fifth century 387
prayers 35–6
Priapus 7
priesthood: borrowing of 323; early character of 27–8, 68; cumulation of 188–9, 192; élite control of 103–4, 135; emperors and 186–92; emperor’s control over 192–3; last (in 390s) pagan 387; Latin 260, 323; local, controlled by Rome 340–2; maintained by Constantine 372; political activity of 104–8; politics and 27–30, 56–59, 68, 103–4; temples and 87
priests, priestesses 18–30; of the Augustan family 333 fig. 7.3; control over 340–2; rules of colleges of 103–5; Egyptian 340; in coloniae 157; co-optation of 102–4, 135–6; election of 109, 134–7; emperors as 186–9; legislation on 99, 135–7; lose their immunities 374; of Latin towns 323; of Magna Mater 97, 160, 164–6, 37–8; membership of colleges of 103; number of 28, 68–9; politics and 99–108, 134–7; of provincial cults 357; records of 9–10, 25–6, 66; senate and 29; social advantages of 359; supernumerary 188, 192; see also cults, new; High Priest; lex Domitia; lex Ogulnia
private/public, see rituals
processions 40–1; Isiac 263; to the ludi 261; triumphal 44, 59–60; women in 70–1; see also pompa circensis
Proculus Julius 149
prodigies 19–20, 37–9, 80, 178; disappearance of routine 252; hermaphrodites as 80; interpretation of 37–8; recording of 38–9
prophecy: lack of 63; and haruspices 102
Proserpina (Persephone) 71–2, 111, 202
proselytes 275; hostility towards 276
Ptolemais Euergetis (in Egypt); temple in, to Zeus Kapitolios 362; as reaction to Caracalla’s edict 363
Pudentilla 235–6
pulvinaria 40
Pythagoreanism 156; as superstitio 229; see also Basilica, Underground
Quinctius see Flamininus
quindecimviri sacris faciundis: Augustus as 186; control Magna Mater cult 337–8; and Saecular Games 202–3; see also duoviri; decemviri
Quirinus 4–5, 15–16, 31, 43, 149; temple rebuilt 182–3 fig. 4.1; in fourth century 383; see also Romulus
ravens, as Mithraic grade 285
reaction, religious 86–7, 87–98, ch. 5 passim
reciprocity, religious 34
regia (in Roman Forum) 39
rebellions, and religion 314
reliefs, sculptured 319
religio 215–19, 244, ch. 5 passim; Christian view of 227; definitions of 215–16; in Saecular record 216; inTimgad 339; Valerius Maximus on 216; see also superstitio
religion, change in 11–12, 61–3; decline of 11–12; definition of x-xi, 26, 153–4; and magic 154; proper/improper 153–6, 215, 224, 228; official/popular 247
religion, Roman: agriculture and 15–16, 45–7; adaptation of, in coloniae 331–3 fig. 7.2; in the army 324–8; authority in 61; borrowing from 314, (as creative) 331; boundary of, with Christianity 388; change, fundamental, in 364–5, ch. 8 passim; character of 12, 42–3, 49–50; Christianity conflicts with 239–40; consensus in 139–40; continuity of 17, 61, 70, 79; alleged decline of 11, 74, 77, ch.3 passim, 169; defence of 150, 181; early development of 10; differentiation in 149–56; discussion within 109, 150–1, 153; domestic 48–51; as education 75, 113; fluidity of 6–8, 47–8, 249–50; on the Empire’s frontiers 326–7; and Greeks 157–8; influence of ch. 7 passim; influences on 60, 62–3, 64–6, 145–7; knowledge of, in coloniae 330–1; and local cults 343–8; and magic 153–6; outside Rome ch. 7 passim; Polybius on 108–9; place, as religion of ch. 4 passim, 278–9, 365; persistence of, into fifth century 387–8; questioning within 165–6; at Salona 329, 330; and superstitio 218; at Timgad 329; tradition of, in Christian Rome 388; at Urso 328; vows in 320; warfare and 15–16, 26–7, 43–5, 47, 59–60, 111–12; writing on 110–13, 151–3, 181; at Zama Regia 329; see also Republic; innovation; reaction; revival; sources
religion, pre-Roman: our ignorance of 319; in East and West, compared 339
Remus, killing of 175–6, 177, 178, 183–4; see also Romulus
Republic: continuity with monarchy 59–61; foundation of 54–61; religious character of 54, 61, 103–4; see also ‘restoration’, Augustan; kings, Roman
‘restoration’: Augustan 77, 167–8, 188; of temples 252–3
resurrection 290
revival, religious: Augustan 77, 168–9, 188; of Latin cults 323–4; in second century B.C. 110–113
rex sacrorum 9, 19, 25, 28, 39, 54–61; authority of 57–8; dating by 9; exclusion from politics of 58, 59; identity of, with king 58; in Latin towns 323; limitations on 56; in north Italy 323; and pontifices 55–9; and pontifex maximus 55–8; rituals of 56; see also Vestal Virgins
Rhea Silvia 31
rituals: in the army 326–7 fig. 7.1; change in 132–4, 173–6; in coloniae 329–31; dedication at Salona 330; funding of, abolished 396; imperial 195–6, 206–10, 348–63; at Lavinium 323; private/public 48–54, 78; understanding of 6–7, 46–8; participation in 48–52, 185–7, 203, 243, 259–63; of purification 174–6, 203, 327 fig. 7.1; see also epulum Iovis; evocatio; festivals; lectisternium; litatio; ludi; lustratio; pompa circensis; processions; remedia; reversal, rituals of; sacred spring; sacrifice; Saecular Games; suovetaurialia; supplication; taurobolium; triumph; vows
Robigo, Robigalia (25 April) 45–7
Roma, Dea (goddess) 158–60 fig. 3.4; and Augustus 352, 353, 355; on altar, in Carthage 333 fig. 7.3; cult in Rome 257–8; Augustan temples of 353
Romanization 314, 318, 339–48; and interpretation of local cults 344–7; and local cults 327–8, 338–9, 342–8; and ‘foreign’ cults 338; of priesthoods (eastern) 340–1, (western) 341–2
Roman-ness 134, 246; affirmation of, in non-Roman communities 336; challenged 164–6; education in 75, 113; in Egypt 362–3; and Empire 215; of new cults 303, 338; paraded 336–7; redefined 212, 337, 338; retained by Christians 379–80; and sacrifice 239, 326–7 fig. 7.1; in the law of Urso 328; variation of, in codoniae 333, 335; see also foreignness
Rome (the city): size of 245; cosmopolitanism of 245–6; displacement of 364; pluralism of, in fourth century 381–2
Romulus (king, traditionally 753–715 B.C.) ix, 1–2, 4–5, 31, 141–2; and the Arvals 194; and asylum 224; Augustus and 5, 182–4, 194; Caesar and 148–9, 176; in Chios 157–8; and Christians 388; at Corbridge 326; foundation ritual of 157, 175–6, 329; his hut 173; in temple of Mars Ultor 200; Maxentius and 259; praised by Dionysius 172–3; and Remus 158, 175–6, 177, 183–4, 326; temple of, closed 373; and the wolf 326; see also Quirinus
rose festival: at Corbridge and Dura Europus 326
rules, religious 125–6; disputed 128–9, 129–30; respect for 128–9, 130
Sabbath 49
sacer, as penalty 59
sacra, inherited 49
sacred spring (ver sacrum) 32, 80
sacrifice 35–6, 36–7, 374–5; in the army 326–7 fig. 7.1; banned 374, (repeatedly) 387–8; in Carthage 333 fig. 7.3; Christianity and, 226, 239, 241, 242; by the Danigi 346; by emperors 186, 350 fig. 7.5; for emperors 195, 239–41, 361–2; human 81, 233–4, 385; interpretation of 36–7; meat from 310–11; Mithraic 279, 285–6; and power 361; rules of 36; as test 239; warfare and 44–5; by ward magistrates (vicomagistri) 187 fig. 4.3; women and 297; universally required 239, 242
Saecular Games 71–2, 111; Augustan 201–6; Augustus in hymn of 207; Claudian 206; not celebrated by Constantine 372; close the courts 261; cycles of, disputed 205–6; inscription of 170; myth of 202; relocation of 206; rituals of 202; theatrical shows (Latin) 203–4, (Greek) 204; tradition of 205; women’s role in 296–7
Salius (Salii) 1, 53, 216; in Latin towns 323; membership of 229
Salona (colonia, in Dalmatia) 329–30; Aventine Diana in 330
Salus (Public Safety) 52–4, 195–6
salvation: idea of criticized 287, n. 119; see also transformation
Sarapis 254, 264–5 fig. 6.2; Egyptian character of, disputed 254; in Mithraeum 282; festival of 383
Satricum 67–8
Saturn, temple of 39
Saturnalia (17–23 December) 50, 80, 261; in Athens 337; in Egypt 337
Saturninus (Lucius Appuleius Saturninus, tribune 103, 100 B.C.) 140
Scaevola (Quintus Mucius Scaevola, consul 95 B.C.) 146, 151 n.104
Scipio Aemilianus, see Aemilianus
Scipio Africanus (Publius Cornelius Scipio Africanus, consul 205, 194 B.C.) 84–7; trial of 86
Secular Games see Saecular Games
self-definition, religious 215–16
senate 29–30, 150, 249, 256; shares pagan rituals, in fifth century A.D. 387; in conflict over altar of Victory 374, 380, 386
senators: Christians among, in third century 291–2, 378; face choice, after Constantine 375, 378; and Isis 291; absence of, from new cults 291; and priesthoods 192–6, 229, 383–4; and religio 384; and temples 196–7; wives of, as Christians 299; wives of, in Isis cult 299; women of the order, as ascetics 375–6
Seneca (Lucius Annaeus Seneca, c. A.D. 1–65) 218; as Pythagorean 229; on superstition 217–19
septemviri epulones 101 fig. 2.5; Augustus joins 186; see also triumviri epulones
Septimius Severus (emperor, A.D. 193–211): temple of Liber and Hercules 255; on arch of Lepcis 350 fig. 7.5; games for, in fourth century A.D. 382–3
Servius Tullius (king, traditionally 578–535 B.C.) 184
Shield of Virtue (clipeus virtutis) 186–7 fig. 4.3; 333 fig. 7.3
seviri (six men), at Narbo 358; one type of Augustales 358; see also Augustales
Shintoism 316–17
Sibylline Books 27, 62–3, 69, 81; transferred to Apollo 198, 205; and Saecular Games 205
Simon of Samaria (magician, arguably Christian) 227
slaves 246, 294; as benefactor (Carthage) 333 fig. 7.3; Christian 295, 299; and Lares Augusti 357
Smyrna, cult of Roma at 158
social mobility: and new cults 300–1; and imperial priesthoods 359
society, religion and 15–16, 42–3, 46, 48, 79; conflict in 63–7, 67–8, 95–6, 98; change in 149–50, 359; order ritually maintained in 361–2; subversion of, feared 213–14
sodales Titii: Augustus joins 186
sodalitates 97
Sol 33 fig. 1.5 (f); in Augustan calendar 258; Aurelian and 254; on Constantine’s coinage 367 fig. 8.1; Invictus Elagabalus, temple of (Map 2 no. 9) 258; games of 263; pontifices of 258–9
sources: for regal period 4, 10; interpretation of 10; for the Republic 5–10, 75–9, 114–17, 119–21; for the Augustan period 169–71; for imperial Rome 247–8; for the Empire 319
space, organization of 22–3; 369
Spain: local deities in 345–6; dedications for emperor in 351; see also Danigi; Tarraco;; Urso
states, centralisation of 213
status dissonance 301 n.169
Sulla (Lucius Cornelius Sulla Felix, consul 88, 80 B.C., dictator 82–79 B.C.) 131; repeals lex Domitia 137; his felicitas 144; and Pompey 145; and Venus 144
suovetaurilia 112–13 fig. 2.5 (caption); 327 fig. 7.1 (caption)
superstitio 215–19, ch. 5 passim; ambiguity of in the fourth century 371; characterizes foreign; groups 221–2; Christian view of 227; Christians accused of 242; clergy and 371; dangers of 217, 244; forbidden, at Hispellum 371; Judaism classed as 371; meanings of 217; Seneca on 217–19; see also religio
supplication 243, 261; in the army 325
Symmachus (Quintus Aurelius Symmachus, pagan, consul A.D. 391) urges toleration 386; memorialized 387; as a character in Macrobius’ dialogue 388
syncretism 317–18; and n. 11, 339–48
Tarquin the Elder (king, traditionally 616–579 B.C.) 23–4; and Sibylline Books 62
Tarquin the Proud, (king, traditionally 534–510 B.C.) 3, 54, 59
Tarraco (colonia, in Spain): site of provincial cult to Augustus 354; cult requested 356; initiative ascribed 256–7
taurobolium 280, 338; reinterpreted 384
Tellus (Earth): on Ara Pacis 203–4 fig. 4.6; adapted in Carthage 331–3 fig. 7.2; in Vaga 336
Temple, Jewish: destruction of 341; contributions to 280, 341 see also Jews; Judaism
temple-building 39, 87–91, 121–4, 196–201, 253–9; to the Augustan family 331–3, figs. 7.2, 7.3; under Augustus 197–201; by Aurelian 258–9; by Caracalla 254; in coloniae 334; control over 88–9; credit from 88; of the divi 253; by Elagabalus 255–6; emperors’ monopoly of 196; finance of 44, 87–8, 334; by Hadrian 257–8; interpretation of 124–5; at Nimes to Gaius and Lucius Caesar 356; restoration and 124; by Septimius Severus 255; at Vienne to divus Augustus and diva Livia 356; war and 44, 87–8; see also church-building
temples, Egyptian: Roman supervision of 340
tensae 40
Terence (Publius Terentius Afer, playwright, 160s B.C.) 78
Terentum (or Tarentum) (Map 1 no. 37) 71, 111, 202
Terra Mater see Tellus
terracottas, votive 12–13 fig. 1.2, 69, 98
Tertullian (Quintus Septimius Florens Tertullianus, Christian writer, c. A.D. 160–C. 240) 239–40; uses Varro 331
texts, religious: Christian 284–5, 303; Isiac 279, 284, 303; Jewish 284, 303; Mithraic 285, 303; see also books, priestly
theatre: stone 90; theatre-temples 122–3; of Pompey 122–3 fig. 3.1, 204, for Saecular Games 203–4; wooden 203–4
Thinissut (town (non-Roman) in north Africa): Augustus as god in 336; cult of Baal and Tanit in 336
Thugga (town near Carthage): Capitolium of 335; and the emperor 351
Thubursicu Numidarum (municipium in Algeria), Capitolium of 335
Tiberius (emperor, A.D. 14–37) 193, 207, 322; and Isis 231; decree on astrology 231–2; worshipped by ‘barbarian’ 352
Timgad (colonia in N. Africa) 216–17, 329; Capitolium of 334; élite dedications in 338–9; and protection of the emperor 351
Titus (emperor, A.D. 79–81): arch of 223 fig. 5.1
toleration, religious 212
Tor Tignosa 13
tradition: innovation and 199–201, 201–5, 258–9, 278–88, 378–81 fig. 8.2; in book of A.D. 354 378–80; invention of 323–4
Trajan (emperor, A.D. 98–117) 228; on burial law 321; Christianity and 237–9; column of 327–8 fig. 7.1; on dedication law 321; temple of (Map 1 no. 8) 253
transformation 289–91
Trastevere (Map 1 no. 26): Christians in 269; Jewish burial-place 270; Palmyrene gods in 272; synagogues in 269
triad, Capitoline 3, 15, 39, 195–6, 334; on arch at Lepcis 350 fig. 7.5; dedication to, at Nicaea 336–7; games for, at Thugga 351; at Urso 334; ‘old triad’ 15–16; plebeian triad 64–6; see also Jupiter Capitolinus; Juno; Minerva
tribune of the plebs 107
triumph 44–5, 142–3; dress 44, 59–6, 143; crosses pomerium 179–80
triumviri epulones 100–1 fig. 2.5; 103; see also septemviri epulones
Troy 1, 84; and Magna Mater 197–8; see also Aeneas
Trumusiatis (sometimes Tribusiatis) local deity in Dolomites: interpretation of, as Apollo 344
Tullius see Cicero
Twelve Tables: alleged concern with magic 154–5
Ulpian (Domitius Ulpianus, jurist, early third century A.D.) 224, 238; on astrology 233; on Christianity 239
Urso (in Spain), law of 157, 328; priestly privileges in 328
Vaga (town, non-Roman, in north Africa): shrine of Tellus in 336
Valerian (emperor, A.D. 253–60): on élite Christians 291–2; orders sacrifice 241; confiscates property 268; bans catacombs 271
Valesius 202
Varro (Marcus Terentius Varro, 116–27 B.C., antiquarian): Divine Antiquities, 8, 11, 117, 151–2, 175; and the Arvals 194; as authority, outside Rome 331; originality of 153; on religious decline 118, 120; on the origin of the ludi Tarentini 204
Vatican: bull’s genitals (vires) from 338; Peter (St.) and 368–9; taurobolia recorded on 384
Vatinius (Publius Vatinius, tribune 59 B.C.), and magic 155–6
venenum 233–5
Venus: as abstraction 62; in fourth century A.D. 387; and Magna Mater 280; in temple of Mars Ultor 200; in Mithraeum 282
Venus Genetrix, temple of (Map 1 no. 10) 123 fig. 3.2, 145; on Carthaginian altar 331–3 fig. 7.2
Venus Victrix, temple of (Map 1 no. 35) 122 fig. 3.1, 144 fig. 3.3
Venus and Rome: temple of (Map 1 no. 6) 257–8, 260, 263
ver sacrum, see sacred spring
Vervactor 11
Vespasian (emperor, A.D. 69–79): extends pomerium 178; respects tradition 179–80; temple to Pax 253
Vesta 7, 52–3, 175; Augustus’ co-habitation with 191; cult of maintained 382; priest of 191; temple of (in forum Romanum) 3, 39, 51; hearths and 53; Palatine shrine of 189–91 fig. 4.4